Content

Introduction
Surface Drainage Design
Hydrologic analysis
Hydraulic design
Subsurface Drainage Design
A case study of surat airport
Summary
References
 Surface Drainage
A means by which surface water is
removed from pavement and ROW

Redirects water into appropriately

designed channels

Eventually discharges into natural water

systems
 Surface Drainage
Two types of water

Surface water rain and snow

Ground water can be a problem when a

water table is near surface
 Inadequate Drainage
Damage to highway structures

Loss of capacity

Visibility problems with spray and loss of

retroreflectivity

Safety problems, reduced friction and

hydroplaning
 Drainage
Transverse slopes
Removes water from pavement surface
Facilitated by cross-section elements (cross-
slope, shoulder slope)
Longitudinal slopes
Minimum gradient of alignment to maintain
adequate slope in longitudinal channels
Longitudinal channels
Ditches along side of road to collect surface
water after run-off
Transverse slope

6
Longitudinal slope

7
Longitudinal channel

8
 Surface Drainage System
Design
Three phases

Estimate of the quantity of water to

reach the system

Hydraulic design of system elements

Comparison of different materials that

serve same purpose
 DESIGN OF SURFACE DRAINAGE
SYSTEM

The design of surface drainage system may be

divided into two phases:

Hydrologic Analysis

Hydraulic Analysis
 (I) HYDROLOGIC ANALYSIS

Hydrologic analysis is a very important step prior the

hydraulic design of road-drainage system.
Such analysis is necessary to determine the magnitude
of flow & the duration for which it would last.
Hydrological data required for design include drainage
area map, water-shed delineation, arrow indicating
direction of flow, outfalls, ditches, other surface drainage
facilities, ground surface conditions, rainfall & flood
frequencies.
Factors, which affect run-off, are size & shape of
drainage area, slope of ground, land use characteristics,
geology, soil types, surface infiltration & storage.
The rational method is an universally accepted empirical
formulae relating rainfall to run-off and is applicable to small
catchment areas not exceeding 50 km2. The formulae is

Q = 0.028PAIC

where,

Q = Discharge (Peak run-off) in cum/sec.

P = Co-efficient of run-off for the catchment characteristics.

A = Area of catchment in hectares.

Ic = Critical intensity of rainfall in cm per hr for the selected

frequency & for duration equal to the time of concentration.
 To estimate the amount of run-off requiring
disposal at a given instant, the engineer must
have information regarding rainfall intensities
within the catchment area & the frequency with
which this precipitation would bring peak run-off.

Rational method is widely used to estimate the

peak run-off, due to its simplicity.

Other methods include unit hydrograph, empirical

formulae & run-off from stream flow records.
 a) CO-EFFICIENT OF RUN-OFF
Co-efficient of run-off (P) for a given area is not constant, but
depends on large number of factors even for a single storm.
Factors affecting it are
porosity of soil,
type of ground cover,
catchment area,
slope
initial state of wetness &
duration of storm.

To get the maximum discharge, value of P as it exists at the

end of the design period of storm is chosen. The suggested
values of P for use in Rational Formulae are given below:
 CO-EFFICIENT
SR.
DESCRIPTION OF SURFACE OF
NO.
RUN-OFF (P)

1 Steep bare rock & water-tight pavement surface (concrete or 0.90

bitumen)

2 Steep rock with some vegetative cover 0.80

3 Plateau areas with light vegetative cover 0.70

4 Bare stiff clayey soils (impervious soils) 0.60

5 Stiff clayey soils (impervious soils) with vegetative cover & 0.50
uneven paved road surfaces.

6 Loam lightly cultivated or covered & macadam or gravel roads 0.40

7 Loam largely cultivated or turfed 0.30

8 Sandy soil, light growth, parks, gardens, lawns & meadows 0.20

9 Sandy soil covered with heavy bush or wooded/forested areas. 0.10

 b) DRAINAGE AREA

The drainage area from which the surface water

is expected to flow to a side drain is determined
with the aid of a contour map or by studying the
topography of the drainage area.
 c) TIME OF CONCENTRATION
The storm duration chosen for design purposes is equal to time
of concentration & is based on the assumption that the maximum
discharge at any point in a drainage system occurs when the
entire catchment is contributing to the flow.
The time of concentration for any watershed is the time required
for a given drop of water from the most remote part of the
watershed to reach the point of exit.
They may have two components: I) Entry time & II) Time of flow.
If the drainage point under consideration is at the entry of the
drainage system, then the entry time is equal to the time of
concentration.
If, however, the drainage point is situated elsewhere, then the
time of concentration is sum of the entry time and the time
required by the rain drop to traverse the length of drainage
system to the point under study.
 Fig. A shows a graph for estimating time
of concentration for catchments of
different lengths, character and slope.
Fig. A Chart for estimating time of concentration
 Time of Concentration (Tc)
Depends on:

Size and shape of drainage area

Type of surface

Slope of drainage area

Rainfall intensity

Whether flow is entirely overland or whether some is

channelized
 d) RAINFALL INTENSITY

Once the time of concentration has been fixed, the next

step consists in reading the intensity of rainfall from the
appropriate rainfall map for storm duration equal to the
time of concentration & admitted design frequency.

The deign value of the rainfall intensity Ic is to be

determined for the expected duration of storm &
frequency of occurrence.

From the Fig. B, the design value of the rainfall intensity

I is found corresponding to the duration of storm and
selected value of frequency.
Fig. B Typical Rainfall Intensity Duration Curve
 Thus with the estimated value of P, A & Ic, the
design value of run-off Q for the longitudinal side
drain is determined
 (II) HYDRAULIC DESIGN: -

Once the design run-off Q is determined, the next step is

the hydraulic design of drains.

The side drains & partially filled culverts are designed

based on the principles of flow through open channels.

If Q is the quantity of surface water (in cumecs) to be

removed by a side drain & V is the allowable velocity of
flow (m/sec) on the side drain, the area of cross-section
A of the channel (m2) is fond from the relation,

Q = AV
 a) ALLOWABLE VELOCITY

The velocity of unlined channel must high

enough to prevent silting & it should not be
too high as to cause erosion.

The allowable velocity of flow depends on

the soil type:
 ALLOWABLE
SOIL TYPE VELOCITY
(m/sec)

1) Sand & silt 0.3 to 0.5

2) Loam 0.6 to 0.9
3) Clay 0.9 to 1.5
4) Gravel 1.2 to 1.5
5) Good soil covered with well 1.3 to 1.8
established grass
 By adjusting the value of slope S, it is possible to limit
the velocity of flow V within permissible limit.

Assuming uniform & steady flow through channel of

uniform cross-section & slope, Mannings formula is
used for determining the velocity of flow or the
longitudinal slope, which is given by,

V = 1.R2/3.S1/2
n

OR Q = 1.A. R2/3.S1/2
n
where,
Q = Discharge in cumecs

V = Average velocity in m/sec

n = Mannings roughness coefficient

R = Hydraulic radius m (cross-section area of flow divided

by wetted perimeter)

S = Longitudinal slope of channel

 The slope S of the longitudinal drain of a
known or an assumed cross-section &
depth of flow, may be determined using
Mannings formula for the design values of
velocity of flow V, roughness coefficient n
& hydraulic radius R.
 b) ROUGHNESS CO-EFFICIENT
The roughness coefficient values depend on the type
of soil in unlined channels.

For ordinary earth, the value of n = 0.02. whereas for

earth with heavy vegetation or grass, n = 0.05 to 0.1.

In lined channels, the roughness coefficient depends

on the type of lining.

For well finished concrete, n = 0.013, but for rough

rubble & riprap, n = 0.04.
 DATA FOR DRAINAGE DESIGN
Total road length & width of land from where water is expected to
flow on the stretch of the side drain.

Run-off coefficients of different types of surfaces in the drainage

area & their respective areas (such as paved area, road shoulder
area, turf surface, etc.)

Distance from farthest point in the drainage area to the inlet of the
side drain along the steepest gradient & the average value of the
slope.

Type of soil of the side drain, roughness coefficient, allowable

velocity of flow in the drain.

Rainfall data including average intensity & frequency of recurrence

of flood.
 DESIGN STEPS
The frequency of return period such as 10 yrs., 25 yrs., etc. is
decided based on finances available & desired margin of
safety, for the design of the drainage system.

The values of coefficients of run-off C1, C2, C3 etc. from

drainage areas A1, A2, A3.. etc. are found & the weighted
value of C is computed by
C = A1C1+A2C2+A3C3+----
A1+A2+A3+-------

Inlet time T1 for the flow of storm water from the farthest point
in the drainage area to the drain inlet along the steepest path
of flow is estimated from the distance, slope of the ground &
type of the cover. Graph-A may be used for this purpose.
 Time of flow along the longitudinal drain T2 is
determined for the estimated length of longitudinal drain
L upto the nearest cross-drainage or a watercourse, and
for the allowable velocity of low V in the drain, i.e. T2 =
L/V.

The total time T for inlet flow & flow along the drain is
taken as the time of concentration or the design value of
rainfall duration T = T1+T2.

From the rainfall intensity-duration-frequency curves

(Graph-B), the rainfall intensity Ic is found in mm/sec
corresponding to duration T & frequency of return
period.
 The total area of drainage A is found in units of
1000 m2.

The run-off quantity Q is computed by Q =

0.028PAIc.

The cross-sectional area of flow A of drain is

calculated by A = Q/V, where V is the allowable
speed of flow in the drain.
 The required depth of flow in the drain is calculated for
a convenient bottom width & side slope of the drain.
The actual depth of open channel drain may be
increased slightly to give a free-board.

The hydraulic mean radius of flow R is determined.

The required longitudinal slope S of the drain is

calculated using Mannings formula adopting suitable
value of roughness coefficient n.
 DESIGN OF SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE
SYSTEM
The presence of water reduces subgrade strength.
The strength of granular bases/subbases are strain
dependent and poor strength in subgrade affects
the performance of top granular layers also.

Heavy wheel loads may create pulsating water

pressure resulting in internal erosion and ejection
of materials through cracks and joints. This
coupled with movement of subsoil water, changes
the arrangement of fine to coarse material and
aggregates in the structure resulting in weakened
granular bases, cement treated bases and
stabilized layers.
 The functions of subsurface drainage are as
follows:

Remove water from a base course,

Remove water from the subgrade beneath a

pavement, and

Intercept, collect, and remove water flowing from

springs or pervious strata.
 Absorption of water in the filter material,
which may not be fully non-plastic, may
seriously undermine the load support
characteristics of the layer.

Free water in the bituminous pavements

results in stripping of the binder leading to
faster cracking and deterioration.
 The main principles or concepts are as
follows
Darcy's law for laminar flow is adequate for the
design of subsurface drainage systems.

Subsurface drainage systems will only drain free

water from a pavement structure.

The primary source of free water to the pavement

structure is infiltrated water.

Permeability requirements for lateral flow are very

high because the hydraulic gradient is very low and
the area of the flow is small.
 Proper filters need to be included if the drainage
system is to function properly for a long period of time.

The permeability of the subgrade material and the

location of the free water surface (water table) must
be known if removal of the free water by vertical flow
is to be investigated.

Wet soils or aggregates are not as strong as dry soils

or aggregates under most circumstances. This is
particularly true with the repetitive loading that occurs
under pavements.
 DESIGN OF FILTER MATERIAL

On a grain size distribution chart (percent

passing v/s particle size on Log-scale), plot the
grain size distribution curve for the foundation
soil.

Find the value of D15 size of foundation

material & plot a point of particle size 5 D15 of
foundation to represent the lower limit of D15
size of filter. This is to fulfill the permeability
condition given by
 D15 of filter >5
D15 of foundation

To fulfill the condition to prevent piping,

D15 of filter <5

D85 of foundation
 Find the size of the perforation in the drain-
pipe or the gap in the open-jointed pipes & let
this be Dp. Plot a point to represent D85 size
of filter given by size 2. Dp.
A CASE STUDY OF SURAT AIRPORT:

Details of Runway
Drainage Layout and C.D. Works
Details of Runway and Shoulder Cross Section
 Recommendation for Surface and Sub-Surface
Drainage

The Semi perforated PVC pipe of 150mm diameter may

be provided 100mm below the top of hardmoorum
provided in Sub-base of Runway with a length of 150 to
200mm PVC pipe inserted as shown in the Drawing No
03 and 04.

The Semi perforated PVC pipe of 150MM diameter be

provided 20m C/C on either side of he Runway in
staggered position as shown in the Drawing No 02.

The Semi perforated PVC pipe be covered with filter layer

of aggregate 150mm and then a layer of sand150mm
through out the length of the PVC pipe from Runway to
drain as shown in the drawing in Drawing No 04.
 A drainage layer of Gravel, 3.0m wide between
the edge of the shoulder and the wall of the
drain be provided upto the depth of the
hardmoorum as shown in Drawing No.05 and
04.
The section of the masonry drain given in the
Drawing No.04 and 06 be adopted.
Addition PVC pipe of 150mm diameter and 2.0m
length be provided at 5.0m C/C between the
drainage layer of GRAVEL and the side drain as
shown in Drawing No. 05.
The overall drainage layout for Runways
including CD works recommended is shown in
Drawing No 02.
 SUMMARY
Pavement subsurface drainage is a major factor
in extending the life of a pavement.

The cost of pavement subsurface drainage

systems is high in terms of material, construction,
and maintenance, but the extended pavement life
anticipated appears to make these systems cost-
effective.

Many premature failures (less than 50 percent of

expected life) have been traced to inadequate
surface drainage.
 Premature pavement failures can be expected in
cases in which free water is allowed to collect within
the zone of load transfer from traffic (surface
pavement, base, subbase, and subgrade).

Although premature pavement failures can be

greatly reduced by good subsurface drainage, such
drainage cannot eliminate failures.

Adding edge drains to a pavement system seldom

improves it serviceability, but usually extends
pavement life.

To be effective, water must get to the drain and the

drain must be sufficiently open to allow fines to pass
without clogging.
 A plugged subsurface drainage system may be
worse than having no drainage system at all
because the pavement system becomes
permanently saturated.

Long-term maintenance is essential for obtaining

the anticipated performance benefits of
pavement subsurface drainage systems.

Training of construction and inspection staff is

needed to improve drainable pavement
performance.
 REFERENCES
S.K.Khanna, C.E.G.Justo, Highway Engineering, Laxmi Publication, 2005,
Delhi.
Kadiyali L.R., Principle and Practice of highway Engineering, Khanna
Publication, 2005, Delhi-6.
Henes & Ekse , Fundamentals of Transportation Engg.
Indian Road Congress Special Publication 50, Guidelines on Urban
Drainage, New Delhi, 1999
Indian Road Congress Special Publication 42, Guidelines on Road Drainage,
New Delhi, 1994
Horonjeff R., McKelvey X. F., Planning and Design of Airports, McGraw Hill,
Fourth Edition, 1994
Final Report of VTRC on Effect of Subsurface Drainage on Structural
Capacity of Flexible Pavement by Brian D. K., Khaled Galal, David W. M.,
2005.
NCHRP Synthesis of Highway Practice 96: Pavement Subsurface Drainage
Systems
Highway design manual 840-1, 2001, Chapter 840,Subsurface drainage
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