Device Management

Learning Objectives
• After completing this chapter, you should be able to describe:
• Features of dedicated, shared, and virtual devices
• Differences between sequential and direct access media
• Concepts of blocking and buffering and how they improve I/O
performance
• Roles of seek time, search time, and transfer time in calculating access
time
• Differences in access times in several types of devices
• Critical components of the input/output subsystem, and how they
interact
• Strengths and weaknesses of common seek strategies, including FCFS,
SSTF, SCAN/LOOK, C-SCAN/C-LOOK, and how they compare
• Different levels of RAID and what sets each apart from the others
Types of Devices
• Dedicated Devices • Shared Devices
• Device assigned to one job at • Device assigned to several
a time processes
• For entire time job is active (or • Example: direct access storage
until released) device (DASD)
• Example: tape drives, printers, and • Processes share DASD
plotters simultaneously
• Requests interleaved
• Disadvantage
• Inefficient if device is not used • Device manager supervision
100% • Controls interleaving
• Allocated for duration of job’s • Predetermined policies determine
execution conflict resolution

3
Types of Devices (cont’d)
• Virtual Devices • Storage media
• Dedicated and shared device • Two groups
combination • Sequential access media
• Dedicated devices transformed • Records stored sequentially
into shared devices • Direct access storage devices
• Example: printer (DASD)
• Converted by spooling program • Records stored sequentially
• Records stored using direct access
• Spooling files
• Speeds up slow dedicated I/O • Vast differences
devices
• Speed and share ability
• Example: universal serial bus (USB)
controller
• Interface between operating
system, device drivers, applications,
and devices attached via USB host
Sequential Access Storage Media
• Magnetic tape
• Early computer systems:
routine secondary storage
• Today’s use: routine
archiving and data
backup
• Records stored serially • Tape density: characters recorded per inch
• Record length determined • Depends upon storage method (individual
by application program or blocked)
• Record identified by • Tape reading/writing mechanics
position on tape
• Tape moves under read/write head when
• Record access needed
• Tape mount
• Fast-forwarded to record
• Time-consuming process
5
Sequential Access Storage Media
(cont'd.)
• Interrecord gap (IRG)
• ½ inch gap inserted between each record
• Same size regardless of records it separates
• Blocking: group records into blocks
• Transfer rate: (tape density) x (transport speed)
• Interblock gap (IBG)
• ½ inch gap inserted between each block
• More efficient than individual records and IRG
Sequential Access Storage Media
(cont'd.)
Sequential Access Storage Media
(cont'd.)
• Blocking advantages
• Fewer I/O operations needed
• Less wasted tape

• Blocking disadvantages
• Overhead and software routines needed for blocking, deblocking,
and record keeping
• Buffer space wasted
• When only one logical record needed
Sequential Access Storage Media
(cont'd.)

• Advantages
• Low cost, compact storage capabilities, good for magnetic disk
backup and long-term archival
• Disadvantages
• Access time
• Poor for routine secondary storage
• Poor for interactive applications
Direct Access Storage Devices (DASD)
• Directly read or write to specific disk area
• Random access storage devices
• Four categories
• Magnetic disks
• Optical discs
• Flash memory
• Magneto-optical disks
• Access time variance
• Not as wide as magnetic tape
• Record location directly affects access time
Fixed-Head Magnetic Disk Storage
• Looks like a large CD or DVD
• Covered with magnetic film
• Formatted
• Both sides (usually) in concentric circles
called tracks
• Data recorded serially on each track
• Fixed read/write head positioned over
data
• Advantages
• Fast (more so than movable head)
• Disadvantages
• High cost and reduced storage
Movable-Head Magnetic Disk Storage
• One read/write head floats • Disk pack platter
over disk surface • Two recording surfaces
• Example: computer hard drive • Exception: top and bottom platters
• Disks • Surface formatted with concentric
• Single platter tracks
• Part of disk pack (stack of platters) • Track number varies
• 1000+ (high-capacity disk)
• Track surface number
• Record access system • Track zero: outermost concentric
requirements circle on each surface
• Cylinder number, surface number, • Center: contains highest-numbered
record number track
• Arm moves over all heads in unison
• Slower: fill disk pack surface-by-
surface
• Faster: fill disk pack track-by-track
• Virtual cylinder: fill track zero
Movable-Head Magnetic Disk Storage
(cont'd.)

13
Optical Disc Storage
• Design difference
• Magnetic disk
• Concentric tracks of sectors
• Spins at constant angular
velocity (CAV)
• Wastes storage space but fast
data retrieval
Optical Disc Storage (cont'd.)
• Design features
• Optical disc
• Single spiralling track of same-
sized sectors running from center
to disc rim
• Spins at constant linear velocity
(CLV)
• More sectors and more disc
data
Optical Disc Storage (cont'd.)
• Two important performance measures
1. Sustained data-transfer rate
• Speed to read massive data amounts from disc
• Measured in megabytes per second (Mbps)
• Crucial for applications requiring sequential access
2. Average access time
• Average time to move head to specific disc location
• Expressed in milliseconds (ms)
• Third feature
• Cache size (hardware)
• Buffer to transfer data blocks from disc
CD and DVD Technology
• CD
• Data recorded as zeros and ones
• Pits: indentations
• Lands: flat areas
• Reads with low-power laser
• Light strikes land and reflects to photodetector
• Pit is scattered and absorbed
• Photodetector converts light intensity into digital signal
CD and DVD Technology (cont'd.)
• CD-Recordable technology (CD-R)
• Requires expensive disk controller
• Records data using write-once technique
• Data cannot be erased or modified
• Disk
• Contains several layers
• Gold reflective layer and dye layer
• Records with high-power laser
• Permanent marks on dye layer
• CD cannot be erased after data recorded
• Data read on standard CD drive (low-power beam)
CD and DVD Technology (cont'd.)
• CD-Rewritable technology (CD-RW)
• Data written, changed, erased
• Uses phase change technology
• Amorphous and crystalline phase states
• Record data: beam heats up disc
• State changes from crystalline to amorphous
• Erase data: low-energy beam to heat up pits
• Loosens alloy to return to original crystalline state
• Drives read standard CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW discs
• Drives store large quantities of data, sound, graphics, multimedia
CD and DVD Technology (cont'd.)
• DVD technology (Digital Versatile Disc)
• CD-ROM comparison
• Similar in design, shape, size
• Differs in data capacity
• Dual-layer, single-sided DVD holds 13 CDs
• Single-layer, single-sided DVD holds 8.6 GB (MPEG video compression)
• Differs in laser wavelength
• Uses red laser (smaller pits, tighter spiral)
• DVDs cannot be read by CD or CD-ROM drives
• DVD-R and DVD-RW provide rewritable flexibility
Blu-Ray Disc Technology
• Same physical size as DVD/CD
• Smaller pits
• More tightly wound tracks
• Use of blue-violet laser allows multiple layers
• 50GB-500GB
• 432 Mbps
• Formats: BD-ROM, BD-R, BD-RE
Flash Memory Storage
• Electronically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEP)
• Nonvolatile and removable
• Emulates random access
• Difference: data stored securely (even if removed)
• Data stored on microchip card or “key”
• Compact flash, smart cards, memory sticks
• Often connected through USB port
• Write data: electric charge sent through floating gate
• Erase data: strong electrical field (flash) applied
Magnetic Disk Drive Access Times
• File access time factors
• Seek time (slowest)
• Time to position read/write head on track
• Does not apply to fixed read/write head devices
• Search time
• Rotational delay
• Time to rotate DASD
• Rotate until desired record under read/write head
• Transfer time (fastest)
• Time to transfer data
• Secondary storage to main memory transfer
Fixed-Head Devices
• Record access requires two items
• Track number and record number
• Access time = search time + transfer time
• Total access time
• Rotational speed dependent
• DASDs rotate continuously
• Three basic positions for requested record
• In relation to read/write head position
• DASD has little access variance
• Good candidates: low activity files, random access
• Blocking used to minimize access time
Fixed-Head Devices (cont'd.)
Movable-Head Devices
• Record access requires three items
• Seek time + search time + transfer time
• Search time and transfer time calculation
• Same as fixed-head DASD
• Blocking is a good way to minimize access time
Components of the I/O Subsystem
• I/O Channel
• Programmable units
• Positioned between CPU and control unit
• Synchronizes device speeds
• CPU (fast) with I/O device (slow)
• Manages concurrent processing
• CPU and I/O device requests
• Allows overlap
• CPU and I/O operations
• Channels: expensive because so often shared
Components of the I/O Subsystem
(cont'd.)
• I/O channel programs
• Specifies action performed by devices
• Controls data transmission
• Between main memory and control units
• I/O control unit: receives and interprets signal
• Disk controller (disk drive interface)
• Links disk drive and system bus
• Entire path must be available when I/O command initiated
• I/O subsystem configuration
• Multiple paths increase flexibility and reliability
Components of the I/O Subsystem
(cont'd.)
Communication Among Devices
• Problems to resolve
• Know which components are busy/free
• Solved by structuring interaction between units
• Accommodate requests during heavy I/O traffic
• Handled by buffering records and queuing requests
• Accommodate speed disparity between CPU and I/O devices
• Handled by buffering records and queuing requests
Communication Among Devices
(cont'd.)
• I/O subsystem units finish independently of others
• CPU processes data while I/O performed
• Success requires device completion knowledge
• Hardware flag tested by CPU
• Channel status word (CSW) contains flag
• Three bits in flag represent I/O system component (channel, control unit, device)
• Changes zero to one (free to busy)
• Flag tested using polling and interrupts
• Interrupts are more efficient way to test flag
Communication Among Devices
(cont'd.)
• Direct memory access (DMA)
• Allows control unit main memory access directly
• Transfers data without the intervention of CPU
• Used for high-speed devices (disk)
• Buffers
• Temporary storage areas in main memory, channels, control units
• Improves data movement synchronization
• Between relatively slow I/O devices and very fast CPU
• Double buffering: processing of record by CPU while another is read or
written by channel
Communication Among Devices
(cont'd.)
Management of I/O Requests
• I/O traffic controller • I/O scheduler
• Watches status of devices, • Same job as process scheduler
control units, channels Allocates devices, control units,
• Three main tasks channels
• Determine if path available • If requests greater than
• If more than one path available, available paths
determine which one to select • Decides which request to satisfy
• If paths all busy, determine when first: based on different criteria
one is available • In many systems
• Maintain database containing • I/O requests not preempted
unit status and connections • For some systems
• Allow preemption with I/O request
subdivided
• Allow preferential treatment for
high-priority requests
Management of I/O Requests (cont'd.)
• I/O device handler
• Performs actual data transfer
• Processes device interrupts
• Handles error conditions
• Provides detailed scheduling algorithms
• Device dependent
• Each I/O device type has device handler algorithm
Management of I/O Requests (cont'd.)
Device Handler Seek Strategies
• Predetermined device handler
• Determines device processing order
• Goal: minimize seek time
• Types
• First-come, first-served (FCFS), shortest seek time first (SSTF), SCAN
(including LOOK, N-Step SCAN, C-SCAN, and C-LOOK)
• Scheduling algorithm goals
• Minimize arm movement
• Minimize mean response time
• Minimize variance in response time
Device Handler Seek Strategies (cont'd.)
• FCFS
• On average: does not meet three seek strategy goals
• Disadvantage: extreme arm movement
Device Handler Seek Strategies (cont'd.)
• Shortest Seek Time First (SSTF)
• Request with track closest to one being served
• Minimizes overall seek time
• Postpones traveling to out of way tracks
Device Handler Seek Strategies (cont'd.)
• SCAN
• Directional bit
• Indicates if arm moving toward/away from disk center
• Algorithm moves arm methodically
• From outer to inner track, services every request in its path
• If reaches innermost track, reverses direction and moves toward outer tracks
• Services every request in its path
Device Handler Seek Strategies (cont'd.)
• LOOK
• Arm does not go to either edge
• Unless requests exist
• Eliminates indefinite postponement
Device Handler Seek Strategies (cont'd.)
• N-Step SCAN
• Holds all requests until arm starts on way back
• New requests grouped together for next sweep
• C-SCAN (Circular SCAN)
• Arm picks up requests on path during inward sweep
• Provides more uniform wait time
• C-LOOK
• Inward sweep stops at last high-numbered track request
• No last track access unless required
Device Handler Seek Strategies (cont'd.)
• Best strategy
• FCFS best with light loads
• Service time unacceptably long under high loads
• SSTF best with moderate loads
• Localization problem under heavy loads
• SCAN best with light to moderate loads
• Eliminates indefinite postponement
• Throughput and mean service times SSTF similarities
• C-SCAN best with moderate to heavy loads
• Very small service time variances
Search Strategies: Rotational Ordering
• Rotational ordering
• Optimizes search times
• Orders requests once read/write heads positioned
• Read/write head movement time
• Hardware dependent
• Reduces time wasted
• Due to rotational delay
• Request arrangement
• First sector requested on second track is next number higher than one just served
Search Strategies: Rotational Ordering
(cont'd.)
Search Strategies: Rotational Ordering
(cont'd.)
Search Strategies: Rotational Ordering
(cont'd.)
RAID
(Redundant Array of Independent Disks)
• Physical disk drive set viewed as single logical unit
• Preferable over few large-capacity disk drives
• Improved I/O performance
• Improved data recovery
• Disk failure event
• Introduces redundancy
• Helps with hardware failure recovery
• Significant factors in RAID level selection
• Cost, speed, system’s applications
• Increases hardware costs
RAID (cont'd.)
RAID (cont'd.)
Level Zero
• Uses data striping (not considered true RAID)
• No parity and error corrections
• No error correction/redundancy/recovery
• Benefits
• Devices appear as one logical unit
• Best for large data quantity non-critical data
Level One
• Uses data striping
(considered true RAID)
• Mirrored configuration
(backup)
• Duplicate set of all data
(expensive)
• Provides redundancy and
improved reliability
Level Two
• Uses small stripes (considered true RAID)
• Hamming code: error detection and correction
• Expensive and complex
• Size of strip determines number of array disks
Level Three
• Modification of Level 2
• Requires one disk for redundancy
• One parity bit for each strip
Level Four
• Same strip scheme as Levels 0 and 1
• Computes parity for each strip
• Stores parities in corresponding strip
• Has designated parity disk
Level Five
• Modification of Level 4
• Distributes parity strips across disks
• Avoids Level 4 bottleneck
• Disadvantage
• Complicated to regenerate data from failed device
Level Six
• Provides extra degree of error protection/correction
• Two different parity calculations (double parity)
• Same as level four/five and independent algorithm
• Parities stored on separate disk across array
• Stored in corresponding data strip
• Advantage: data restoration even if two disks fail
Nested RAID Levels
• Combines multiple RAID levels (complex)
Nested RAID Levels
(cont'd.)
Summary
• Device Manager
• Manages every system device effectively as possible
• Devices
• Vary in speed and sharability degrees
• Direct access and sequential access
• Magnetic media: one or many read/write heads
• Heads in a fixed position (optimum speed)
• Move across surface (optimum storage space)
• Optical media: disk speed adjusted
• Data recorded/retrieved correctly
Summary (cont'd.)
• Flash memory: device manager tracks USB devices
• Assures data sent/received correctly
• I/O subsystem success dependence
• Communication linking channels, control units, devices
• SCAN: eliminates indefinite postponement problem
• Best for light to moderate loads
• C-SCAN: very small service time variance
• Best for moderate to heavy loads
• RAID: redundancy helps hardware failure recover
• Consider cost, speed, applications
Summary (cont'd.)