CHAPTER 1

Topography
● The Study and Description of the Surface Features of Land, including both natural and artificial features
● Pakistan can be divided into six major topographical areas :
● Northern / North-Western Mountains
● Western Mountains
● Balochistan Plateau
● Potwar Plateau & Salt Range
● Indus Plain
● Desert Areas

Northern / North-Western Mountains

The Three Main Ranges :

● The Karakoram Range
● The Himalayas
● The Hindu Kush

The Karakoram Range :

● Means ‘Black Gravel’, and is a mass made of rock and ice. K-2, the second highest peak in the world is located here
● Has deep, narrow valleys and sharp peaks, thus forming a very rugged landscape
● The severe climate makes this range extremely inhospitable, thus it has a low population density
● Apples, Barley and Millet are the main products
● Valleys include Giglit, Hunza & Baltistan

The Himalayas :
● They comprise of the Siwaliks, Lesser Himalayas and Central Himalayas
● Siwaliks : Low Altitude ( 600 - 1200 m )
● Lesser Himalayas : Medium Altitude ( 1800 - 4500 m )
● Central Himalayas : High Altitude ( Includes Nanga Parbat, which has a height of 8126 m )
● Valleys include Kaghan, Murree & Gullies

The Hindu Kush :

● Lies where the borders of Afghanistan and China meet on Pakistan’s North-West Border
● Features include high steep valleys and fast flowing rivers
● Valleys include Dir, Swat & Chitral
● The Passes include immense historic and military significance :
● Shandur Pass : Connects Gilgit to Chitral
● Shangla Pass : Connects Swat Valley to Upper Part of Indus Valley
● Lowari Pass : Connects Chitral to Swat Valley and Vale of Peshawar

Importance of Northern Mountains

● Snow Capped Peaks Melt during Summer, draining water into River Indus, which is used for irrigation
● A Natural Border to China & Central Asian Republics
● Mountain Peaks Provide Protection to Pakistan against Cold Winds
● Historical Passes Connect Pakistan to China & Afghanistan
● Scenic Beauty Promotes Tourist Escorts
People and Economy in Northern Mountains :
● Economy has developed on traditional lines, as life is difficult due to lack of infrastructure facilities
● Most of the population is dependent on agriculture, so farming is practiced on terraced fields
● During Winter, many people work in small scale industries, producing carpets, embroidered material, rugs and handicraft items
● Northern Mountains have major Hydro-Electric Potential, but require huge capital investment which isn’t available
● Most of the people face a shortage of clean water and food, leading to poor health and malnutrition
● It is difficult to carry out regional trade, due to difficult terrain and limited transport facilities

Environmental Issues of Northern Mountains :

● Deforestation in the foothills of the mountains, and overgrazing have led to soil erosion
● Deforestation has increased due to demand of firewood and extensive tree trimming
● Construction of roads have increased the destruction rate of forests and the number of landslides
● People who use water for drinking, suffer from dysentery, cholera and typhoid

Topographical Features of Northern Mountains :

● Snow Capped Peaks
● Steep Slopes
● Snow Fields
● Glaciers

Glaciers :
● A tongue shaped mass of ice, slowly moving down a valley
● Important Glaciers include :
● Baltoro
● Batura
● Siachen

When Glaciers move down, they do three things :

● Erosion ( via Abrasion & Plucking ) of soil and rocks, forming their load
● Transportation of their load
● Deposition of their load

Abrasion :
● The Scraping of the Surface by Rocks Frozen into Moving Ice

Plucking :
● When Ice Freezes onto Rock Surfaces, and pulls off pieces of blocks of rock when it moves again

Features of Glaciation
● Snowfield
● Serrated Landscape
● Bare Rocks
● Scree
● V-Shaped Valleys
● U-Shaped Valleys
Natural Drainage :
● The Natural runoff of water from an area in rivers and streams

Features of Natural Drainage

● Gorges
● Waterfalls
● Rapids
● Streams & Springs

Western Mountains

The Four Main Ranges :

● Safed Koh Range
● Waziristan Hills
● Sulaiman Range
● Kirthar Range

Safed Koh Range :

● Located at the South of Kabul River
● Means ‘White Mountains’ as their peaks are often covered with snow

Waziristan Hills :
● Located between Kurram & Gomal Rivers
● Are a Highly Mineralized Zone, and Devoid of Vegetation

Sulaiman Range :
● Located at the West of River Indus of Southern Punjab
● Composed of Limestone, Sandstone & Shally Rocks

Kirthar Range :
● Located at the West of River Indus in Sindh
● Devoid of Vegetation

Passes of the Western Mountains :

● Khyber Pass : Leads to Vale of Peshawar
● Kurram Pass : Route to Afghanistan
● Tochi Pass : Connects Ghazni to Bannu
● Gomal Pass : Connects Afghanistan to Derajats
● Bolan Pass : Connects Kachi Sibi Plain to Quetta

People and Economy in Western Mountains :

● Western Mountains are mostly bare of vegetation
● Canal Irrigation isn’t possible due to the mountainous terrain and rugged landscape
● Transportation Facilities are limited, as only a few areas are accessible through main roads
● The Cost of Supplying Infrastructure is High, thus development projects haven’t been established
● The People are deprived of basic necessities of life, and nomadic lifestyle is practiced-
Balochistan Plateau

Topographical Features Include :

● Basins of Northern Balochistan
● Zhob and Loralai between Toba Kakar Ranges

● Basins of Western Balochistan

● Chagai Hills, Ras Koh, Siahan & Central Makran

● Mountain Ranges
● Ras Koh, Siahan, Hala & Toba Kakar Ranges

● Coastal Areas
● Eastern Part : Lasbela Plain
● Western Part : Makran Coast

Why Does Balochistan Lack Economically ?

● Balochistan, despite being the largest province in the area, and with vast untapped sources, remains neglected

Water Resources
● There is no major source of water, so the province faces a scarcity of both drinking and irrigation water
● The supplies are mostly dependent upon small water schemes such as the karez system

Transport & Communication

● There is an absence of link roads between the producing areas and main roads

Economic Structure
● Crop Farming and Livestock are the main pursuits of the people in the province, so the annual per capita income is low

Economic Wealth of Balochistan Consists of :

Mineral Resources
● The province is enviably rich in gold, antimony, crude oil and natural gas
● 46% percent of the gas supply is obtained from Sui in Balochistan

Agriculture
● There are good opportunities for export of fruits such as apples, apricots, peaches & melons due to their good quality
● The uplands have ideal weather for growing vegetable seeds in winter, and for formation of high quality seeds in summer
● Nomadic livestock farming is common due to scarcity of rainfall, the main products include wool, goat hair & skin

Fishing
● In Gwadar Port, the total annual catch is estimated at 10,000 tonnes
● In Pasni Port, the total annual catch is estimated at 2,500 tonnes
● In Ormara Port, the total annual catch is estimated at 700 tonnes

Sustainable Development of Balochistan :

● The Mineral Resources should be developed, and the untapped sources should be utilized through employment of experts
● Livestock Products need improvement, both qualitatively and quantitatively
● Deep-Sea Gwadar Port and Saindak Copper-Gold Project should be utilized to improve the economy of the province
● Development of the fishing industry by using the latest technology could lead to further development
Potwar Plateau & Salt Range

Potwar Plateau :
● Located at the South of Islamabad between River Indus and River Jhelum
● A Large Part of the Plateau has been Eroded by the Action of Running Water, this is termed as Badland Topography

Topographical Features of Potwar Plateau :

● Ridges & Residual Hills
● Ravines & Small Rivers
● Troughs & Depressions
● Dissected & Faulted Land

Salt Range :
● Located at the South of Islamabad between River Indus and River Jhelum
● Rich in Minerals like Rock Salt, Gypsum & Limestone

People and Economy in Potwar Plateau :

● The Potwar Plateau & Salt Range are rich in non-metallic minerals, which provide raw materials to industries
● A number of oil and gas fields are located in this region, and the Attock Oil Refinery has been set up to refine oil from oilfields
● Farming depends on rainfall, but the rugged landscape doesn’t allow for canal irrigation

Indus Plain

Topographical Features of the Indus Plain :

● Active Flood Plains
● Old Flood Plains
● Alluvial Terraces
● Piedmont Plains
● Tidal Delta
● Rolling Sand Plains

Active Flood Plain :

● Narrow Strips of land on both sides of the river

Old Flood Plain :

● Replaced Active Flood Plains

Alluvial Terraces :
● Areas of Higher Ground between Rivers, formed by erosion of alluvium

Piedmont Plains :
● Plain Located at the Foot of a Mountain or Hill

Tidal Delta :
● Fan Shaped Deposit of Sand Formed on the Side of a River

Rolling Sand Plains :

● Areas of Flat Sand with some Undulating Parts
Features of Floodplains :
● Fertile & Nutrient Rich Soil
● Nearby River
● Flat Land
● Natural Leaves alongside River

Influence of Floodplains :
● Have Alluvium Rich Soils which are ideal for growing crops
● Have Rivers Nearby which can be used for irrigation and domestic purposes
● Have Flat Land which can be used to grow farms for crops
● Have Natural Leaves alongside River so it provides a natural barrier against floods

People and Economy in Indus Plain :

● It is the most Productive and Developed Region of Pakistan.
● Doabs of Upper Indus are excellent for farming, cotton, rice, sugar-cane & wheat are cultivated all year long
● Infrastructure facilities are easier to provide, and the transport network is dense, electricity is supplied to all urban centers
● It has a number of industries, which produce industrial goods that have a large domestic and foreign market

Upper Indus Plain Lower Indus Plain

Northern Part of Indus Plain Southern Part of Indus Plain

Indus & its tributaries flow here River Indus flows here only

Erosion & Deposition take place Deposition takes place

Desert Areas

There are three main Desert Areas :

● Thal Desert
● Thar Desert
● Kharan Desert

Thal Desert :
● Located between River Indus and River Jhelum

Thar Desert :
● Located towards South-Eastern Pakistan, it can be divided into :
● Cholistan
● Nara
● Tharparkar

Kharan Desert :
● Located in Balochistan
Topographical Features of Deserts :
● Sand Plains
● Sand Dunes
● Cracks in Rocks
● Rolling Sand Hills
● Undulating Plains

How Sand Dunes Are Formed :

● Sand Dunes are the most dominant feature of desert areas
● It is formed when an obstacle occurs in the path of moving sand, thus forcing some of the sand to be deposited behind the obstacle

People and Economy in Desert Areas :

● Lack of Water and Constant Erosion doesn’t allow productive human activities, such as farming
● Much of the area doesn’t have irrigation systems, leading to loss of food and crops
● High temperatures can lead to droughts, dehydration and death of animals

Sustainable Development of Deserts Areas :

● Desert Areas can be made into productive agricultural farms, if irrigation facilities are provided
● Desert Areas have rich mineral deposits, such as mineral oil, which can be extracted by mining projects

CHAPTER 2

Weather & Climate

● Weather refers to the atmospheric conditions of any place, for a short period of time
● Climate refers to the day to day weather conditions, for a long period of time

Climatic Zones
● Highland Climate
● Lowland Climate
● Coastal Climate
● Arid Climate

Highland Climate
● Region includes Northern, North Western and Western Highlands
● Winters are Long, Cold and Snowy, while the Summers are Short and Mild
● Summers are Mild and Wet in the Northern Mountains, but Warm and Dry in the Western Mountains
● Rainfall in the Northern Mountains is the highest, but lower in the Western Mountains

Lowland Climate
● Region includes the whole of the Indus Plain, except the Coastal Areas
● It has an Extreme Climate, with Hot Summers, Cool Winters and Summer Monsoon Rainfall
● Rainfall in the foothills of the Northern Mountains and Potwar Plateau is the highest, but lower in the Indus Plain
Coastal Climate
● Region includes the Southern Coastal Strip, comprising of the Indus Delta, Karachi and the Makran Coast
● The Climate is dominated by sea breezes throughout the year
● In Summer, the land heats up, while oceans remain cool
● In Winter, the land cools down, while oceans heat up
● Rainfall is scanty, and is mostly experienced by the Monsoon Season

Arid Climate
● Region includes South-Western Balochistan and the South-Eastern Desert
● Extreme Heat, Dryness and Dust Storms are the main features of this Zone

Seasons of Pakistan
● Winter ( mid-December to March )
● Early Summer ( April to June )
● Late Summer ( July to September )
● Post Monsoon ( October to mid-December )

Climatic Elements
● Temperature
● Rainfall
● Pressure & Winds

Temperature
● Jacobabad, located in the lower Indus Plain is known as the Thermal Pole of the sub-continent

Factors Affecting Temperature of Pakistan

Latitudinal Effect
Areas Closer to the Equator receive direct rays from the Sun, resulting in Higher Temperature. Southern Pakistan is closer to the Equator

Altitudinal Effect
Air is least dense at high altitudes, as less solar radiation is absorbed, thus leading to cooler temperatures

Continental Effect
Influence of Sea on Temperatures

Rainfall
● Rainfall decreases from the Himalayas, towards the South

Sources of Rainfall in Pakistan

● Monsoon Winds
● Western Depressions
● Convectional Currents
● Relief Rainfall
● Tropical Cyclones
Monsoon Winds
● These Winds are Seasonal, which blow during Summer and Winter
● These Winds are Seasonally Reversed due to temperature differences between the land and sea
● In Summer, they blow towards land areas
● In Winter, they blow towards the sea

● The Summer Winds are called South-West Monsoons

● They are giant sea breezes, which bring heavy rainfall
● The rains begin when summer sun heats up much faster than the oceans around
● The warm air rising creates a low pressure, which attracts cool moist air from the sea
● Thus, rain bearing winds are gradually pushed farther inland, causing heavy rainfall

● The Winter Winds are called North-East Monsoons

● They blow from the land towards the sea
● During winter, a high pressure area is created over the Tropic of Cancer, which causes winds to blow from land to sea
● These winds are mostly dry and bring no significant change

● The Main Monsoon Winds blow from the Bay of Bengal

● They normally start to blow in June and cause heavy rainfall in Northern Punjab in July
● September is the end of the Monsoon Season

Western Depressions
● These are the Cyclones which originate in the Mediterranean Sea, travel across Afghanistan, then reach the Western Areas of Pakistan
● After Striking the North-Western Areas, they move towards Western and South-Western Parts
● By the time they reach South-Western Balochistan, they are robbed of their moisture

Convectional Currents
● At the start of summer, hot air rises up which contains a high moisture content
● When it reaches the higher layers of the atmosphere, condensation takes place, causing rainfall and thunderstorms
● Only the Northern / North-Western areas receive Convectional Currents, as Southern Pakistan has a temperature inversion layer
● As Warm Air rises up, criss cross system of warm winds doesn’t allow condensation to take place, so Warm Air cools down
● This is why Karachi does not receive convectional current rainfall, despite having a maximum daily temperature crossing 40 Degrees

Relief Rainfall
● Occurs when moist unstable air moves up a mountain, and is chilled
● This causes heavy condensation and precipitation, on the windward side

Tropical Cyclones
● May bring a few hours of very heavy rainfall with destructive winds, to the coastal areas
● They Originate over the Arabian Sea, but rarely reach the Coast of Pakistan

Pressure & Winds

● In Summer, the temperature is high which causes the hot air to rise up and form a low pressure zone
● This leads to oceans and seas having a low temperature, as they absorb and discharge heat slower compared to land
● The air pressure over the oceans and seas is higher than over the land, thus leads to movement of monsoon winds from sea to land

● In Winter, the temperature is low which causes the hot air to sink and form a high pressure zone
● This leads to oceans and seas having a high temperature, as they absorb and discharge heat slower compared to land
● The air pressure over the oceans and seas is lower than over the land, thus leads to movement of monsoon winds from land to sea
Effectiveness of Rainfall during Winter

Advantages Disadvantages

Rainfall is absorbed by the soil to increase moisture contents Crop Planning becomes difficult due to difference in rainfall each year

Provides water to rivers and reservoirs that is used for irrigation Leads to health problems such as frostbite or asthma infections

Barani Crops depend on rainfall irrigation Snowfall lowers the temperature, making farming impossible

Snowfall in northern areas attracts tourists Causes damage to the environment via. landslides, avalanches

Snowfall forms glaciers that feed the Indus system Transport links get blocked due to accumulation of snow

Effects of Climate on the People in Different Regions

Highland Zone
● Temperature falls below freezing point, so growth of trees is retarded
● During Winter, Farming is impossible, so people take up indoor activities such as carpet weaving, embroidery or pottery
● In the North, many areas aren’t accessible due to landslides, heavy snowfall blocks transport links harming job opportunities
● Economic Activities are also very difficult to carry out

Lowland Zone
● The Punjab Plain is the most productive region of Pakistan, so there is a well developed canal irrigation system to raise crops

Arid Zone
● It isn’t ideal for habitation or cultivation as it is deficient in moisture and extreme in temperature
● Majority of people practice nomadic farming, so they move with their animals in search of food and water
● Due to Scanty Rainfall, a unique system of Karez is used, which prevents the water from evaporating or being absorbed the land
● Crop Cultivation is very difficult as there is only 100 mm of annual rainfall, and the average temperatures rise up to 38
● The People wear thick and rough clothes to protect themselves from hot winds, and also wear turbans

Coastal Zone
● Average Annual Rainfall is 250 mm, which affects the supply of drinking water in Gwadar, as most of it is provided by rain
● Due to the mild climate of the Sind Coast, economic activities can be carried on throughout the year
● Farming is possible almost throughout the year
● The Seaports are open all year round to carry out international trade
● Road and Rail Transport Links are never closed, so business isn’t affected
● All types of industries are operational in all seasons, from small scale to large scale
● However, during Summer, Tropical Cyclones cause coastal flooding, damaging the infrastructure
● Fishing is nearly impossible when the sea is wild

Effects of Storms
● Destruction of Electrical Supply
● Destruction of Buildings
● Destruction of Farms
● Disruption of Transport
Causes of Floods
Natural Factors
● Melting of Snow during Summer
● Heavy Monsoon Rainfall

Human Factors
● Cutting of Trees on the foothills increases surface run-off
● Failure to strengthen embankments alongside rivers
● Dam Failure to store extra water, due to less capacity

Effects of Floods
● Agricultural Farms are Damaged
● Crops are Destroyed and Loss of Food Supplies
● Homelessness due to Destruction of Houses
● Spread of Water-Borne Diseases
● Transport Links are Damaged

Benefits of Floods
● Return Nutrients to Land
● Spread a Layer of Alluvium, which increases the Fertility of Land
● High Level of Fish Production
● Reproduction of Inland Fish
● Recharge Ground Water Supplies

How to Reduce Flood Risk ?

● Planting Trees on the Foothills to check the flow of running water
● Enlarging the River Channel so it can hold more water
● Building Extra Channels to take flood water away from towns
● Building Reservoirs on the river to store water
● Preventing Building in Areas of high flood risk
● Publicizing Flood Warnings through TV, Radio and Newspapers
● Evacuation of Flooded Areas

Types of Droughts
Permanent Drought
● Occur when Crop Cultivation isn’t possible without irrigation

Seasonal Drought
● Occur in Areas with Well Defined Rainy and Dry Seasons

Invisible Drought
● Result of Water Deficiency that reduces Crop Yields, but aren’t strong enough to destroy them

Unpredictable Drought
● Result of Abnormally Low Rainfall and Occur in Areas with Humid Climates

Managing Droughts
● Water Storage Schemes
● Use of Varieties of Seeds for Crop Cultivation, which are Drought Resistant
● Use of Sea Water for Crop Cultivation, by undergoing a Desalination Process
● Conversion of Waste Water to Clean Water, via Filtration and Chemical Treatment
Causes of Droughts
Natural Factors
● Unreliability of Monsoon Winds
● Dry and Hot Winds can Reduce Moisture Content
● Global Climate is Constantly Changing

Human Factors
● Deforestation on the Foothills of Mountains increases Soil Erosion
● Mismanagement of Water Resources
● Unfair Distribution of Water between Pakistan and India
● Overgrazing of Land increases Soil Erosion

Effects of Droughts
● Famine leading to Starvation
● Migration from Drought Affected Areas
● Malnutrition
● Death of Livestock and Crops
● Negative Balance of Payment, due to Increased Import and Decreased Export

CHAPTER 3

Natural Resources :
● Renewable
● Non-Renewable

Renewable Resources :
Continuous
● Can be used over and over again
● Ex. Water, Sunlight & Alternative Sources of Energy

Sustainable
● Value may decrease over time
● Ex. Vegetation, Fish, & Landscape

Non Renewable Resources :

● Occur in limited quantity
● Ex. Fossil Fuels

The Two River Systems of Pakistan :

● The Indus System
● Rivers of Balochistan

The Indus System

● The Largest River of Pakistan
● It is watered by glaciers of Karakoram and Hindu Kush
Eastern Tributaries of River Indus
● The Sutlej, Ravi, Chenab & Jhelum are the main Eastern Tributaries of the Indus

Western Tributaries of River Indus

● The Swat, Kabul, Kurram. Tochi, Gomal & Zhob are the main Western Tributaries of the Indus

Ground Water :
● The Water-Table is higher in the rainy season and falls in the dry season
● Groundwater is useful in areas where canal irrigation is not possible, and rainfall is scanty
● In Desert Areas, groundwater is difficult to obtain as the water-table is extremely low, and the rate of evaporation is higher
● In Karachi, the people are making use of groundwater by pumping it out through pipes drilled into ground
● However, the water in Karachi may not be fit for human consumption, as there are toxic chemicals or sewage in it

Importance of Rivers :
● Add to Scenic Beauty of the Area
● Help Generate Hydro-Electricity
● Increases Fertility of Land by Carrying Alluvium
● Provide Water for Domestic and Industrial Uses
● Provide Water for Irrigation

Uses of Water :
Domestic
● Cooking
● Drinking
● Washing
● Sanitation

Industrial
● Pharmaceutical Industry
● Food Processing Industry
● Chemical Industry
● Textile Industry

Agricultural
● For Irrigation

Irrigation
● The Artificial Supply of Water to Land to encourage Plant Growth

Why Do We Need Irrigation ?

● Rainfall in Pakistan is ineffective, as annual rainfall is low in Sindh, Balochistan and a large part of Punjab
● Monsoon Winds bring most of the rainfall, but it is of little use as the land either absorbs it too quickly or it drains away too quickly
Conventional Systems of Irrigation
Shaduf
● Water is drawn from a well, river or canal by a bucket which is attached to a pole on one side, and weight on the other

Charsa
● Animal Power is used to pull water from the well

Persian Wheel
● A Persian Wheel is powered by a blindfolded bullock, this turns a wooden wheel and a shaft which is attached to pots that raise water

Karez
● A Horizontal Underground Canal in the foothills that bring underground water to the surface

Inundation Canals
● A Long Canal taken off from a large river, they receive water when the river is high enough and especially when in a flood

Tank Irrigation
● Mud Banks are constructed across small streams, making small reservoirs which collect excess water

Effectiveness of Conventional Systems

● Irrigate Limited Areas of Land
● Require Manual Labour or Animals
● Difficult to Build. Maintain & Use

Modern Systems of Irrigation

Perennial Canals
● Linked to Dams and Barrages that provide water throughout the year

Tubewells
● Have Diesel or Electrically Operated Pumps, that raise water from low depths to irrigate farms, help lower water logging & salinity

Sprinkler
● Connected to Public Water Supply Pipes, and are centrally placed in fields to water plants

Tankers
● Collect Water from ponds and lakes, to provide it to households in case of emergency

Effectiveness of Modern Systems

● Irrigate Vast Areas of Land
● Are Labour Free
● Expensive to Build & Maintain

Indus Water Treaty :

● In 1947, after partition, the headworks of the canals of Sutlej and Ravi, remained in India
● In 1948, India threatened to stop these headworks, which would have endangered the prosperity of the Indus Plain
● In September 1960, an agreement was reached in which India received the rights of eastern rivers and Pakistan of western rivers
● During the Transitional Period, India agreed to supply water to Pakistan
● And Pakistan was expected to construct two storage dams, five barrages and eight link canalad
These Dams have been made :
● Mangla Dam
● Located on the River Jhelum, its purpose is to control and conserve the flood-water of Jhelum for irrigation

● Tarbela Dam
● Located on the River Indus, and is the world's largest earth-filled dams

Small Dams Big Dams

Irrigate Local Areas Irrigate Vast Areas

Supply Little to No Electricity Major Suppliers of Hydro-Electric Power

Silting Problem is Easier to Solve Silting Problem is Difficult to Solve

Construction Time is Less Construction Time is More

Construction & Maintenance Cost is Low Construction & Maintenance Cost is High

Dams Barrages

Built on Mountainous Land Built on Flat Land

Stores Water Controls the Flow of Water

More Costly Less Costly

Siltation
Causes
● Abundance of Silt Eroded from Karakoram, Hindu Kush and Himalayan Mountains
● Deforestation

Effects
● Blockage of Canals
● Weakens the Foundation of Dams
● Choking of Irrigation Canals
● Reduces Capacity for Dams, thus less Hydro-Electric Power is generated

Solutions
● Large Scale Afforestation
● Installation of Silt Traps
● Raising Height of Dam to Increase Capacity

Waterlogging & Salinity

● Waterlogging is the rise in the water-table
● Salinity is the appearance of salty patches on the water-table

● When only Inundation Canals were used, water was only available in the Summer
● With the Introduction of Perennial Canals, water was available for the whole year
● However, this results in a rise in the water-table, and appearance of salt patches
Solutions to Waterlogging & Salinity
● Lining of Canals to control seepage of water
● Installing tubewells to lower the water-table
● Planting Eucalyptus trees, as their roots go deep in the ground and absorb water
● Surface drain to divert surface water to nearby rivers

SCARP Project
● Salinity Control & Reclamation Project, was carried out by WAPDA
● Tubewells and Surface Drains were used to lower the water-table and flush out salt from the soil
● SCARP has been successful in reclaiming some of the land, however a large area in Punjab and Sindh is still uncultivable

Water as a Resource for Economic Development

● Agriculture is the main income generating sector, as agro based industries produce cotton textile, food processing & leather, which is
exported and earns foreign exchange earnings for Pakistan, thus increases its GNP

● Water is used in many processing and manufacturing industries, which are vital for the economic development of a country, as they
provide employment opportunities to the industrial labor force

● If water is clean, people are healthier and more productive at their work places, thus contributing to economic development

CHAPTER 4

Forests :
● Productive Forests
● Protection Forests

Productive Forests
● Mainly natural forests, the tree density is high and these forests have great commercial value
● Mainly Function is for extraction of timber, and other products

Protection Forests
● Mainly planted by people, and these forests have little commercial value
● Main Function is for protecting the soil, and to prevent it from eroding away

Importance of Forests
● Supply of Fruit
● Natural Habitat for Wildlife
● Prevent Soil Erosion
● Provide Raw Material and Timber for Construction & Wood-Based Industries
● Plants are used for Medicinal Purposes
● Employment Opportunities for People in Forest-Based Industries

Factors that Determine the Type & Density of Forests

● Altitude ( Areas with different altitude have different types of forests )
● Aridity ( Areas with lower aridity result in thorny bushes & scrub ) ( Balochistan Plateau & Lower Indus )
● Precipitation ( Areas with higher precipitation encourages growth of evergreen trees ) ( Northern Mountains )
● Alluvium ( Deposition of Alluvium in Salt Water encourages growth of mangrove vegetation ) ( Indus & Hab Deltas )
● Edaphic Factors ( Areas with different types of soil have different types of forests )
Alpine Forests
Location
● Northern Areas ( Chitral, Dir & Kohistan )

Description
● Stunted Growth due to low temperature and less sunlight
● Upward Branches to attain more sunlight
● Roots spread sideways on thin soil to absorb more nutrition

Importance
● Used as fuel wood only

Coniferous Forests
Location
● Northern Areas ( Rawalpindi, Islamabad & Murree )
● Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
● Balochistan Mountains

Description
● Evergreen Forests survive in low temperatures
● Conical in shape
● Sloping branches which prevent snow accumulation
● Small, Thick, Leathery & Needle Shaped Leaves

Importance
● Source of Timber for furniture
● Add to Scenic Beauty of Area, increasing tourism

Tropical Thorn Forest

Location
● Punjab & Sindh Plains
● Southern & Western Balochistan

Description
● Low Height
● Dominated by thorny hardwood
● Deep Roots to search for water

Importance
● Used as Firewood

Riverain / Bela Forest

Location
● River Indus & its tributaries

Description
● Linear plantation along the banks of rivers

Importance
● Provide Shishum & Babul, which are used for making furniture & agricultural implement
Sub-Tropical Scrub Forest
Location
● Western Mountains
● Sulaiman & Kirthar Ranges
● Makran Coast

Description
● Broad Leafed and Tropical Thorny Species

Importance
● Supplying Firewood
● Grazing Purposes

Mangrove Forests
Location
● Coastal Areas of Balochistan & Sind Plains

Description
● Broad Leaves with drip tips
● Leathery Texture to minimize transpiration
● Roots survive in salty water
● Limited number of species in polluted waters

Importance
● Supplying Firewood
● Breeding Grounds for Fish & Shrimps
● Camels & Livestock feed on Mangrove Leaves

Irrigated Forests
Location
● Changa Manga near Lahore
● Wan Bachran in Thal Area

Description
● Planted in large blocks of the same species, as they are economically important

Importance
● Supplying Firewood
● Provide Shade

Irrigation Plantations

Advantages Disadvantages

Source of Timber for Construction Planting Forests Require High Initial Investment

Leaves of Trees Provide Food for Animals Trees Need to be Maintained

Provide Shade & Shelter for People & Animals Trees Require Irrigation, which are costly and hard to maintain

Add to Scenic Beauty, Promoting Tourism Loss of Land for Farmlands and Industries

Provide Employment Opportunities in Forest-Based Industries Forest Fires can Cause Damage to Environment
How do Mangroves Survive in Saltwater ?
● Their tissues exhibit a high tolerance to salt
● Their roots act as filters, straining most of the salt out of the water

Sustainable Development of Mangrove Trees :

● A WWF Project focuses on replanting mangrove forests and creating an awareness for their sustainable use
● The WWF has developed two mangrove nurseries and has planted 10,000 saplings
● The WWF plan on planting 40 acres of mangrove trees
● The IUCN started a project for planting mangroves, however the work carried out so far isn’t enough

Forest Products
Major Products
● Timber
● Fuel Wood

Minor Products
● Resin
- Used for Making Varnishes

● Mazri
- Used for Mats, Baskets & Packing Purposes

● Ephedra
- Used by Pharmaceutical Industries

Causes of Deforestation
● Large Forest Tracts are cleared to grow crops and carry out mining activities
● Increasing Urbanization, as growth of cities has turned forests into residential colonies
● Industrialization, as road transport is getting larger, and forests have to be cut down to make roads
● Pakistan has a good domestic and foreign market for wood-based products, so more trees are cut down

Effects of Deforestation
● Floods, leading to loss of Property and Food
● Loss of Property leads to Homelessness
● Loss of Food leads to Starvation
● Increased number of Landslides

Solutions to Deforestation
● Supplying Irrigation Facilities to the deforested areas
● Reserving Land for Valuable Species of Trees
● Creating Awareness among the people by Government Agencies and NGOs
● Improving Techniques of raising nurseries and planting trees
● Restricting Use of heavy destructive machinery, such as bulldozers

Terracing
● Cutting of Steps in Steep Hillsides, which are then edged with mud, to prevent soil erosion

Contour Ploughing
● Plowing along the contours of land, in order to prevent soil erosion
How do Coniferous Trees Adapt to a Cold Environment ?
● They Grow Needles instead of Leaves
● They Grow Cones instead of Flowers
● They don’t Shed Leaves
● They do Photosynthesis all year long
● Are Evergreen

Afforestation Projects in Pakistan

● The main objective of these projects is the afforestation of ecologically critical areas
● Small nurseries produce seedlings which are spread throughout the project area
● The project officers are responsible for supplying these plant seedlings
● They also motivate the local communities to plant trees by providing specialized knowledge of forest management
● Some Projects include :
● Tarbela / Mangla Watershed Management Project
● Rachna Doab Afforestation Project
● Agha Khan Rural Support Programme

Sustainable Development of Forests :

● Trees should not be cut down at a rate faster than they can be replaced
● Every Tree cut down should be replaced by a sapling from a nursery
● When areas of forests are cut down, new areas of forests should be planted to replace them

CHAPTER 5

Minerals :
● Non-Metallic Minerals
● Metallic Minerals

Non-Metallic Minerals
● Rock Salt
● Limestone
● Coal
● Gypsum
● Marble
● Sulphur
● Soapstone
● Clays
● Fluorite

Metallic Minerals
● Iron Ore
● Copper
● Antimony
● Celestite
● Chromite
● Manganese
● Bauxite
● Gold
● Silver
● Tin
Processes of Mining :
● Quarrying
● Open-Cast Mining
● Adit Mining
● Shaft Mining

Quarrying
● The Process of removing rock, sand, gravel or other minerals from the ground, in geometrical shapes by tractors

Open-Cast Mining
● Scoops up Minerals such as Coal or Iron, which often lie near the surface, with the help of giant excavators and power shovels

Adit Mining
● Horizontal Tunnels are dug into the side of a valley of a hilly area, to reach an exposed mineral seam

Shaft Mining
● Vertical Shafts are dug down to the minerals, then horizontal tunnels are dug to the sides to gather the mineral seam

Dangers of Mining Processes :

● Dangerous Gasses are Present Underground, risking in poisoning and ventilation problems
● Risk of Explosions, may cause the tunnel roofs to collapse
● Flooding leads to entrapment of miners

Benefits of Extracting More Mineral Resources :

Industrial Uses
● Non-Metallic Minerals are used in the construction industry ( pavements, bridges, houses )
● Metallic Minerals are used as raw material in high value industries
● This boosts up the infrastructure development of a country, and ensures a sound economy

Agricultural Uses
● Non-Metallic Minerals are used for lining of canals, irrigational reservoirs & making dykes
● Metallic Minerals are used for making agricultural implement, tractors & gates of barrages
● The agriculture of a country can be developed on modern lines, thus increasing income and boosting up its economy

Balance of Payment
● Export of Metallic and Mineral Products have high value in the international market, thus increases foreign exchange earnings
● If Pakistan produces minerals domestically, it won’t need to import valuable minerals, thus saving foreign exchange resources
● This will lead to an increase in export, and a decrease in import, ultimately leading to a better balance of payment

Employment
● Development of the mining sector can increase employment opportunities in mining-based industries

Generation of Electricity
● Non-Metallic Minerals such as Coal & Natural Gas helps produce thermal electricity, which could solve Pakistan’s electricity problem

Remote Areas
● Extraction of minerals can economically develop areas such as Balochistan, where other activities such as farming are difficult

Increase in GDP
● Production of Minerals will eventually increase a country’s domestic income and improve its financial position
Problems of the Mining Industry :
Lack of Financial Resources
● Pakistan doesn’t have enough money to invest in the exploration of minerals

Lack of Technical Experts

● Mining requires high-tech experts with theoretical and practical knowledge of geology
● Pakistan has very few technical institutions which produce such professionals

Inaccessible Mineral Deposits

● Most of the Minerals in Pakistan, are found in those areas where transport links are poorly developed

Security of Mining Companies

● Foreign Mining Companies are reluctant to carry out mining operations due to possible terrorist attacks

Low Priority of Mining Companies

● It is much easier to develop the agriculture sector, therefore the mining sector is somewhat ignored

Institutional Mismanagement
● Mineral Offices are victims of corruption and low standards of work, which results in low productivity of the Mining Sector

Effects of Mining on the Environment :

● Vegetation has to be cut down, resulting in Soil Exposure
● Roads have to be constructed, resulting in Deformation of Landscape
● If depressions aren’t filled after mining, they may become Flooded
● Blasting rocks, results in Noise Pollution
● Traditional mining methods are Hazardous to Health of Miners
● Mining Waste, results in Land Pollution, Water Pollution or Air Pollution

Solutions to Effects of Mining on the Environment :

● Mining should be done on scientific lines to maximize benefits, and minimize drawbacks
● When mining is done, special precautions must be taken to prevent environmental losses
● After mining is done, the land should be leveled and depressions should be filled to avoid deformation
● All the mining waste should be properly treated before their final disposal
● The people involved in the mining process should be given proper protective clothing, so they aren’t affected
● The area around a mine should be properly planted with trees, so atmosphere remains healthy and miners have fresh air
● Water treatment plants should be set up, to supply clean water to workers living near mines

Sustainable Development of Mining :

● Government should consider the concept of sustainable development when making policies which affect the mineral industry
● Modern Science and Technology should be applied to enhance the industry’s competitiveness and environmental protection
● Discharge of Toxic substances and release of heat, should be strictly checked in order to ensure no irreversible damage is done
Uses of Non-Metallic Minerals :
Rock Salt
● Used for Cooking and Preservative Purposes

Limestone
● Used for Cement, Bleaching Powder and Treating Salinity

Coal
● Used for Brick Kilns, Making Coke and Power Generation

Gypsum
● Used for Paints, Fertilizers and Prefabricated Construction Boards

Marble
● Used for Flooring and Decoration

Sulphur
● Used in Chemical Industries to manufacture Paints and Fertilizers

Uses of Metallic Minerals :

Chromite
● Gives Hardness & Electrical Resistance to Steel

Iron Ore
● Used for Steel Making, Construction and Transport

Copper
● Used for Electrical Wires, Electrical Appliances and Water Pipes

Manganese
● Used for Dry Batteries, Paints and Steel Making

Bauxite
● Used for Aluminium, Utensils and Tins

Celestite
● Used for Fireworks, Ceramics and Paints

How are Minerals Formed :

● Formed when hot magma cools, revealing crystals of minerals
● Formed underground when heat and pressure transform one form of the rock into another
● Formed when mineral rich fluids, such as silica-bearing water, evaporate
● Formed when volcanic rocks are broken down by the action of water and wind
 CHAPTER 6

Methods of Fishing
● Inland Fishing
● Marine Fishing
● Fish Farms

Inland Fishing
● Done in Freshwaters with Traditional Nets

Types of Inland Fish

● Manaseer
● Palla
● Thalla
● Rahu
● Trout

Marine Fishing
● Fishing is done on Sind & Makran Coast, there are two types of Marine Fishing :
● Karachi is the main fishing center of Sindh Coast, while Gwadar is of Makran Coast

Subsistence Fishing
● When Fisherman & his family consume the fish they catch
● Uses the traditional fish net & a small sailboat
● Cannot be relied on as a permanent source of income

In Commercial Fishing
● When the Fish is sold on the market
● Uses the traditional net, gill-nitters & mechanized boats
● Can be relied on as a permanent source of income

Types of Marine Fish

● Sharks
● Drums
● Croakers
● Skates
● Catfish
● Rays

Why Sind Coast is More Developed

● Has Numerous Creeks, Sheltered Harbors and a Wide Shallow Sea
● Better Export & Processing Facilities
● Indus Delta is Rich in Fish Food
● Wider Continental Shelf

How Makran Coast is Developing

● Docking of Sailboats
● Ice Factory & Refrigeration Plants
● Better Preservation & Storage of Fish
Fish Farms
● Rectangular Man Made Ponds for Breeding of Fish
● They have a cemented base to prevent water leakage
● Trees are usually placed around them to :
● Provide Oxygen
● Minimize Water Losses through Evaporation
● Keep Water Body Cool

Expected Benefits of Developing Fish Farms

● Greater return to fishermen
● Increased unemployment
● Use of technology and upgrading of skills will ensure increased fish production
● Favorable impact on foreign exchange earnings
● Reduces burden on crops and livestocks

Effects of Fish Farming

● The Water frequently pumped out to fill these farms, may lower the water table of the area, making it unsuitable for agricultural crops
● Coastal Wetlands provide nutrients to organisms, and conversion of these areas into fish farms has disturbed the ecosystem
● Effluents from these farms may contain chemicals, which have an adverse effect on other organisms

Problems of Fishing Industry

● Chemicals containing toxic substances, leech into rivers by fertilizers or mineral waste, and harm fish, decreasing their production
● Overfishing of shrimps limits the production of shrimps
● Mangroves are breeding ground for fish and shrimps, and they cannot thrive well in polluted sea water
● Pakistan has insufficient money to develop the fishing industry, therefore most of the fishing is done traditionally, resulting in low output

Government’s Efforts to Develop Fisheries

● Introduction of new fishing methods
● Development of value-added products such as canned or frozen fish, by providing fish processing facilities
● Guidance and weather information for the fishermen
● Execution of development projects by Marine Fisheries Department

Sustainable Development of Fishing

● Foreign deep-sea trawlers shouldn’t be allowed to operate in the area of the Arabian Sea, in order to avoid overfishing
● Laws should be implemented to ban the use of illegal nets ( nets which have small holes to catch baby fish )
● Laws should be implemented to ban cutting of mangrove forests

Sustainable Development of Fishing Could Bring these Benefits

● Provision of more white meat, which has low cholesterol, vitamin d and other nutrients
● Increase in employment opportunities in fishing-based industries
● Increase in foreign exchange earnings by exporting raw and processed fish to Japan, Sri Lanka and Middle East
● Training and education of fishermen to develop modern technological skills for fishing
● Development of industries related to fishing, such as boat making, net making and fish processing industries
● Improvement in infrastructure facilities
Marketing of the Fish Industry
● The catch from marine areas is supplied to local fish markets through wholesale dealers
● Street hawkers buy the catch and provide door to door service
● Frozen or processed fish is available at stores
● Most of the fish catch is sold to other countries

Uses of Fish
● Fish waste is used to make fertilizer and poultry feed
● Oil extracted from fish provides a source of nutrition
● Nutritious food source, as white meat is low in cholesterol, and contains vitamin D

CHAPTER 7

Inputs, Processes & Outputs :

● Agriculture can be viewed as a system with inputs, processes & outputs

Inputs :
Natural ( Physical )
● The factors of nature that affect the possibilities for different crops, such as land, soil, climate or water

Human ( Economic )
● The factors of humans that affect the possibilities for different crops, such as money, equipment, machinery or number of workers

Processes :
● Plowing, Sowing, Irrigating, Fertilizing, Weeding, Harvesting, Milking or Breeding

Outputs :
● The crops grown, such as wheat, rice or cotton, or animal products, such as meat, eggs or milk

Types of Farming :
● Small-Scale Subsistence Farming
● Cash-Crop Farming
● Livestock Farming

Small-Scale Subsistence Farming

● Produce food and raw materials for the people who work on them
● Any surplus for sale is a bonus, not an expectation
● It is used either in repaying loans or buying the necessities of life
● Outputs may vary depending on rainfall and less attacks
● If rainfall is adequate, and no pests and diseases attacked the crop,
a good yield could be expected
Cash-Crop Farming
● The growing of agricultural crops, primarily for sale
● Any surplus of sale is an expectation, and contributes to increased
foreign exchange earnings
● Large farms in Sindh and Punjab are being planted with cotton, rice,
wheat or sugar-cane

Livestock Farming
Nomadic
● Practiced by nomadic people in Balochistan and Sindh
● People move along with their animals in search of food & water
● They rear Sheeps & Goats, which in return provide meat & milk
● Camels carry their loads for long distances
● If they find any breeding ground or water source, they settle down for weeks and allow their animals to get fodder and water

Transhumance
● Practiced in Northern Mountains & some parts of Western Mountains
● Animals are kept on pastures high up in the mountains in Summer
● Animals are brought down in Winter
● Farms Goats, Sheeps & Cattle, which in return provide meat, dairy products & wool

Settled
● Practiced in villages of Punjab & Sindh
● Cows & Hens are kept for Milk & Eggs to be consumed by the family
● Excess milk is used to make butter or ghee

Importance of Livestock Farming :

● Animals are used as draught power, helping in farming and transport
● Provides Nutritious food sources, such as meat, milk or eggs
● Provides raw material for domestic industries, such as animal hair, bones or skin
● Have a good demand in the international markets
● Contributes to about 10& of the GDP

Problems of Livestock Farming :

● Few veterinary hospitals & vaccination facilities
● Insufficient breeding for quality
● Inadequate facilities for storage of meat
● Inefficient marketing system of products, leading to less profit
● Unhygienic conditions leads to unhealthy animals
● Primitive breeding methods leads to unhealthy animals

Solutions of Livestock Farming :

● Selective breeding and crossbreeding for better quality animals
● Programmes to fatten cows for milk and meat
● Control of diseases and better animal husbandry practises
● Improvement in livestock research farms
● Improvement in vaccination facilities
Main Livestock Resources
Cattle ( Bullock & Cow )
● They are assisted by camels & mules to plough, carry fodder & workers from one place to another
● Areas include Rahim-yar-khan, Balochistan, Bahawalpur, Gujrat & Lasbela

Buffaloes
● They are the main source of meat & milk, but are slaughtered when they stop producing or get too old
● Areas include Rahim-yar-khan, Balochistan, Bahawalpur & Gujranwala

Sheeps & Goats

● They are kept for their wool and meat
● Areas include Bahawalpur, Loralai, Khuzdar & Kalat

Poultry
● Products include chicken & eggs

Agricultural Products :
● Crops that are sown at the beginning of the winter season, and harvested in early summer are known as Rabi Crops
● They include wheat, barley, grams, oilseeds and pulses

● Crops that are sown at summer, and harvested in early winter are known as Kharif Crops
● They include rice, sugar-cane, millets, maize and cotton

Major Crops
Wheat
● A staple food used in the manufacture of bread, and a variety of baked products
● It is a Rabi Crop

Cultivation of Wheat
● After plowing the field, wheat seeds are sown directly into the ground
● Land is only irrigated one month after sowing, and one month before harvesting
● Wheat is harvested after three months, and a lot of labor is required

Why Wheat Yield has Gradually Increased in Pakistan

● Introduction of new wheat varieties
● Improved farming methods
● Improvement in the water management system
● Use of chemical fertilizers are becoming more common
● Government is providing loans on easy installments to purchase agricultural machinery

Geographical Requirements for Wheat

Temperature
● Mild temperature ( 10-20 ) at time of growing, and warm temperature ( 25-30 ) at time of ripening

Rainfall
● Moderate Rainfall, a little rain before the harvest swells the grain and ensures a better yield

Soil
● Moderately stiff loamy or clayey soil
● Land must be well drained
Rice
● An important crop, as foreign exchange is earned from its export
● Grown in Gujranwala, Shekhapur, Gujrat & Sialkot
● It is a Kharif Crop

Cultivation of Rice
● Rice seeds are sown into beds or nurseries
● When the plant is 9 inches, it is transplanted to plowed fields, which are flooded to 30 cm
● The fields are kept filled with water, until rice is ripe, then water is drained out and harvesting begins
● Threshing of rice is either done by draft animals or by a mechanical thresher
● After threshing, rice is taken to the rice mills for polishing and packing

Geographical Requirements for Rice

Temperature
● Mean temperature of 20-30 with no cold season
● A warm dry period for harvesting

Rainfall
● Heavy rainfall of at least 1270mm, but over 2000mm is ideal

Soil
● Loamy or clayey soil
● Impervious subsoil to retain water

Human Input
● Cheap & abundant labor
● Adequate machinery and Irrigation

Sugar-Cane
● Used for sugar, brown sugar and gur are made
● It is a Kharif Crop

Cultivation of Sugar-Cane
● Stalks are planted at a distance of 30cm
● After sugar-cane is harvested, it sends up new roots called ratoons, and these are eft to grow so they can be harvested next year
● After cutting, it is transported to sugar mills, where it is scrubbed with chalk to remove dirt and smell

Geographical Requirements for Sugar-Cane

Temperature
● Requires temperature between 25-35

Rainfall
● Requires plenty of rainfall

Soil
● Loamy and clayey soil, with silt

Human Input
● Use of manure and fertilizers
Cotton
● It is used for making clothes, furnishing fabrics, bed linen and industrial fabrics
● It is a Kharif Crop

Cultivation of Cotton
● Cotton seeds are sown at a distance apart of 30-45cm
● Land is irrigated one month later, and then after a further two months
● Cotton bolls ripen in the dry months and are loaded onto trucks, to be transported to ginning mills

What Harms the Cotton Crop

● It is sensitive to he rise in day and night temperatures
● It is susceptible to leaf-curl virus, and fruit shedding

Geographical Requirements for Cotton

Temperature
● Ideal temperature of 25-35, as cotton is sensitive to frost

Rainfall
● Ample rainfall, about 1000mm is ideal

Soil
● Medium loam soils, with chemical fertilizers to enhance the fertility

Human Input
● Use of agricultural machinery to speed up the process
● Most picking is done by cheap and patient human labor
● Pesticides & insecticides are needed
● Irrigation & fertilizers

Minor Crops
Maize & Millets

Geographical Requirements for Maize

Temperature
● High Temperature up to 35

Rainfall
● Between 50-500 mm

Soil
● Can be grown on porous soil

Geographical Requirements for Millets

Temperature
● 30-35

Rainfall
● Doesn’t require much rain

Soil
● Can be grown on poorer sandy sols
Factors that Benefit Agricultural Production
Natural ( Physical )
● Flatter Land
● Alluvial & Loess Rich Soils
● Adequate Irrigation by Rainfall
● Adequate Temperature
● Lesser Pests & Diseases

Human ( Economic )
● Adequate Irrigation by Irrigation Systems
● Adequate Supply of Fertilizers
● Introduction of Machinery
● Use of High Yielding Varieties of Seeds

Disadvantages of Small Farms :

● Machinery cannot be used
● Small and fragmented holdings are difficult to supervise
● Loans can’t be obtained
● Irrigation is difficult
● Experiments cannot be carried out for increasing production

Effects of Farming
● Farming areas require cutting of trees, leading to deforestation
● Uses of pesticides & fertilizers can drain into rivers, promoting growth of algae and polluting river water
● If pesticides remain in crops, and are then eaten, diseases like gastro-intestinal infections rise
● Seepage of water causes water-logging & salinity

How Government is Improving Agricultural Output

● Developing Plant Protection Programs
● Providing Financial Support
● Distribution of Improved Seeds
● Increasing the Use of Fertilizers
● Providing Loans for Machinery

Sustainable Development of Farming

● Problem of Water-logging & Salinity should be addressed, in order to protect the cultivable land
● Highly Productive & Environmentally Sustainable Technologies should be developed
● Over-farming of crops should be banned to avoid soil erosion
● Fertility of Soil should be maintained through afforestation projects
● Poor methods of farming should be avoided, and trees should not be cut
 CHAPTER 8

Energy can be obtained by :

● Non-Renewable Energy Resources
● Renewable Energy Resources

Non-Renewable Energy Resources ( Thermal Electricity Resources )

● Coal
● Natural Gas
● Petroleum
● Nuclear Energy

Renewable Energy Resources ( Alternative Sources of Energy )

● Hydro-Electric Power
● Solar Power
● Wind Power
● Geothermal Power
● Wave / Tidal Power
● Biomass

Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Coal
● A very old fossil fuel, which is formed by the decomposition of natural vegetation, especially equatorial swamp forest
● Found in Quetta, Lower Sind and the Salt Range

Types of Coal
Anthracite
● Best Quality Coal with the highest hydrocarbon content, and burns quietly with great heat

Bituminous
- Steam Coal
● Superior Black & Hard Coal, found in highly compressed seams

- Coking Coal
● Burnt to Produce Coke, and is used in blast furnaces for extraction of iron from iron ore

Lignite
● Lower Quality Coal with a high moisture and ash content

Peat
● Exclusively vegetative matter, and represents the initial stage of coal formation

Extraction of Coal
● Coal is Extracted by Surface or Underground Mining
● It is then loaded onto trolleys, and the qualities of coal are separated
● It is then sold to a middlemen, who further loads it on trucks and supplies it to brick kilns and cement factories

Coal as a Power Source in the Future

● New reserves of coal have been discovered in recent years, which are greater than the reserves of oil
● Replacing oil with coal, will tackle the amount of foreign exchange, involved in the import of oil
● In view of the uncertainty surrounding the price of oil, coal can be used as it is even cheaper than natural gas
 Coal Power Generation

Advantages Disadvantages

Thar coal fields have estimated reserves of 175 billion tons, which Coal power plants are the largest source of fly ash, which causes
could be utilized to power for 20,000 years problems like lowered crop yield & respiratory disorders

Will save billions of dollars in foreign exchange, which are Mercury pollution can cause contamination of groundwater, and
currently being spent on import of oil nervous system disorders

Consumers can get electricity at much cheaper rate compared to Mercury pollution falls into rivers where it builds up on fish, people
what they are currently paying who eat these fish can suffer brain damage

There is so much oil, that it could be exported to other countries

Uses of Coal
● Thermal Power Generation
● Heating and Cooking
● Brick Kilns
● Making Cement
● Steam Engines

Petroleum
● The most important fossil fuel, and is derived mainly from the decomposition of marine animal and vegetative matter

Uses of Petroleum
● Lubricant for Machines
● Source of Power
● Motor Fuel
● By-Products are used e.g. Paraffin, Wax, Plastics

Extraction of Petroleum
● Found trapped in puddles deep underground
● Wells are drilled to pump this fuel out of the ground
● A derrick is set up which is a large steel structure that holds the drilling pipes and other equipment together

Transport of Petroleum
Transport on Sea
● Transported from Saudi or UAE, through Oil Tankers
● At Keamari or Qasim Port, the Oil Tanker is Berthed at the designation Oil Pier
● The Oil Products are Pumped from the Oil Tanker to the Oil Marketing Companies’ Storage Tanks

Transport on Land
● Oil can be transported by : roads, rails or pipelines
● Pipelines is the least time consuming and costly

PARCO’s Project for Transportation of Oil

● In 2002, PARCO launched a White Oil Pipeline Project
● It would carry refined Petroleum products from Karachi to the North
● The already existing Pipeline was converted to carry crude oil, it’s known as Mahmood Kot
Oil Refineries
● Are either located near the oil fields, or at the port of import
● Near the Oil Fields : Attock Oil Refinery is located on the Potwar Plateau at Morja
● At the Port of Import : Pakistan Refinery & National Refinery are located in Karachi

Natural Gas
● It was first discovered, in 1952, at Sui, Balochistan by Pakistan Petroleum Limited (PPL), while searching for oil
● Soon, pipelines to Karachi, Multan, Faisalabad, Lahore, Islamabad, Rawalpindi, Quetta and Peshawar were made from Balochistan

Uses of Natural Gas

● Cooking and Heating
● Fertilizer and Cement Industry
● Making Electricity
● Fuel in Cars

Extraction of Natural Gas

● Found in oil-bearing rocks above the oil
● These rocks act act sponges and soak up all the gas
● Extracted using vertical drills

Organizations to Develop Oil Resources

● Geological Survey of Pakistan (GSP)
● Pak Arab Refinery (PARCO)
● Pakistan State Oil (PSO)
● Sui Northern Gas Pipeline Limited (SNGPL)
● Sui Southern Gas Company Limited (SSGCL)

Nuclear Energy
● Fueled by power that is released from atomic fission and fusion
● In Atomic Fission, energy is released when atoms split
● In Atomic Fusion, energy is released when atoms join

Nuclear Power Stations

● The Karachi Nuclear Power Plant
● The Chashma Nuclear Power Plant

Advantages Disadvantages

Chances of accidents are low Fuel rods in nuclear reactors produce dangerous rays

Can speed up the industrialization of Pakistan Nuclear waste can remain radioactive for many years

Pakistan is deficient in coal and oil, so nuclear energy can solve Pakistan doesn’t have enough financial resources to build nuclear
this problem power stations

Contributes less than fossil fuels to greenhouse effect / acid rain Instead of nuclear energy, we should rely on other renewable sources
Renewable Energy Resources

Hydro-Electric Power
● Uses the force of flowing water to spin the hydro-turbines
● As the turbine spins, a shaft attached to it, also spins inside a magnetic field in the generator, creating electricity

Solar Power
● Uses giant mirrors to focus the sun’s rays on a boiler
● Steam from the boiler is used to make electricity

Wind Power
● Windmills and Wind Pumps are used to convert the kinetic energy in the wind, into mechanical power
● The generator in the wind turbine converts this mechanical power into electricity
● Large scale wind farms, which consist of many turbines, are connected to electrical grids to provide electricity

Advantages Disadvantages

Renewable resource will never deplete Expensive to build

Environmentally friendly Turbines stop when there is no wind, so its not constant

Lead to industrial and agricultural expansion May kill birds or bats, harming the balance of the ecosystem

Provide source of income for farmers Can only be developed in coastal / mountainous areas

Wave / Tidal Power

● Wave Motion can be used to compress air to drive a turbine to generate electricity
● The tides come in and out once, and usually twice in every 24 hours
● The Makran Coastal Areas, and the Indus Deltaic Creek System, have major potential for tidal power

Geothermal Power
● Produced from Earth’s Heat absorbed in underground water
● Holes are drilled into the land to pump out hot water, which is used to drive turbines to produce electricity
● The Himalayan Region, and Chagai Area in Balochistan Plateau, have potential for geothermal power
● Geothermal exploitation requires a study based on :
● Identification of Geothermal Sites
● Estimation of Size of the Resource and the Economic Cost involved in the exploitation of the Resource
● Estimation of Heat Content of Fluids, that will be discharged by wells in the geothermal field

Biomass
● Refers to organic material, plants and vegetable matter, that can be used as fuel
● Examples include trees, grasses, agricultural residues and methane
● Village women make patties of cow-dung to use as home cooking fuel, however this causes severe indoor pollution, as well as infections
● Biogas is produced from animal and plant waste, such as methane gas, however it contributes to pollution as it’s a greenhouse gas
 Thermal Power Stations Alternative Sources of Energy

Will Eventually be Exhausted Will Never be Exhausted

Cause Pollution when Burnt Are Environmental Friendly

Can be Developed at Any Place Can only be Built, with certain Physical & Climatic Requirements

Less Expensive to Build, except for Nuclear Stations Initial Cost for Construction is High, but Running Costs are Low

Produce Large Amounts of Power Produce Small Amounts of Power

National Grid System

● It consists of a large network of transmission lines and grid stations to transmit power to commercial and domestic consumers
● It is used to supply electricity to different areas according to their requirements
● However, there is a lot of wastage of electricity through the transmission lines, if they aren’t properly maintained

Reasons Why There is a Shortage of Electricity

● Many of the Power plants are not working to their full capacity, due to financial constraints and lack of technical expertise
● During winter, the hydro-electric power generation decreased with the reduced flow of water in rivers
● Siltation in the reservoirs of dams, decrease electrical generation, due to reduced flow of water in rivers
● Long transmission lines cause loss of electricity
● Power theft

Advantages of Rural Electrification

● Tubewells can be installed for irrigation
● Small-scale industries can be developed to provide employment
● The standard of living increases, as appliances can be used
● People can access electronic media

Importance of Power Resources for Economic Development

● Shortage of power reduces production of industrial goods, and increases the cost of production, resulting in a lower GDP
● Power Resources are used for modernization of agriculture, as tubewells, tractors and harvesters depend on them
● Power Resources are used for the extraction and exploration of minerals, as drilling machinery depend on them
● Power Resources are used for modernization of society, as TV, radio and mobiles depend on them
● If Power Resources are produced locally, dependance on imported power resources is reduced, and balance of payment improves

Sustainable Development of Power Resources

● Non-Renewable Resources should be preserved and consumed, in order to guard the danger of their exhaustion
● Renewable Resources should be developed, by using advanced technology
● Faulty Damaged Transmission Lines should be replaced, and outdated machinery should be abandoned
● Wastage of Power and Non-Productive use of Power Resources should be checked strictly
● Public Awareness Programmes should be introduced through the media and governmental institutions
● Strict Laws should be enforced to protect the environment
 CHAPTER 10

Functions of Trade :
● Establishes a link in different activities that depend on each other
● Helps regions specialize in the production of different commodities
● Provides employment opportunities

Benefits of Trade :
● Promotes Industrialization
● Increase in GDP
● Increase in National Income
● Increase in Foreign Exchange
● Utilization of Domestic Resources
● Provides Employment Opportunities
● Transfer of Information Technology
● Production of Valuable Goods

Export
● When Goods or Services are sold to other countries
● Pakistan Exports with USA, Germany, China, UK & Afghanistan
● Major Exports : Raw Cotton, Leather, Ready-Made Garments, Carpets & Rugs, and Sports goods

Import
● When Goods or Services are Bought from other countries
● Pakistan Imports from USA, Germany, China, Japan, Saudi & UAE
● Major Imports : Food, Machinery, Petroleum, Fertilizers, Metals & Textiles

GDP
● Gross Domestic Product
● Total Value of Goods Produced Inside a Country
● It doesn’t matter if producers are another nationality, as long as it is in that country, it is its GDP

GNP
● Gross National Product
● Total Value of Goods Produced By a Country’s Citizens
● It doesn’t matter if citizens are in another country, as long as they are that nationality, and produce something, it is GNP

Balance of Trade
● Difference between the value of exports & value of imports of goods
● Balance of Trade = Exports of Goods - Import of Goods

Balance of Payment
● Difference between the value of exports & value of imports of goods, including service sectors
● Balance of Trade = Value of Exports - Value of Imports
Why Pakistan Has a Negative Balance of Payments
● Pakistan’s goods can’t compete in a highly competitive market, as they lack standardization, and this affects export
● The effects of the rise in oil prices in the 1970s and 80s are still left
● Huge amounts of money, are utilized in the import of oil and machinery
● With unfavorable conditions, Pakistan’s exports decline as they consist of mostly agriculture, which depend on climatic conditions
● The United States withdrew the GSP for Carpets, Rugs & Sports Goods, due to the issue of child labor
● Pakistan doesn’t belong to any trading bloc, so it struggles with other countries, who get access to world markets, through their blocs

Effects of Negative Balance of Payment

● Development Projects have to be curtailed
● Negative Balance of Payments has to be filled by taking loans
● If loans can’t be payed, an economic or trade embargo may be imposed
● To pay loans, assets of the country may have to be sold
● Business and Commercial Activity slows down

Solutions to Negative Balance of Payment

● Increasing Exports & Restricting Imports
● Developing Cottage & Small Scale Industries
● Increasing Variety of Export Items
● Creating Export Agencies to Organize Export Activities, such as the Export Promotion Bureau
● Imposing Strict Control Measures to Ensure Consistent Results of Goods, for Export
● Setting up Export Processing Zones, to promote the setting up of industries that produce goods, for export

Objectives of Export Processing Zones

● To Boost Industrialization
● To Increase the Country’s Exports
● To Create Employment Opportunities
● To Transfer Hi-Tech from Developed to Developing Countries

Infrastructure Required for Export Processing Zones

● Near the Seaport to Facilitate Export & Import of Goods
● Adequate Transport for Marketing of Finished Goods
● Adequate Air Travel Facilities
● Efficient Links for Transport of Raw Material

Why Gwadar Could be Suitable for EPZ’s

● The Port of Gwadar can serve as a ‘Regional Trade Hub’, as it’s in a position to cater for the requirements of trade in the middle east
● The Deep Water and Export Processing Zones can be developed simultaneously
● Infrastructure facilities such as transport links, water resources, desalination & power plants can be arranged by the government

Functions of the Export Promotion Bureau

● Creating Awareness Among Manufacturing Service about Potential Exports
● Exploring and Identifying Market Opportunities Abroad
● Assisting Pakistan’s Entrepreneurs to Secure Entries in the International Market
● To Transfer Hi-Tech from Developed to Developing Countries
Exchange Rates
● Refers to the Price of One Currency, in terms of Another Currency
● An Exchange Rate is said to depreciate when one unit of that currency buys fewer units of another currency
● This makes Imports Expensive & Exports Cheaper
● An Exchange Rate is said to appreciate when one unit of that currency buys more units of another currency
● This makes Imports Cheaper & Exports Expensive

Trading Blocs
● Refer to regional groupings of international economies, to allow for greater economic cooperation
● Pakistan is a member of SAARC, ECO & ASEAN
● The EU ( European Union ), is an economic trading bloc, consisting of 27 member states, located primarily in Europe

Pakistan Joining EU

Advantages Disadvantages

More Foreign Exchange Earnings, thus Improving Balance of May Face Sanctions due to increasing Terrorism and Decreasing Law
Payments

Development of Export Oriented Industries, to Promote Exports are Mainly Agricultural, which is Unreliable due to
Industrialization Dependency on Natural Factors

More Employment Opportunities Products of Cottage and Small-Scale Industries Lack Standardization

Trade is Easier as EU have few Trade Barriers Restrictions on Exports, due to Issues of Child Labor and Environment

Trade Barriers
● Exist when the Government Imposes a Set of Restrictions, making it difficult for countries to trade their goods effectively

Advantages Disadvantages

Reduce Foreign Dependency Consumer Choice is Limited

Protect Local Industries & Create Employment Opportunities Industries become Complacent due to Lack of International
Competition

Lead to Greater Exploitation of Local Resources A Country’s inefficiently produced goods, would need to be produced

Improve Balance of Payments

Opportunities & Challenges for Pakistan, Resulting from its Membership of the WTO
● Textile Industry requires modernization by replacement of industrial machinery
● Agriculture has to cope with the WTO standards, which may lead to unemployment and reduction of revenue
● Service Sector won’t be asked to make any significant commitments
● Import Duties have to be reduced according to WTO rules, which may affect domestic industry negatively

Why TDAP ( Trade Development Authority of Pakistan ) Replaced EPB ( Export Processing Bureau )
● The EPB was unable to play a role in the international trade
● The Establishment of TDAP will result in significant changes to trade development
● The TDAP will be involved in the overall planning and development of different sectors of the economy