Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data

Objectives:
At the end of the topic, you will able to:
1. understand the difference between Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of data
gathered;
2. effectively present the gathered data through graphs, tables and figures; and
3. analyzing and interpreting the data gathered.

Presentation
Presentation of Data refers to the organization of data into tables, graphs or charts,
so that logical and statistical conclusions can be derived from the collected data.

Data may be presented in 3 methods:

1. Textual
2. Tabular
3. Graphical

Ways of Presenting Data

1. Textual Presentation
Þ The data gathered are presented in paragraph form.
Þ Data are written and read.
Þ It is a combination of texts and numbers.

Example:
Of the 150 sample interviewed, the following complaints were noted: 27 for lack of
books in the library, 25 for a dirty playground, 20 for lack of laboratory equipment, 17 for
not well maintained university buildings.

2. Tabular Presentation
Þ Method of presenting data using the statistical table.
Þ A systematic organization of data in columns and rows.

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3. Graphical Presentation. A chart representing data in pictorial or diagrammatic form.

Types of Graphs and Charts

1. Bar graphs
2. Linear graphs
3. Pie graphs
4. Pictograms
5. Statistical maps
6. Ratio charts

Analysis
Data analysis is a process of transforming a data to discover useful information
and to form conclusions. We use a statistical treatment in this process.

Interpretation
Data interpretation is the process of making sense out of a collection of data that
has been processed.
What do the results of the study mean?
This part is, perhaps, the most critical aspect of the research report.
This will constitute the overall conclusion of your study.

Keywords used in Interpreting Data

1. The ______ presents the ……
2. Table ______ indicates the ……
3. As reflected in the table, there was ……

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4. As observed, there was indeed ……
5. The illustrative graph above/below shows that …..
6. In explaining this result, it can be stated that …..

Note:
Þ The interpretation of the data should always be written below the table with the
same label as the table title.
Þ The interpretation and the table should not be written on a separate sheet.

Tables vs Figures in a Research Paper

Aspect Tables Figures

Purpose To present detailed data or To visually represent data,
results. (Alpha numeric) trends, or concepts. (Visual
representation – flow,
process)
Representing Data or ideas
Use: shapes, colors,
symbols

Format Structured rows and Visual representation (e.g.,

columns. graphs, charts)
Row – arrangement side by Shapes, colors, symbols
side.
Column – vertically divided
Content Raw data, statistics, Graphs, charts, diagrams,
comparisons. (dense or illustrations.
compact about results, Elements: Colors, shapes
description) and symbols.
Usage of text Primarily text-based. Minimal text, focus on
visual elements (shapes,
colors, symbols).
Dependency on Main Text Tables can be self- Figures often need
explanatory. (Ideas) captions for clarity. (use
legends)
Captioning Descriptive caption above Descriptive caption below
the table. the figure.
Complexity and Detail Tables can include Figures simplify complex
extensive details. data. (Process, flow,
stages)
Data Relationships Tables show direct Figures show trends,
comparisons. patterns, correlations.
(Process, flow, stages)
Representing Typically through numbers Through visual elements
Relationships or text. like lines or bars

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 Use of C olor Limited use of color (if any). Colors commonly used for
differentiation.
(Use of color should be
strategic: to emphasize, to
group
Data Presentation Suitable for dense Effective for presenting
Efficiency information. trends and patterns.

Guidelines in Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data

1. Write the introductory statement
2. Present the result of the statistical analysis in tabular form.
3. Follow and use the sequence of the SOP in presenting the tables.
4. Immediately below the table present the narrative interpretation of the data.
5. If there are multiple results presented in the table, get the highest and lowest value as
the basis of the narrative interpretation.
6. Provide a brief narrative to guide the discussion.
7. Implement all of these in the preceding SOP of the study.
Note: You may include some citations to reinforce a point.
8. Do not present and make conclusions or recommendations in this part of the chapter.

The Presentation of Data

This part of the study exhibits the data in tabulated (table) form that has gone
through statistical analysis. Organized in a way where it presents significant meaning.
These tabulated data sets are suppose to be aligned with the order and sequence of the
specific problem of the study.
Presentation of tabulated data sets follows fundamental mechanics; the Table
number should be written above the tabulated data set and immediately below is the title
of the table. When a figure is presented, the word Figure should be place below the image
or diagram with its corresponding name.

The Analysis of Data

After presenting the data, the analysis refers to the identification of data sets or
values that are significant in giving meaning to the tabulated form. This is usually done by
getting highest and lowest value from the tabulated form. These will present significant
and contrasting meaning to the study being investigated.

The Interpretation of Data

After the data sets have been presented and analyzed, the interpretation presents
the meaning of data sets by presenting the verbal description and significance of the
chosen numeric value. It presents brief descriptive implications and meaning for the data
sets to provide the readers a narrative meaning of the tabulated numeric values.
These data interpretations should always be based and anchored to what the
numeric values supports avoiding unsolicited and biased inferences.

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(Table – Values – Narrative Interpretation)

How to Interpret Data in Research

1. Use the Highest or Lowest or Both for 5 or more tabular results.
2. Interpret All for less than 4 tabular results.
3. Present Numeric Value, the Equivalent (%), the verbal interpretation.
4. Present a Result Based summary of the presented data.

Data Presentation. The intelligence and logic of the researcher are required in this part.
The analysis and interpretation will be the bases of the findings of the study.

Note:
- The heading “Table” should be located on top and the heading “Figure” at the bottom.
- You may include some citations to reinforce a point.
Results – What did you find?
Discussion – What does it mean?
-

Summary of Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations

Introductory statement (This chapter presents the summary, conclusion and

recommendations derived in the conduct of the study which is to
__________________________________ (mention main problem of the study).

Summary of Findings (past tense)

(The findings of the study were summarized according to the statement of the problem
stated in Chapter I.)

How to write the Conclusions (present tense)

(Based on the indicated findings, the following conclusions are drawn:)

1. The conclusions should be based and anchored from the findings of the study.
2. Conclusions are realizations backed-up with evidence.
3. The hypothesis of the study may be used or answered in this part of the study.
4. Do not use numeric values during the presentation of the conclusion.

How to write the Recommendations

(This study revealed the ________________________________ (main problem). Thus,
the following recommendations are hereby presented:)

1. The recommendations should be anchored on the findings and conclusions of the

study.
2. Recommendations should be in a diplomatic and suggestive voice
3. If the study is an action research then present the intervention, program or plan.

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 Chapter 4 Findings Conclusions Recommendations
Contains the result The findings The conclusions The
of the statistical should: should: recommendations
analysis (for 1. Re-state the 1. Be a statement of should:
Quantitative) specific problems. a realization based 1. Strictly be based
presented in tabular 2. Present the on the findings of on the findings and
form with the summary of the the study. conclusion of the
corresponding interpretation (from 2. Not include or study.
interpretation. chapter 4) with the contain any 2. Contain the
corresponding numeric values specific action that
numeric values and coming from the is being
their corresponding findings of the recommended.
verbal description. study. 3. Contain the
3. Use citations and specific focal
relate the findings. person, department,
organization or the
like that will initiate
the recommended
action.

Note:
Conclusions – realization

Recommendation – elements: Doer (who will initiate/implement your recommendation;

Actions being recommended

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Quantitative Data Analysis

Objectives:
At the of the lesson, you must be able to:
1. explain the different procedures involved in preparing data for quantitative analysis;
2. describe the different ways of organizing and presenting quantitative data; and
3. use statistical techniques to analyze data (study of differences and relationships limited
for bivariate analysis).

Steps in Quantitative Data Analysis

Step 1: Preparing the Data

1. Coding System

Data entry or data recording

Þ It involves the transfer of information from questionnaires, or code sheets to
computer files for processing.
Þ For large complex studies usually requires the aid of Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences (SPSS).
Þ For smaller data, Microsoft Excel can be used.

Graphs and Charts

Þ One criterion for deciding the most appropriate type of graph or chart to use
depends on the type of data that you have collected.

Data can be:

Þ Nominal – ex. Gender, profession, race, religion
Þ Ordinal – ex. Social class
Þ Interval – ex. Temperature, IQ test, attitude
Þ Ratio scale – ex. Achievement test, age

Appropriate Usage of Charts and Graphs for Frequency Data

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2 Data Tabulation
Þ Frequency and Percentage Distribution

Step 2: Analyzing the Data

1. Descriptive Statistical Technique

Þ Frequency Distribution (determine the number of responses given in a questions)
Þ Measure of Central Tendency (determine the Mean-which is the average of all the
item, Median-score in the middle of the dataset, Mode-has most repeated
appearance in the dataset)
Þ Standard Deviation (the extent of the difference of the data from the Mean)

2. Advanced Quantitative Analytical Methods

a. Correlation – uses statistical analysis to yield results that describe the relationship of
two variables.
b. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) – use to determine if the difference in the means or
averages of two categories of data are statistically significant.
c. Regression – shows the nature of relationship of variables, and gives more extensive
result than of correlation. It also determines, whether a variable is capable of predicting
the strength of the relation between IV and the DV.

Finding Significant Differences between Samples

1. Parametric (Numerical) – (Interval & Ratio of measurement)
Þ One sample: one sample t-test
Þ Two samples:
a. Paired samples t-test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) for repeated
measurements.

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 b. Not paired: Independent samples t-test or ANOVA

2. Nonparametric (Nominal or Ordinal data)

Þ Ordinal categorical data
1. Two samples
a. Paired: Wilcoxon (signed rank test)
b. Not paired: Mann-Whitney U-test
2. More than two samples
a. Paired: Friedman test
b. Not paired: Kruskal-Wallis test

Þ Nominal categorical data

1. Two samples
a. Paired: McNemar’s test
b. Not paired: Fisher’s exact test or chi-square

Finding Significant Relationship between Variables

1. Parametric
i. Two variables: Pearson’s r coefficient of correlation
ii. More than two variables: Pearson’s r (partial), canonical correlation, and multiple
regression

2. Nonparametric
i. Ordinal categorical data: Spearman or Kendal correlation
ii. Nominal categorical data: Contingency coefficient C and sample logistic
regression

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Qualitative Data Analysis

Interpretation of Qualitative Data

The following are the levels of interpretation which are considered in organizing
discussion of the results of findings.
1. Level 1. Data collected are compared and contrasted. Unexpected results if any, may
be mentioned. The researcher is allowed to comment on certain shortcomings of the study
but should not concentrate too much on the flaws.
2. Level 2. The researcher should explain the internal validity of the results as well as
their consistency or reliability. The causes or factors that may have influenced the results
may also be described.
3. Level 3. The researcher should explain the external validity of the results, that is, their
generality or applicability to external conditions.
4. Level 4. The researcher should relate or connect the interpretation of data with
theoretical research or with the reviewed literature.

Note:
NVivo – is one the computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS)
developed by QSR International (Melbourne, Australia), the world's largest qualitative
research software developer.

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