CCS357 OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
The objective of this course is to enable the student to
 Formulate and solve linear programming problems (LPP) • Evaluate
Integer Programming Problems, Transportation and Assignment
Problems.
 Obtain a solution to network problems using CPM and PERT techniques.
 Able to optimize the function subject to the constraints.
 Identify and solve problems under Markovian queuing models.

UNIT I LINEAR MODELS

Introduction of Operations Research - mathematical formulation of LPP-
Graphical Methods to solve LPP- Simplex Method- Two-Phase method
UNIT II INTEGER PROGRAMMING AND TRANSPORTATION
PROBLEMS
Integer programming: Branch and bound method- Transportation and
Assignment problems - Traveling salesman problem.
UNIT III PROJECT SCHEDULING
Project network -Diagram representation – Floats - Critical path method (CPM)
– PERT- Cost considerations in PERT and CPM
UNIT IV CLASSICAL OPTIMIZATION THEORY
Unconstrained problems – necessary and sufficient conditions - Newton-
Raphson method, Constrained problems – equality constraints – inequality
constraints - Kuhn-Tucker conditions.
UNIT V QUEUING MODELS
Introduction, Queuing Theory, Operating characteristics of a Queuing system,
Constituents of a Queuing system, Service facility, Queue discipline, Single
channel models, multiple service channels.
UNIT-I / PART-A
What is operations research?
Operations research is the study of optimization techniques. OR is the
application of scientific methods, techniques and tools to problems
involving the operations of systems to find optimal solutions. It is
applied in decision theory.
List some applications of OR.
 To find optimal assignment of various jobs to different
machines.
 To find the waiting time and number of customers waiting in
the queue and system in queuing model.
 To find the minimum transportation cost with optimal
allocation of goods from different origins to various
destinations.
 To find decision in problems of marketing, finance,
production planning and control.
How is an OR model organized?
The first crucial step in any OR model is the definition of the
alternatives or the decision variables of the problem. Next, the decision
variables are used to construct the objective function and the
constraints of the model. With the three steps completed, the OR model
is organized in the following general format: maximize or minimize
objective function subject to constraints.
List the different techniques used to solve the OR model.
 Linear programming: it is designed for models with strict
linear objective and constraint functions.
 Integer programming: in which the variables assume
integer values.
 Dynamic programming: in which the original model can be
 decomposed into smaller sub-problems.
 Network programming: in which the problem can be
modelled as a network.
 Nonlinear programming: in which the functions of the
model are non-linear.
What are the phases of an OR study?
The principal phases for implementing OR in practice include:
 Definition or formulation of the problem.
 Construction of the mathematical model.
 Derive the solution of the model.
 Validation of the model.
 Implementation of the solution.
What is linear programming?
Linear programming (LP) applies to optimization models in which the
objective and constraint functions are strictly linear. It is a technique
used for determining optimum utilization of limited resources to meet
out the given objectives. The objective is to maximize the profit or
minimize the resources (men, machine, materials and money).
What are the basic components for LP model?
The LP model, as in any OR model has three basic components:
 Decision variables that we seek to determine
 Objective (goal) that we aim to optimize
 Constraints that we need to satisfy
What are the requirements for employing LPP technique?
 There must be a well-defined objective function.
 There must be alternative courses of action to choose.
 At least some of the resources must be in limited supply,
 which give rise to constraints.
 Both the objective function and the constraints must be
linear equations or inequalities.
What are the properties that LP must satisfy?
Linearity implies that LP must satisfy two properties:
 Proportionality: requires the contribution of each decision
variable in the objective function and its requirements in the
constraints to be directly proportional to the value of the variable.
 Additivity: stipulates that the total contribution of all the variables
in the objective function and their requirements in the constraints
are the direct sum of the individual contribution or requirements
of each variable.
Mention the steps involved in graphical LP solution.
The graphical procedure includes two steps:
 Determination of the solution space that defines all feasible
solutions of the model.
 Determination of the optimum solution from among all the
feasible points in the solution space.
What is the mathematical model of linear programming?
The linear programming involving more than two variables may be
expressed as follows:
Maximize or Minimize Z = c1 x1 + c2 x2+ …..+ cnxn
Subject to constraints
a11x1+a12x2+…………+ a1nxn ≤ or = or ≥ b1
a21x1+a22x2+…………+ a2nxn ≤ or = or ≥ b2
……………………………………………….
……………………………………………….
am1x1+am2x2+…………+ amnxn ≤ or = or ≥ bm
and the non-negativity restrictions x1,x2,….xn≥ 0
Define solution, feasible solution and optimal solution of LPP
A set of variables x1,x2….xn which satisfies the constraints of LPP is
called a solution. Any solution to a Linear Programming Problem which
satisfies the non negativity restrictions of LPP’s called the feasible
solution. Any feasible solution which optimizes the objective function
of the LPP’s called the optimal solution.
Define slack and slack variable.
In ≤ constraints, the right hand side can be thought of as representing the
limit on the availability of a resource, the left hand side represents the
usage of this limited resource. The difference between the RHS and LHS
of the ≤ constraint yields the unused or slack amount of the resource.
To convert the ≤ inequality to an equation, a non-negative slack
variable is added to the LHS of the constraint.
For eg: 6x1 + 4x2 ≤ 24 is converted to 6x1 + 4x2+ s1 = 24, s1 ≥ 0, s1
slack variable
Define surplus and surplus variable.
A ≥ constraint normally sets a lower limit on the activities of the LP
model. The amount by which the LHS exceeds the minimum limit
represents a surplus.
The conversion from ≥ to = is achieved by subtracting a non-negative
surplus variable from the LHS of the inequality.
For eg: x1 + x2 ≥ 800 is converted to x1 + x2– S1 = 800, S1 ≥ 0, S1
surplus variable.
What are the characteristics of LPP in canonical form?
In matrix notation the canonical form of LPP can be expressed as:
Maximize Z = CX (objective function)
 Subject to AX ≤ b (constraints)
And X ≥ 0 (non-negativity restrictions)
Where C = (c1, c2, ……..,cn)

Charcteristics:
 The objective function is of maximization type
 All constraints are of ≤ type
 All variables xiare non-negative
What is sensitivity analysis?
Sensitivity analysis investigates the changes in the optimal solution
resulting from making changes in parameters of the LP model.
Sensitivity analysis is also called post optimality analysis.
What are the characteristics of LPP in standard form?
The general linear programming problem in the form
Maximize or Minimize Z = c1 x1 + c2 x2 + …..+ cnxn
Subject to constraints
a11x1 + a12 x2 +…………+ a1nxn = b1
a21x1 + a22 x2 +…………+ a2nxn = b2
……………………………………………….
……………………………………………….
am1x1 + am2 x2 +…………+ amnxn = bm
and the non-negativity restrictions x1, x2,….xn ≥ 0 is known as standard
form.
In matrix notation the standard form of LPP can be expressed as:
Maximize Z = CX (objective function)
Subject to constraints AX = b and X ≥ 0
Characteristics:
 The objective function is of maximization type.
 All the constraint equation must be of equal type by adding
slack or surplus variables
 RHS of each constraint must be positive type.
 All variables are non-negative.
List all possible cases that can arise in sensitivity analysis with their
actions to obtain new solution.
Condition resulting from the Recommended action
changes
Current solution remains optimal No further action is necessary
and feasible
Current solution becomes Use dual simplex to recover
infeasible feasibility
Current solution becomes non- Use primal simplex to recover
optimal optimality
Current solution becomes both Use the generalized simplex
non-optimal and infeasible method to obtain a new solution
What are the changes that affect feasibility?
There are two types of changes that could affect feasibility of the current
solution:
 Changes in resources availability (or right side of the
constraints or requirement vector b) and
  Addition of new constraints.
What are the changes that affect optimality?
There are two particular situations that could affect optimality of the
current solution:
 Changes in the original objective coefficients.
 Addition of new economic activity (variable) to the model.
 UNIT IV CLASSICAL OPTIMIZATION
THEORY

Unconstrained problems – necessary and sufficient conditions -

Newton-Raphson method, Constrained problems – equality
constraints – inequality constraints - Kuhn-Tucker conditions.

UNCONSTRAINED PROBLEMS
Unconstrained optimization problems are a class of optimization problems
where the goal is to find the maximum or minimum value of an objective
function without any restrictions or constraints on the decision variables. These
problems arise in various fields such as economics, engineering, and machine
learning, where a system or process needs to be optimized without predefined
boundaries or limitations.
Key Concepts
1. Objective Function:
o The function f(x) is typically continuous and differentiable to
enable the use of calculus-based methods.
o It may be convex for minimization or concave for maximization to
guarantee a unique global solution.
2. Gradient (∇f(x)):

3. Hessian Matrix (H):

4. Critical Points:
o A point x is called a critical point if ∇f(x)=0.
o Critical points can be classified into:
 Local Minima: f(x) has a smaller value compared to nearby
points.
 Local Maxima: f(x) has a larger value compared to nearby
points.
 Saddle Points: f(x) changes behavior in different directions
(neither a maximum nor a minimum).

Necessary and Sufficient Conditions

 1. Necessary Conditions:
o A point x* is a critical point if:
∇f(x*) = 0
o This condition ensures that the gradient is zero, indicating no slope
in any direction.
2. Sufficient Conditions:
o For x* to be a local minimum:
 ∇f(x*) = 0
 The Hessian matrix H(x*) is positive definite (all
eigenvalues are positive).
o For x* to be a local maximum:
 ∇f(x*) = 0
 The Hessian matrix H(x*) is negative definite (all
eigenvalues are negative).

Methods to Solve Unconstrained Problems

Several numerical methods can be used to solve unconstrained optimization
problems, depending on the properties of f(x)f(x)f(x):
1. Gradient Descent Method

2. Newton-Raphson Method
 Utilizes both gradient and Hessian for faster convergence.
 Update rule: xk+1=xk−H(xk)−1∇f(xk)x_{k+1} = x_k - H(x_k)^{-1} \
nabla f(x_k)xk+1=xk−H(xk)−1∇f(xk)
 Converges quadratically near the optimal solution.
3. Conjugate Gradient Method
 Efficient for large-scale problems.
 Minimizes f(x)f(x)f(x) along a sequence of conjugate directions.
4. Quasi-Newton Methods
  Approximate the Hessian matrix instead of computing it directly.
 Example: BFGS (Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno) algorithm.
5. Line Search Methods
 Iteratively search along a direction to find the step size that minimizes
f(x)f(x)f(x).

Applications of Unconstrained Optimization

1. Machine Learning:
o Training models by minimizing loss functions (e.g., Mean Squared
Error, Cross-Entropy).
2. Economics:
o Finding profit-maximizing or cost-minimizing decisions.
3. Physics:
o Identifying equilibrium states in systems.
4. Engineering:
o Designing optimal structures or control systems.

Unconstrained optimization is fundamental in mathematical modeling, and its

principles serve as the foundation for solving more complex problems with
constraints.

NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT CONDITIONS

In the context of mathematical optimization, necessary and sufficient
conditions are critical for identifying and validating solutions to optimization
problems. These conditions help determine whether a solution is a local or
global extremum (maximum or minimum). Understanding these concepts is
essential when analyzing and solving both unconstrained and constrained
optimization problems.

1. Introduction to Necessary and Sufficient Conditions

 Necessary Conditions:
o These are the conditions that a solution must satisfy to be
considered a candidate for an extremum.
o However, satisfying necessary conditions alone does not guarantee
that the point is an extremum. It could also be a saddle point or
inflection point.
 Sufficient Conditions:
o These are the conditions that, if satisfied, ensure that a point is
indeed an extremum.
o A sufficient condition goes a step further by confirming the nature
(minimum or maximum) of the extremum.

2. Unconstrained Optimization
3. Constrained Optimization
For optimization problems subject to equality or inequality constraints, the
conditions are extended using Lagrange multipliers and the Kuhn-Tucker
conditions.
A. Equality Constraints
B. Inequality Constraints (Kuhn-Tucker Conditions)

4. Examples
5. Applications
 Engineering: Designing systems for minimum cost or maximum
efficiency.
 Economics: Profit maximization or cost minimization under resource
constraints.
 Machine Learning: Optimization algorithms like gradient descent rely
on these conditions.
 Operations Research: Optimizing supply chains and resource allocation.
6. Conclusion
Necessary and sufficient conditions form the foundation of optimization theory.
They provide systematic methods to analyze and confirm whether a solution is
optimal, making them essential tools in a wide range of fields, from engineering
to economics and beyond. By understanding and applying these principles, one
can solve complex optimization problems with confidence.

NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD
The Newton-Raphson method is a powerful and widely used iterative
technique for finding roots of equations or solving optimization problems. It is
particularly effective when seeking solutions to nonlinear equations, minimizing
or maximizing a function, or solving systems of equations.

1. Introduction
The Newton-Raphson method relies on using the tangent line at an initial guess
to approximate the root of a function. The method converges to the root by
iteratively refining the guess based on the slope of the tangent at the current
point.
 It is named after Sir Isaac Newton and Joseph Raphson, who
independently developed this method.
 It assumes the function is differentiable and uses both the function f(x)
and its derivative f′(x).

2. The Algorithm
For a given nonlinear equation f(x)=0, the Newton-Raphson method
approximates the root using the following iterative formula:

3. Steps of the Method

4. Derivation

5. Example
6. Advantages
1. Fast Convergence:
o The Newton-Raphson method typically converges quadratically
near the root, making it faster than many other methods.
2. Simple Implementation:
o The iterative formula is straightforward to program and execute.
3. Widely Applicable:
o Works for solving a variety of equations and optimization
problems.

7. Disadvantages
1. Dependency on Initial Guess:
 o Poor initial guesses can lead to slow convergence or divergence.
2. Derivative Requirement:
o The method requires the derivative f′(x), which may be difficult or
computationally expensive to calculate.
3. Not Suitable for Non-Differentiable Functions:
o The method assumes that the function is differentiable.
4. Convergence Issues:
o The method might not converge if the initial guess is far from the
root or if f′(x)=0 at some iteration.

8. Limitations
1. Multiple Roots:
o If a function has multiple roots, the method converges to the root
closest to the initial guess, which may not be the desired one.
2. Saddle Points:
o The method may fail at saddle points where f′(x) = 0 but f(x) ≠ 0
3. Complex Roots:
o The method is not inherently designed to handle complex roots.
4. Oscillation:
o If the derivative changes rapidly, the method may oscillate without
converging.

9. Applications
1. Root Finding:
 o Solving equations in science and engineering.
o Example: Finding the square root of a number.
2. Optimization:
o Finding maxima or minima of functions in economics, machine
learning, and operations research.
3. Electrical Engineering:
o Solving circuit equations.
4. Physics:
o Solving nonlinear differential equations.

10. Conclusion
The Newton-Raphson method is a highly efficient and versatile technique for
solving equations and optimization problems. Despite its limitations, its speed
and simplicity make it a cornerstone of numerical analysis. With careful
selection of the initial guess and awareness of potential pitfalls, it can yield
accurate results for a wide range of problems.

CONSTRAINED PROBLEMS
EQUALITY CONSTRAINTS
INEQUALITY CONSTRAINTS
KUHN-TUCKER CONDITIONS
UNIT V QUEUING MODELS
Introduction, Queuing Theory, Operating characteristics of a Queuing system,
Constituents of a Queuing system, Service facility, Queue discipline, Single
channel models, multiple service channels.

INTTODUCTION QUEUING MODELS

Queuing theory is a branch of operations research that deals with the analysis
and optimization of systems where "customers" (which could be people,
machines, data packets, or any other entities) arrive, wait for service, and are
eventually served. This mathematical study helps model and analyze the
performance of such systems in order to minimize costs, improve efficiency,
and enhance the overall customer experience.
Queues are a part of everyday life, whether it’s customers waiting at a bank,
cars lining up at a toll booth, or requests waiting to be processed on a web
server. Queuing theory provides a systematic framework to understand, design,
and optimize these processes.

Key Concepts of Queuing Theory

1. What is a Queue? A queue is a waiting line formed when demand for a
service exceeds the available resources at a given moment. Customers
arrive at random intervals, and if the service facility is busy, they wait in
line until they can be served.
2. Purpose of Queuing Theory:
o To analyze the performance of queuing systems.
o To predict system behavior under varying conditions.
o To determine the optimal balance between service capacity
(number of servers) and customer satisfaction (reduced waiting
time).
3. Key Questions Addressed by Queuing Theory:
o How long will customers wait in the queue?
o How many servers are needed to handle peak demand efficiently?
o What is the average number of customers in the system at a given
time?
 o What is the probability that a customer will need to wait for
service?

Historical Background
Queuing theory was developed in the early 20th century, primarily to address
practical problems in telecommunication systems.
 Agner Krarup Erlang, a Danish mathematician, is considered the
founder of queuing theory. He introduced the first mathematical model of
queues in 1909 while working for the Copenhagen Telephone Company.
Erlang’s work focused on optimizing the number of telephone lines to
handle fluctuating call volumes.
Since then, queuing theory has been extended to applications in various
domains, including manufacturing, transportation, healthcare, and IT systems.

Components of a Queuing System

Every queuing system consists of the following essential components:
1. Arrival Process:
o Describes how customers arrive at the system.
o Arrivals can occur randomly or follow a specific pattern.
o Most queuing models assume a Poisson process, where the time
between consecutive arrivals follows an exponential distribution.
2. Queue (Waiting Line):
o Customers who cannot be served immediately wait in a queue.
o The queue can be finite (limited capacity) or infinite (unlimited
waiting space).
3. Service Process:
o Represents the mechanism by which customers are served.
o The time taken to serve a customer is often modeled using an
exponential distribution.
4. Queue Discipline:
o Defines the order in which customers are served.
 o Common disciplines include:
 First-Come-First-Served (FCFS)
 Last-Come-First-Served (LCFS)
 Priority-based service.
5. Service Facility:
o The physical or virtual entity that provides the service.
o Examples: Bank teller counters, cash registers, web servers.
6. Departure Process:
o Once service is completed, customers leave the system.
o Departures can impact subsequent arrivals in some systems (e.g.,
feedback loops in manufacturing).

Classification of Queuing Models

Queuing models are typically represented using Kendall’s notation:
A/B/C/K/N/D, where:
 AAA: Arrival process (e.g., M for Markovian or Poisson arrivals, D for
deterministic arrivals).
 BBB: Service time distribution (e.g., M for exponential, G for general
distribution).
 CCC: Number of servers.
 KKK: Capacity of the system (maximum number of customers, including
those being served and those waiting).
 NNN: Population size (finite or infinite).
 DDD: Queue discipline.
For example, M/M/1 represents a system with:
 M: Poisson arrival process.
 M: Exponential service times.
 1: Single server.
Why Study Queuing Theory?
1. Practical Relevance: Queuing problems arise in numerous real-world
situations:
o Supermarkets: Checkout counters.
o Hospitals: Emergency rooms or pharmacy lines.
o Transportation: Traffic flow on highways or at toll booths.
o IT Systems: Load balancing in web servers or cloud computing.
2. Optimization of Resources:
o Helps in deciding the optimal number of servers or resources
required to meet demand without excessive waiting.
3. Cost-Benefit Analysis:
o Balances the cost of adding more servers with the benefits of
reduced customer waiting time.

Applications of Queuing Theory

1. Telecommunications:
o Call center management and telephone network design.
2. Healthcare:
o Patient flow management in hospitals and clinics.
3. Retail and Banking:
o Optimization of checkout counters and teller windows.
4. Transportation:
o Managing traffic flow, toll booths, and airport operations.
5. IT Systems:
o Server load balancing, cloud computing, and data packet routing.
6. Manufacturing:
o Scheduling and assembly line optimization.

Importance of Queuing Theory in Decision-Making

Queuing theory aids decision-makers in:
1. Capacity Planning:
o Determining the required number of servers or resources.
2. Service Level Analysis:
o Ensuring acceptable customer service levels.
3. System Design:
o Designing efficient layouts for service facilities.
4. Predictive Analytics:
o Anticipating future demand and system behavior under varying
conditions.

OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF A QUEUING

SYSTEM
The operating characteristics of a queuing system describe its performance and
behavior. These metrics help analyze, evaluate, and optimize the system to
balance service efficiency and customer satisfaction. They provide insights into
critical aspects such as customer waiting times, queue lengths, and system
utilization.
Below is a detailed explanation of the main operating characteristics:
Importance of Operating Characteristics
1. System Design:
o Helps determine the optimal number of servers and service rates.
2. Cost Optimization:
o Balances customer satisfaction and operational costs.
3. Performance Analysis:
o Identifies bottlenecks and opportunities for improvement.
4. Real-World Applications:
o Call centers, IT networks, hospitals, manufacturing lines, etc.
CONSTITUENTS OF A QUEUING SYSTEM
A queuing system consists of several components that work together to model
the process of entities arriving, waiting for service, being served, and eventually
leaving the system. Understanding these constituents is critical for analyzing
and optimizing the performance of a queuing system. Below is a detailed
explanation of each constituent:

1. The Population of Customers

This represents the group of entities (customers, data packets, vehicles, etc.) that
require service from the system.
Characteristics of the Customer Population:
 Finite vs. Infinite Population:
o Finite: The total number of customers is limited. For example, a
fixed number of machines requiring maintenance in a factory.
o Infinite: The population is so large that it is treated as unlimited.
For instance, customers arriving at a supermarket.
 Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous Population:
o Homogeneous: All customers are of the same type and have
similar service requirements.
o Heterogeneous: Customers have varying service requirements,
such as different priority levels or resource needs.

2. The Arrival Process

The arrival process defines how customers enter the queuing system over time.
Key Features of the Arrival Process:
 Arrival Pattern:
o Random Arrivals: The time between consecutive arrivals is
unpredictable, typically following a Poisson distribution.
o Scheduled Arrivals: Customers arrive at fixed intervals, such as in
appointment-based systems.
 Arrival Rate (λ):
 o The average number of customers arriving per unit of time.
 Batch Arrivals:
o Sometimes, customers arrive in groups or batches instead of
individually.
 Customer Behavior During Arrival:
o Balking: Customers decide not to enter the queue if it appears too
long.
o Reneging: Customers join the queue but leave before receiving
service.
o Jockeying: Customers switch between queues to find the shortest
or fastest one.

3. The Queue (Waiting Line)

The queue is the waiting line formed when customers cannot be immediately
served.
Key Characteristics of the Queue:
 Queue Capacity:
o Finite Queue: The queue has a maximum capacity, beyond which
no additional customers can join.
o Infinite Queue: The queue has unlimited capacity to accommodate
waiting customers.
 Queue Length:
o Refers to the number of customers currently waiting in line.
 Queue Behavior:
o Describes how customers behave while waiting, such as remaining
in line patiently or leaving the queue.
 Queue Discipline:
o Defines the order in which customers are served. Common
disciplines include:
 First-Come, First-Served (FCFS): Customers are served in
the order they arrive.
  Last-Come, First-Served (LCFS): The most recently
arrived customer is served first.
 Priority-Based: Customers with higher priority are served
first.
 Random Selection for Service (RSS): Customers are
served randomly.

4. Service Mechanism
The service mechanism describes how customers are served once they reach the
front of the queue.
Key Features of the Service Mechanism:
 Service Facility:
o Refers to the resources or infrastructure that provide service, such
as bank tellers, servers in a data center, or checkout counters.
 Service Channels:
o A service channel is a pathway through which a single customer is
served. Queuing systems may have:
 Single Channel: Only one service channel is available.
Example: A small clinic with one doctor.
 Multiple Channels: Several service channels operate
simultaneously. Example: A bank with multiple teller
counters.
 Service Rate (μ):
o The average number of customers that can be served per unit of
time.
 Service Time Distribution:
o Describes the variability in service times:
 Constant Service Time: Service time is fixed and
predictable.
 Exponential Service Time: Service time is random, often
modeled with an exponential distribution.
  General Service Time: Service time follows a custom
distribution.

5. Departure Process
The departure process describes what happens after customers are served and
leave the system.
Key Aspects of Departure:
 Feedback Loop:
o In some systems, customers may re-enter the queue after being
served. For example, a manufacturing system where a part needs
additional processing.
 System Utilization:
o The fraction of time the service facility is actively serving
customers versus being idle. High utilization rates can cause longer
queues and waiting times.

6. Service Discipline
Service discipline determines the order in which customers are selected for
service from the queue.
Common Service Disciplines:
1. First-Come, First-Served (FCFS):
o Customers are served in the order they arrive.
o Example: A line at a fast-food counter.
2. Last-Come, First-Served (LCFS):
o The most recent arrival is served first.
o Example: A stack-based system where the newest task is handled
first.
3. Priority-Based:
o Customers are served based on priority levels.
o Example: Emergency cases in a hospital.
4. Shortest Processing Time (SPT):
o Customers requiring the least service time are served first.
o Example: A CPU scheduler handling small processes first.
5. Round Robin (RR):
o Each customer is served for a fixed time slice in a cyclic manner.
o Example: Time-sharing in computer operating systems.
Summary of Constituents
Constituent Description
The source of customers, finite or infinite, homogeneous or
Population
heterogeneous.
Describes how customers arrive, including arrival rate and
Arrival Process
behavior.
Queue The waiting line where customers wait for service.
Service Describes how customers are served, including service rate
Mechanism and service channels.
Departure
Represents what happens after customers are served.
Process
Service
The rules for selecting customers from the queue for service.
Discipline

Importance of Understanding Constituents

1. System Design and Optimization:
o Helps design systems with the right number of servers, service
rates, and queue capacities.
2. Performance Analysis:
o Enables identification of bottlenecks and improvement
opportunities.
3. Real-World Applications:
o Retail checkout counters, hospital emergency rooms, IT networks,
and more.
SERVICE FACILITY

The service facility is one of the core components of a queuing system,

representing the resource or mechanism that provides service to customers. It is
the point where customers are attended to, and their requirements are addressed,
whether it be human, mechanical, or digital services. Understanding the service
facility is essential to designing efficient systems and optimizing service
performance.

Key Elements of a Service Facility

1. Service Channels
 A service channel refers to the individual pathways or counters through
which customers are served. It is often visualized as a server in a system.
 Types of Service Channels:
o Single Channel:
 Only one server or service counter is available to attend to
customers.
 Example: A small kiosk with one salesperson.
o Multiple Channels:
 Multiple servers or counters operate simultaneously to serve
customers.
 Example: A bank with several tellers or a call center with
multiple agents.
2. Number of Servers
 The number of servers in the facility directly impacts the queuing
system’s capacity and performance.
 Single-Server Systems:
o Only one server is present.
o These are simpler systems but can lead to long queues under high
load.
 o Example: A single doctor in a clinic.
 Multi-Server Systems:
o Multiple servers work in parallel to handle customers
simultaneously.
o These systems reduce waiting time and improve efficiency.
o Example: Airport check-in counters.
3. Service Stations
 A service station is a specific location or setup where the service process
occurs.
 Example:
o A cashier’s counter in a retail store.
o A help desk in a customer support system.
 Physical vs. Virtual Service Stations:
o Physical: Tangible locations like counters, repair stations, or
production lines.
o Virtual: Digital platforms such as chatbots, online ticketing
systems, or cloud servers.
4. Service Mechanism
 The service mechanism describes how the service is provided, including
the structure and operation of the service process.
 Components of the Service Mechanism:
o Service Time:
 The time it takes to complete service for one customer.
 It can be constant (fixed) or variable (random, following a
probability distribution such as exponential or normal).
o Service Rate (μ):
 The average number of customers a server can handle per
unit of time.
 Example: A server with a service rate of μ=5\mu = 5μ=5 can
handle 5 customers per hour.
 o Capacity of Service Facility:
 The maximum number of customers that can be served at a
time.
 Example: A restaurant may have 10 tables, allowing it to
serve 10 groups at once.

Types of Service Facilities

1. Single-Stage Service Facility
 A system where customers pass through a single stage of service.
 Example: Buying a ticket at a movie theater counter.
2. Multi-Stage Service Facility
 A system where customers go through multiple stages to complete their
service.
 Example: Hospital processes where patients register, meet a doctor, and
undergo diagnostic tests.

Performance Metrics of Service Facilities

1. Service Utilization (ρ):
o The proportion of time the service facility is actively serving
customers.
o Formula: ρ=λ\μ, where:
 λ is the arrival rate of customers.
 μ is the service rate of the server.
o A utilization rate close to 100% indicates a fully utilized facility
but may lead to long queues.
2. Idle Time:
o The time when the service facility is not serving any customers.
o A well-designed system minimizes idle time to improve efficiency.
3. Service Time Variability:
 o The degree of variation in service times can affect queue length
and customer waiting time.
o Systems with high variability may require more resources to handle
peak loads.

Queue Discipline at the Service Facility

Queue discipline determines the order in which customers are selected for
service at the facility. It plays a significant role in the performance and fairness
of the system. Common queue disciplines include:
 First-Come, First-Served (FCFS): Customers are served in the order
they arrive.
 Priority-Based: Customers with higher priority are served first.
 Shortest Job Next (SJN): Customers with the shortest service time are
prioritized.

Factors Affecting Service Facility Design

1. Capacity Planning:
o Deciding the number of servers and the physical or virtual
infrastructure required to handle the expected customer load.
2. Cost vs. Efficiency:
o Balancing the cost of maintaining service facilities against the goal
of minimizing customer waiting time.
3. Technology Integration:
o Incorporating advanced technology to enhance service speed and
accuracy.
o Example: Automated teller machines (ATMs) or online customer
support systems.
4. Customer Expectations:
o Designing the facility to meet customer expectations regarding
service quality and speed.
Challenges in Service Facilities
1. Bottlenecks:
o Occur when the service capacity is insufficient to meet the demand,
leading to long queues.
2. Uneven Demand:
o Fluctuations in customer arrivals can overwhelm the system during
peak periods.
3. Staffing Issues:
o Understaffing can reduce service efficiency, while overstaffing
increases operational costs.

Applications of Service Facilities

 Retail: Checkout counters in supermarkets.
 Healthcare: Patient registration and doctor consultations in hospitals.
 Transportation: Ticketing and baggage check-in counters at airports.
 IT and Telecommunications: Servers handling data requests or call
center agents managing customer queries.

Conclusion
The service facility is the backbone of any queuing system, dictating how
efficiently and effectively customers are served. By understanding the
components, performance metrics, and challenges associated with service
facilities, organizations can design systems that balance customer satisfaction,
cost-effectiveness, and operational efficiency.
QUEUE DISCIPLINE

Queue discipline refers to the set of rules or policies that determine the order in
which customers or entities are served in a queuing system. It plays a crucial
role in ensuring fairness, efficiency, and optimal resource utilization in service
systems. The choice of queue discipline directly impacts waiting times, system
performance, and customer satisfaction.

Key Aspects of Queue Discipline

1. Service Order:
o Queue discipline specifies the sequence in which customers are
selected from the queue for service.
o Example: First-Come, First-Served (FCFS), where customers are
served in the order they arrive.
2. Fairness:
o Some disciplines aim to ensure fairness by giving all customers
equal opportunity for service, while others prioritize certain
customers based on predefined criteria.
3. Priority:
o Queue disciplines can be designed to prioritize certain customers or
tasks based on urgency, importance, or resource requirements.
4. Efficiency:
o The choice of queue discipline affects system performance,
including wait times, service times, and overall throughput.

Types of Queue Disciplines

1. First-Come, First-Served (FCFS)
 Customers are served in the order they arrive.
 Characteristics:
o Simple and easy to implement.
 o Ensures fairness as no customer is prioritized over another.
 Advantages:
o Straightforward and fair to all customers.
o Suitable for systems with homogeneous customer requirements.
 Disadvantages:
o Can lead to long waiting times for customers at the end of the
queue, especially in cases where earlier customers require lengthy
service.
 Examples:
o Lines at a ticket counter, waiting for a bus.
2. Last-Come, First-Served (LCFS)
 The most recently arrived customer is served first.
 Characteristics:
o Also called LIFO (Last-In, First-Out).
o Prioritizes newer arrivals.
 Advantages:
o Useful in situations where newer tasks or entities are more urgent.
 Disadvantages:
o Can be unfair to customers who arrived earlier.
 Examples:
o Processing emergency patient cases in some hospital systems.
3. Shortest Job Next (SJN)
 Customers with the shortest service time are served first.
 Characteristics:
o Aims to minimize the total waiting time in the system.
 Advantages:
o Improves system efficiency by reducing the average waiting time.
  Disadvantages:
o Can lead to "starvation" for customers with longer service times, as
they may be continually delayed.
 Examples:
o Job scheduling in computer systems where smaller processes are
prioritized.
4. Priority-Based Discipline
 Customers are served based on their assigned priority levels.
 Characteristics:
o High-priority customers are served first, regardless of their arrival
time.
 Advantages:
o Ensures critical or important tasks are handled promptly.
 Disadvantages:
o Can lead to delays for low-priority customers.
o Requires a clear and fair system for assigning priorities.
 Examples:
o Emergency room triage, where critical patients are attended to first.
5. Round Robin (RR)
 Each customer is served for a fixed amount of time in a cyclic manner.
 Characteristics:
o Often used in time-sharing systems or networks.
 Advantages:
o Ensures no customer waits indefinitely.
 Disadvantages:
o Can lead to inefficiencies if the fixed time slice is not optimized.
 Examples:
o CPU scheduling in multitasking operating systems.
6. Random Selection for Service (RSS)
 Customers are selected randomly for service.
 Characteristics:
o No specific order is followed.
 Advantages:
o Simple to implement and unbiased.
 Disadvantages:
o Unpredictable and can be perceived as unfair by customers.
 Examples:
o Lottery-based ticketing systems.
7. Earliest Deadline First (EDF)
 Customers or tasks with the closest deadlines are served first.
 Characteristics:
o Ensures time-critical tasks are completed on schedule.
 Advantages:
o Particularly useful in real-time systems.
 Disadvantages:
o Can be computationally intensive to constantly evaluate deadlines.
 Examples:
o Task scheduling in real-time operating systems.

Performance Metrics Affected by Queue Discipline

1. Average Waiting Time:
o The time customers spend in the queue varies significantly with
different disciplines.
o Example: SJN minimizes average waiting time compared to FCFS.
 2. Fairness:
o Disciplines like FCFS are perceived as fair, while priority-based
methods may appear unfair to some customers.
3. System Throughput:
o Some disciplines optimize throughput by reducing bottlenecks
(e.g., SJN).
4. Starvation:
o Certain disciplines (e.g., SJN, Priority-Based) may cause customers
with low priority or long service times to experience indefinite
delays.

Factors Influencing the Choice of Queue Discipline

1. Nature of the System:
o Systems with time-critical tasks (e.g., emergency services) often
use priority-based disciplines.
o Systems with uniform tasks may prefer FCFS for fairness.
2. Customer Expectations:
o Customer satisfaction is critical in service industries, favoring
disciplines that ensure perceived fairness.
3. System Constraints:
o Real-time systems may prioritize disciplines that optimize
throughput or minimize waiting time.
4. Complexity of Implementation:
o Simple systems often use FCFS or RSS, while advanced systems
may implement SJN or EDF.
Applications of Queue Disciplines
 Healthcare:
o Emergency rooms use priority-based discipline to treat critical
patients first.
 Retail:
o Checkout lines often follow FCFS.
 IT Systems:
o CPU scheduling uses disciplines like Round Robin or SJN.
 Transportation:
o Boarding processes at airports may prioritize premium passengers
(priority-based).