1. How is the word "discourse" usually defined?

While the Cambridge Dictionary (n.d.) defines 'discourse' as "communication in

speech or writing" (par. 1), the Oxford Dictionary (n.d.) elaborates on this definition
within the field of linguistics, describing it as "the use of language in speech and
writing in order to produce meaning; language that is studied, usually in order to see
how the different parts of a text are connected" (par. 4). Furthermore, Calsamiglia &
Tusón (2012) view discourse as a social practice, a purposeful activity that is realized
through the use of contextualized language, whether spoken or written.

Taking all these definitions into consideration, it can be said that discourse
encompasses various forms of communication, extending beyond mere sentences to
include the social contexts and interactions that shape meaning. It involves not only
the linguistic elements but also the social dynamics at play in communication.

2. What is the basic difference between cohesion and coherence? Illustrate by an

example

Since discourse is defined as "language beyond the sentence" (Yule, 2012, p.

162), language users consistently try to make sense of the linguistic messages they
receive and send on a daily basis, whether written or spoken. In this process of
interpreting or being interpreted, individuals rely on cohesion and coherence, two
elements that are often distinguished by their focus: structure versus meaning.

Cohesion primarily deals with the structural, grammatical, and lexical

relationships within a linguistic message. As Cui (2024) explains, it is about how the
sentences are functionally connected through the use of "cohesive ties." These ties
help maintain consistent references to people and ideas throughout the discourse.

Coherence focuses on the meaning of the message. Cui (2024) describes it as

the "intrinsic semantic connection of content within the discourse" (par. 2).
Coherence is determined not solely by how the words are arranged, but also by how
language users interpret them based on their previous knowledge and experiences.

As Kaur (2018) explains, a text is considered cohesive when its elements are
linked together, and coherent when it conveys a clear and meaningful message.
 A piece of text can exhibit cohesion while lacking coherence. To illustrate this,
Thornbury (2007) provides the following paragraph: "I am a teacher. The teacher was
late for class. Class rhymes with grass. The grass is always greener on the other side
of the fence. But it wasn't" (par. 4). In this example, each sentence is connected to the
one before it through the use of a word from the preceding sentence. However, the
overall text does not convey a clear meaning.

3. What are hedges in discourse? Provide examples

Hedges are linguistic devices used to soften assertions and express

uncertainty; words, phrases, or expressions such as "perhaps," "might," "seem," and
"as far as I know," serve to express ambiguity, probability, caution, and/or
indecisiveness (Levesque, 2021). This usage of language aligns with one of the
maxims of conversation proposed by philosopher Paul Grice in 1975.

Grice outlined four conversational maxims for successful communication:

quality, quantity, relation, and manner. The maxim of quality, specifically,
emphasizes truthfulness and the avoidance of making claims without sufficient
evidence.

In everyday life, hedging plays a crucial role in effective and polite

communication. Two common uses of these linguistic devices are mitigating
imposition and avoiding conflicts (Vlasyan, 2019). For example:

● "I don't want to put you on the spot, but would you be interested in joining us
for dinner?" (Minimizes pressure on the other person to agree).
● "I may be wrong, but I think we should try a different approach." (Presents a
differing opinion without sounding overly assertive).

Hedge words are also prevalent in the media. For instance, journalists are
often instructed to use terms such as "alleged" to indicate that an action is suspected
but not yet proven (Nordquist, 2008). Other examples of hedges used in news
reporting to convey nuance and acknowledge uncertainty include phrases such as
"early reports suggest that," "it appears that," "officials believe," and "some experts
say."
4. In the study of discourse understanding, what are schemata and scripts? Give
examples

As previously stated, discourse analysts view communication as a dynamic

social practice that extends beyond simple word exchange. It is a complex interplay
influenced by the context and the shared conventions that constitute our collective
background knowledge. To illustrate the importance of background knowledge in
discourse understanding, researchers have introduced the concepts of 'schemas' and
'scripts'.

A schema is "a general term for a conventional knowledge structure that

exists in memory" (Yule, 2006, p. 170). In other words, schemas are frameworks or
categories that serve to organize known concepts, as well as guide the interpretation
of an individual's experiences, heard information, and read materials.

A script, on the other hand, can be considered "a dynamic schema" (Yule, 2006,
p. 170). Unlike schemas, which primarily focus on static characteristics, scripts
emphasize the typical order of events or actions that tend to occur within a
particular context.

For instance, when asked to describe a supermarket, most people would likely
provide similar accounts, given the shared background knowledge they possess.
These descriptions would include features such as food displayed on shelves and
arranged in aisles, the presence of shopping carts and baskets, a checkout counter,
and other common elements. This constitutes a "supermarket schema."

However, a script of "going to the supermarket" would involve a sequence of

actions: entering through the main entrance, taking a shopping cart, navigating the
aisles (which are typically divided into fixed categories, such as produce, dairy, meat,
and household goods), selecting products and placing them in the cart, locating a
checkout counter staffed by cashiers, and finally, paying for the groceries.

5. According to van Dijk, what are the principles of Discourse Analysis (DA)? Provide
your own examples.

1. Naturally Occurring Text and Talk:

 ○ Discourse analysts prioritize studying authentic language use
(conversations, news articles, etc) rather than constructed
examples.
○ Data is analyzed in its original form, without editing or
sanitization, to understand how language functions in its natural
context.
○ Example: Examining a recorded conversation between two
friends discussing their weekend plans.

2. Contexts:
○ Discourse is deeply intertwined with its surroundings (social,
cultural, and situational).
○ Analysts examine how context shapes the meaning and function
of language by studying factors such as roles, social norms, and
settings.
○ Example: Analyzing a political debate.

3. Discourse as Talk:
○ While the earlier focus of discourse was on written texts,
contemporary discourse emphasizes the study of spoken
interaction in informal conversation as well as more formal or
institutional dialogues.
○ Example: Analyzing a podcast interview.

4. Discourse as a Social Practice of Members:

○ Discourse is viewed as a social activity that reflects and shapes
social structures and power relations.
○ Individuals engage in discourse not just as individuals but as
members of social groups, performing and shaping their
identities and roles within those groups.
○ Example: Analyzing how language is used in a courtroom setting.

5. Member’s Categories:
 ○ Analysts attempt to understand how participants themselves
categorize and interpret the social world, rather than imposing
their own preconceived notions.
○ It does not imply disregarding analytical frameworks but
integrating them with an understanding of how participants
perceive and categorize their own experiences.
○ Example: Analyzing how participants categorize relationships
(friends, colleagues, etc) and how these categories influence
their language use.

6. Sequentiality:
○ Discourse unfolds in a linear order, with each element
influencing the meaning and function of subsequent elements.
○ Language users engage in discourse in a dynamic manner,
constantly adapting their understanding based on the unfolding
interaction.
○ Example: Analyzing the order of turns and how responses build
upon previous utterances in a conversation.

7. Constructivity:
○ Discourse is not just a linear sequence; it also possesses
hierarchical structures, where smaller units combine to form
larger, more complex meanings.
○ Example: Analyzing the elements of a news article (headline,
subheading, paragraphs, sentences) and how they contribute to
the overall meaning and interpretation of the article.

8. Levels and Dimensions:

○ Discourse involves multiple levels such as sounds, grammar, and
meaning.
○ Analysts aim to understand how these levels interact and
influence each other.
 ○ Example: Analyzing a spoken interaction in terms of phonetic
features, the grammatical structure of sentences, the meaning
conveyed, and the social actions performed through the
interaction.

9. Meaning and Function:

○ Discourse seeks to understand the meaning and function of
language in specific contexts.
○ Analysts explore not just what is said but why it is said and what
communicative goals are being achieved.
○ Example: Analyzing why and how a candidate is using a
metaphor during a political speech.

10. Rules:
○ Language is governed by rules (grammatical, social, and
interactional).
○ Analysts examine how rules are followed, broken, or adapted,
and how these variations influence the meaning and function of
discourse.
○ Example: Analyzing how interruptions can have social
consequences and how it can affect the flow of the conversation.

11. Strategies:
○ Language users employ a range of strategies (such as
storytelling, humor, or argumentation) to achieve their
communicative goals effectively.
○ Example: Analyze how a person, in a negotiation, might employ
storytelling to gain trust.

12. Social Cognition:

○ Cultural knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and values shape how
language is produced, understood, and interpreted within social
groups.
 ○ Example: Analyzing how people use humor in different cultural
contexts.

6. In the analysis of discourse, what is “intertextuality”? Illustrate by an example.

In discourse analysis, intertextuality “refers to how individual texts rely on the

components of other texts” (Herman, 2022, p. 116) And how this influences their
meaning. This term was first introduced by philosopher Julia Kristeva, who argued
that ‘all texts were in conversation with other texts’ and that to understand texts,
comprehending their interrelatedness was crucial (Vaia Editorial Team, n.d).

Example: The infamous war cry “¡Vuelvan caras!” from the Batalla de Las Queseras
del Medio was evoked by political figure Maria Corina Machado on January 8th,
2025. In a video posted on Instagram, she urged the Venezuelan people to “turn their
faces” and demonstrate their bravery, unity, and strength. This phrase signifies
confronting oppressive forces, defying them, and fighting for freedom, which General
José Antonio Páez originally employed during a battle against the Spanish forces.
The use of this phrase in the political context of Venezuela in 2025 aims to evoke a
sense of courage and relentlessness.

7. This is a version of a story described in Widdowson (2007). When most people first
read this story, they find it confusing. Can you identify the source of this confusion in
terms of background knowledge or assumptions?

A man and his son were crossing the street one day when a car
suddenly came towards them and hit the boy, knocking him down. In
less than ten minutes an ambulance came and took the boy to the
nearest hospital. As the boy was being taken into the emergency room,
one of the surgeons saw him and cried out, “Oh no. This is my son!”

After reading this text, the group found it confusing because if the story
already stated that the boy was walking with his father, why does the surgeon say
that the boy is his son? This apparent contradiction arises from an unconscious
assumption: that the surgeon is male.
 This assumption reflects a deeply ingrained societal bias. While the text does
not explicitly state the surgeon's gender, the reader automatically defaults to the
male pronoun. This bias stems from the historical and ongoing underrepresentation
of women in medicine. As Cottam (2023) notes, "in most countries, men continue to
make up the majority of medical doctors" (par. 1). This societal reality shapes our
expectations and influences our interpretation of even seemingly straightforward
narratives.

8. Relate the principles of DA with the different properties of human language. Give
your own examples.

Productivity
1) Naturally occurring text and talk
Cultural transmission

(PRODUCTIVITY) Spontaneous language, whether written or spoken,

showcases remarkable creativity. In conversation, individuals effortlessly generate a
vast and complex range of utterances without prior planning, seamlessly interjecting,
correcting, and rephrasing. This demonstrates our inherent capacity to produce and
comprehend an infinite number of sentences.

(CULTURAL TRANSMISSION) However, this creative linguistic output is

inevitably shaped by the specific language and cultural environment in which we are
raised. The words we choose, our tone of voice, and the cultural references we
employ are all deeply influenced by our cultural background.

EXAMPLE: Consider two groups of friends, one from Venezuela and the other
from Mexico. Each individual in the Venezuelan group could find a near-
perfect match in personality and life experiences within the Mexican group.
However, even while discussing the same topic –say, a recent film– and
sharing similar opinions, their conversational styles would diverge
significantly. They would likely employ distinct slang, idioms, and regional
expressions characteristic of their respective dialects.
 Cultural transmission
2) Contexts
Displacement

(CULTURAL TRANSMISSION) Cultural norms and values, transmitted across

generations alongside language, significantly influence how people communicate in
various social contexts. By analyzing how people use language in specific situations,
discourse analysts can uncover the underlying cultural values and beliefs that shape
these communication patterns.

(DISPLACEMENT) Also influenced by context, human language possesses the

property of displacement. This property allows us to communicate about events that
are not happening in the immediate present, encompassing the past, the future, and
even hypothetical or imaginary situations. Context, therefore, plays a crucial role in
determining how this ability is used, shaping the topics of conversation and the way
information is conveyed.

EXAMPLE: An example of how context relates to these linguistic properties is

the use of honorifics in Asian languages like Korean and Japanese. Deeply rooted in
cultural values that emphasize respect and social hierarchy, honorifics reflect the
intricate social dynamics within these societies. The choice of honorifics varies
significantly depending on the social status and relationship between the speakers.
Moreover, the use of honorifics extends beyond present interactions, encompassing,
for instance, the respectful addressing of ancestral figures even after their passing.

Productivity
3) Discourse as talk
Context

(PRODUCTIVITY) Closely related to the principle of naturally occurring text

and talk, the principle of discourse as talk demonstrates the focus of contemporary
discourse analysis on the dynamic and creative nature of everyday conversation,
moving away from an overemphasis on idealized, grammatically perfect language
often found in textbooks or contrived examples.
 (CONTEXT) Human communication unfolds largely through spoken
interaction, characterized by unique features such as turn-taking, interruptions,
repairs, and the use of non-verbal cues. This dynamic process involves speakers
constantly adapting their language to the evolving context, creatively constructing
meaning and responding to their interlocutors in real-time.

EXAMPLE: A casual spoken conversation between friends offers valuable

insights for discourse analysts, revealing language usage that significantly
differs from written texts. Analyzing these spoken interactions not only
highlights what is being communicated verbally but also establishes
connections with non-verbal cues such as body language and facial
expressions. This multi-modal approach provides data that would be
unattainable through text alone.

4) Discourse as
Cultural transmission
a social practice of members

(CULTURAL TRANSMISSION) In addition to the points already discussed, it can

be said that the cultural values and beliefs transmitted alongside language also
create common ground among individuals. Not only do we develop as unique
individuals, but we also exist as members of social groups that share similar values.
This shared foundation fosters a sense of belonging, which in turn influences how we
act, react, and respond to various situations. Furthermore, these values are closely
linked to our expectations in different contexts.

EXAMPLE: Consider the students at Universidad Metropolitana. As members of

this institution, they are likely to embody its core values. Similarly, their daily
interactions within the Unimet environment –whether attending classes,
participating in extracurricular activities, or engaging with faculty and staff–
forge shared experiences that significantly influence their discourse. For
instance, students may develop a common lexicon, create inside jokes, and
cultivate a shared understanding of references pertinent to their experiences,
such as campus events, professors, and subjects.
 Duality
5) Member's Categories
Displacement

(DUALITY) The property of duality in language enables people to use a limited

set of distinct sounds to create a vast array of meaningful combinations (words). Each
word not only carries its own definition but also possesses connotations that reflect
how people categorize and interpret the social world around them. The way we
articulate our thoughts shapes our understanding of those concepts, and duality
facilitates the expression of these nuanced categories through flexible sound
combinations.

(DISPLACEMENT) Moreover, our capacity to discuss things that are not

physically present relies heavily on shared understandings within our community.
Language functions as a means to express shared ideas and categories, so discussing
things that are not present depends on the common understanding developed within
the community.

EXAMPLE: The categories we employ to navigate the world are evident in our
word choices and the structures we use to combine them. For instance, the
way a community categorizes social relationships (such as "friend,"
"colleague," or "boss") influences the vocabulary and linguistic forms used to
describe and engage with those relationships.

6) Sequentiality Patterning

(PATTERNING) The principle of sequentiality recognizes that language unfolds

in a linear order, with utterances connected in a meaningful chain. This sequential
order is not arbitrary, but rather a reflection of the inherent patterning of language.
Linguistic patterns, such as grammar and syntax, create expectations about the order
and structure of utterances within a discourse. These patterns guide the flow of
conversation, enabling participants to understand and anticipate the next steps in
the interaction. Furthermore, deviations from these expected patterns can signal
shifts in meaning, power dynamics, or the focus of the interaction.
 EXAMPLE: Discourse markers like "however" signal a shift in the direction of
the argument, suggesting that the following statement will present a contrasting
point. This prepares the listener for a change in the line of reasoning. Conversely,
"therefore" indicates a logical consequence, leading the listener to expect a
conclusion or a statement that follows from the preceding information.

7) Constructivity Patterning

(PATTERNING) Constructivity emphasizes that discourse is built from smaller

units into more complex structures, while patterning –with its inherent rules and
predictability– provides the blueprint for this sequential construction. As with the
prior DA principle, linguistic patterns determine how these smaller units (sounds,
words, phrases) can be combined to form meaningful larger units (sentences,
paragraphs, conversations). This interplay between constructivity and patterning
allows for the creation of a vast and intricate array of linguistic expressions, enabling
us to communicate complex ideas and engage in meaningful interactions.

EXAMPLE: The most famous pangram in English, "The quick brown fox jumps
over the lazy dog," serves as an example of both constructivity and patterning.
Individual words are combined to form phrases (e.g., "the quick brown fox"),
clauses (e.g., "the quick brown fox jumps"), and ultimately, the complete
sentence, which adheres to specific grammatical patterns: subject-verb-object
order, noun-verb agreement, and the correct use of articles.

8) Levels and dimensions Duality

(DUALITY) Just as language exhibits duality, possessing both meaningless

sounds that combine to form meaningful units, discourse operates on multiple
interconnected levels. Language users must strategically manage these levels,
considering not only the literal meaning of their words but also how they are
pronounced, the intended social impact, and the overall communicative function
within a given context.
 EXAMPLE: Consider a friend saying, "It's getting a bit chilly in here, isn't it?" At
the phonemic level, the friend’s intonation might suggest casualness or concern.
Semantically, the statement literally comments on the temperature. However,
pragmatically, this could be a subtle invitation for someone to close a window or turn
up the heat. In this moment, the friend is navigating multiple levels of
communication, often without even realizing it.

Duality
9) Meaning and function
Productivity

(DUALITY) As with the previous principle, duality enables a wide range of

meanings to be conveyed using a limited set of sounds. This efficiency is crucial for
language to fulfill its various functions, such as informing, persuading, and facilitating
social interaction.

(PRODUCTIVITY) On the other hand, productivity allows language users to

adapt and evolve to meet the constantly changing demands of communication. It
allows us to generate countless expressions to convey new meanings and address the
evolving functions of language within discourse.

EXAMPLE: The relationship between these concepts plays a key role in the
existence of rhetorical figures like sarcasm. Closely related to the multi-
layered nature discussed earlier, discourse cannot be taken at face value. For
instance, when someone says "Great job!" with a sarcastic tone, it carries a
meaning that differs from its literal interpretation. Hence the importance of
phonology and intonation in conveying the real meaning behind this
utterance.
 10) Rules Patterning

(PATTERNING) Language operates within a complex framework of

grammatical, social, and interactional guidelines. These rules dictate how language
is used and interpreted in different contexts, closely aligning with the property of
patterning inherent to human language, which involves the systematic combination
of discrete units. Moreover, this arrangement is not arbitrary but follows specific
grammatical and social conventions. The connection between rules and patterning
demonstrates the dual nature of language: it is both structured and flexible.

EXAMPLE: Lewis Carroll's neologisms, such as "frumious," "chortle," and

"burble," exemplify the relationship between linguistic rules and patterns.
While Carroll operated within the whimsical rules of his own imaginative
worlds, where anything was possible, his word creations still resembled
existing English words, since he used familiar letter combinations and sound
patterns.

11) Strategies Productivity

(PRODUCTIVITY) In a broad sense, this DA principle is closely related to many

fundamental properties of human language. Practically speaking, it relates to
productivity, as well as other DA principles (e.g.: context, meaning, and function). It is
worth noting that even in seemingly inappropriate contexts, people can strategically
employ different utterances with specific intentions and clear purposes, often
achieving desired outcomes.

EXAMPLE: In a formal sales pitch or meeting, adhering to formal language is

generally expected. However, strategically and appropriately introduced
slang can create a sense of camaraderie or emphasize a point in a more
informal and engaging manner, as long as it fits the broader communication
strategy chosen.
 12) Social Cognition Cultural transmission

(CULTURAL TRANSMISSION) This DA principle is once again intricately

connected to the other principles previously discussed, as well as to nearly all
aspects of human language, with cultural transmission being the most prominent
among them. The social contexts within which language is learned and used –family,
community, and broader societal structures– significantly impact linguistic
development. Conversely, the language we acquire shapes our cognitive processes,
influencing how we perceive, categorize, and reason about the world.

EXAMPLE: The use of collectivist versus individualist communication styles

varies across different cultures. In many Indigenous cultures in North America,
communication often emphasizes community and relational dynamics,
reflecting a collectivist mindset. This influences how people see their roles in
the community, creating a mindset that values group harmony and agreement
over individual expression.
Reflexivity (CAPACITY TO REFLECT ABOUT LANGUAGE)

Displacement (CAPACITY, STIMULUS FREE)

Arbitrariness (NO ICONIC RELATION / WORD - IMAGE)

Productivity (POTENTIALLY, INFINITE SYMBOLS)

Cultural transmission (SOCIALLY ACQUIRED, NON-INSTINCTIVE)

Duality (SOUND LEVEL, MEANING LEVEL)

Patterning (SEQUENCE AND ORDER)

meaning and function - patterning?

9. How do the different layers of linguistics contribute to discourse analysis? Provide

a concrete example showing the contribution of at least two of the levels.

phonology/phonetics - the way someone emphasizes certain words maybe

THIS HAS TO DO WITH SEQUENTIALITY!!

Phonetics: “The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds” (Yule, 2006,
p.26)
● It contributes to the understanding of how pronunciation, accent, dialect, and
their variations can influence the dynamics of interaction in discourse.
● Example: The use of double negatives in some dialects such as “I don’t have
no money”.

Phonology: “The description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a

language” (Yule, 2006, p.42)
● It contributes to the analysis of how intonation and stress patterns affect how
spoken discourse is perceived, considering factors such as emphasis, sarcasm,
and emotional expressions.
● Example: Placing stress on different syllables can change the meaning of a
word (e.g., "present" as a gift vs. "present" as to be present).

Morphology: “The study of forms” (Yule, 2006, p.67)

● It contributes to the examination of how word formation modifies meaning
and how different forms of a word can change its function in discourse.
● Example: The combination of the words “fire” and “place” creates a new word
with a different meaning “fireplace”.

Syntax: “The way in which linguistic elements (such as words) are put together to
form constituents (such as phrases or clauses)” (Merriam Webster Dictionary, n.d.,
par. 1)
● It contributes to the examination of how sentence structure influences
meaning and coherence in discourse by studying how various sentence types
and constructions are used to convey information and shape arguments.
● Example: The use of passive voice in “The ball was thrown by the boy” shifts
the focus of the sentence from “the boy” to “the ball”.

Semantics: “The study of meaning in language” (Cambridge Dictionary, n.d., par. 1)

● It contributes to the understanding of how meaning is conveyed through
language by analyzing the relationships between words and how they
combine to form coherent meanings in conversations.
 ● Example: The word “bat” can refer to a flying animal or a baseball bat.

Pragmatics: “The study of how language is affected by the situation in which it is

used” (Cambridge Dictionary, n.d. par. 1)
● It contributes to the understanding of how meaning is constructed and
interpreted in different contexts, considering factors such as politeness,
sarcasm, presupposition, or implicature in conversations.
● Example: “Would you mind closing the window” is a more polite way of
making the request “Close the window” which sounds like a demand.