International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD)

Volume 8 Issue 6, Nov-Dec 2024 Available Online: www.ijtsrd.com e-ISSN: 2456 – 6470

Social Security: An Introduction

Paul A. Adekunte1, Matthew N. O. Sadiku2, Janet O. Sadiku3
1
International Institute of Professional Security, Lagos, Nigeria
2
Roy G. Perry College of Engineering, Prairie View A&M University, Prairie View, TX, USA
3
Juliana King University, Houston, TX, USA

ABSTRACT How to cite this paper: Paul A.

Social security has to do with the protection that a society provides to Adekunte | Matthew N. O. Sadiku | Janet
individuals and households to ensure access to health care and to O. Sadiku "Social Security: An
guarantee income security, particularly in cases of old age, Introduction" Published in International
Journal of Trend in
unemployment, sickness, invalidity, work injury, maternity or loss of
Scientific Research
breadwinner. According to the International Labour Organization and Development
(ILO) and UN instruments has clearly defined social security as a (ijtsrd), ISSN:
basic human right, of which only a small proportion of the people on 2456-6470,
our planet actually enjoy. Only about 20% of the world’s population Volume-8 | Issue-6,
has adequate social security coverage, with more than half lacking December 2024, IJTSRD71561
any kind of social security protection at all. Those that lack coverage pp.218-224, URL:
tend to be part of the informal economy – they are generally not www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd71561.pdf
protected at old age by social security, and cannot afford to pay their
health care bills. Many people also have insufficient coverage, Copyright © 2024 by author (s) and
International Journal of Trend in
meaning that they lack significant elements of protection (such as
Scientific Research and Development
health care or pension) or that the protection they have may be low or Journal. This is an
declining. The most vulnerable groups outside the labor force are Open Access article
people with disabilities and old age who cannot count on family distributed under the
support, and those not able to make provisions for their own terms of the Creative Commons
pensions. The paper looks at the merits, demerits, challenges, and the Attribution License (CC BY 4.0)
future prospects of social security. (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)

KEYWORDS: Social security, pension, human rights, climate change,

poverty, social security administration

HISTORY
All peoples throughout all human history have faced extent that the family had resources to draw upon, this
the uncertainties brought on by unemployment, was often a source of economic security, especially
illness, disability, death and old age. These inevitable for the aged or infirm. Land itself was an important
facets of life, in the realm of economics are said to be form of economic security for those who owned it or
threats to one’s “economic security.” In ancient who lived on farms. These then were the traditional
Greeks, in order to provide for themselves in times of sources of economic security: assets, labor, family,
need, they stockpiled olive oil as a form of economic and charity.
security. As societies grew in economic and social complexity,
In medieval Europe, the feudal system was the basis and as isolated farms gave way to cities and villages,
of economic security, with the feudal lord responsible Europe witnessed the development of formal
for the economic survival of the serfs working on the organizations of various types that sought to protect
estate. The feudal lord had economic security as long the economic security of their members. The earliest
as there was a steady supply of serfs to work the of these organizations were the “guilds” formed
estate, and the serfs had economic security only so during the Middle Ages by merchants and craftsmen,
long as they were fit enough to provide their labour. who provide regulated production and employment
During the Middle Ages the idea of charity as a and also provided a range of benefits to their
formal economic arrangement also appeared for the members including financial help in times of poverty
first time. or illness and contributions to help defray the
Family members and relatives have always felt some expenses when a member died, as shown in Figures 1
degree of responsibility to one another, and to the and 2.

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From the guilds emerged the “friendly societies” In the areas of marriage and divorce, both marriage
which began in England in the 16th century organized and divorce can have significant effects on short- and
around a common trade or business, which later long-term life plans, choices, and financial goals.
evolved into “fraternal organizations” and were the Hence, social security provides assistance in changing
forerunners of modern trade unions. In addition to the your name and provides Spousal, Survivor, and
types of economic security provided by the guilds, the Family benefits to certain spouses, widows, and
fraternal organizations some trade unions began to divorced spouses and widows based on factors such
provide actuarially-based life insurance to their as age, length of marriage, and the presence of a
members. The friendly societies and the fraternal disability [4].
organizations grew dramatically following the SOCIAL SECURITY IN DEVELOPING
Industrial Revolution, such that by the beginning of COUNTRIES
the 19th century one out of every nine Englishman A developing country is a sovereign state with a less
belonged to one of these organizations. developed industrial base and a lower Human
Among the early U. S. fraternal organizations and Development Index (HDI) relative to other countries
even into the present day were: the Freemasons [5]. Even though this definition is not universally
(which came to America in 1730); the Odd Fellows agreed upon, the World Bank classifies the world’s
(1819; Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks economies into four groups, based on gross national
(1868); Loyal Order of Moose (1888); and the income per capita: high, upper-middle, lower-middle,
Fraternal Order of Eagles (1898) [1, 2]. and low income countries. Developing countries are
sub-divided into least developed countries,
GUIDING PRINCIPLES
landlocked developing countries and small island
In the U. S. there are nine guiding principles of social
developing states, while countries on the other end of
security, which are [3]: it is universal, earned right,
the spectrum are usually referred to as high-income
wage-related, contributory and self-financed,
countries or developed countries. There are several
redistributive, not means-tested, wage-indexed,
terms used to classify countries such as:
inflation-protected, and compulsory. Social security
has become and continues to be the most popular and 1. By income groups: The World Bank classifies the
successful social program in America’s history world’s economies into four groups, based on
because its guiding principles enable it to work gross national income per capita calculated using
exactly as intended: as America’s family protection the Atlas method, reset each year on 1 July [6, 7]:
plan. 1) Low-income countries
2) Lower-middle income countries
Social security provides financial protection for the
3) Upper-middle income countries
Americans, supporting them throughout all of life’s
4) High income countries (similar to developed
journeys, as shown in Figures 3 and 4. Social security
countries).
provides retirement income for almost every
American worker. America also administer two 2. By markets and economic growth: the use of the
disability-related programs i.e. 1) Social Security term “market” instead of “country” usually
Disability Insurance (SSDI), and 2) Supplemental indicates a specific focus on the characteristics of
Security Income (SSI) to individuals 65 and older the countries’ capital markets as opposed to the
who have limited income and resources. While SSDI overall economy.
and SSI have different work and financial rules in  Developed countries and developed markets.
order to qualify, at the core, both benefits are  Developing countries include in decreasing order
intended to provide financial support to individuals of economic growth or size of the capital market:
who are disabled, as shown in Figure 5. newly industrialized countries, emerging markets,
frontier markets, least developed countries (also
Furthermore, the death of a loved one can bring
called less economically developed country).
financial uncertainty and challenges for surviving
spouses and children. Social security administers 3. By geography: Developing countries can also be
Survivors benefits to widows, widowers, minor categorized by geography:
children, and some disabled adult children who have  Small Island Developing States – who tend to
experienced the death of a spouse or parent. In share similar sustainable development challenges,
addition to monthly payments, individuals may also small but growing populations, limited resources,
be eligible for a one-time payment of $255, called the remoteness, etc.
Lump Sum Death Payment, immediately following  Landlocked Developing Countries – they often
the loss of a spouse or parent. experience economic and other disadvantages.

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4. By other parameters such as: mutilation (FGM) which is still prevalent in many
 Heavily indebted poor countries developing countries, mostly found in Africa, lesser
 Transition economy extent in Middle East and some parts of Asia.
 Multi-dimensional clustering system. Developing countries with the highest rate of women
 By self declaration: in general, the WTO accepts who have been cut are Somalia (with 98% of women
any country’s claim of itself being “developing.” affected), Guinea (96%), Djibouti (93%), Egypt
Some countries that have become “developed” in (91%), Eritrea (89%), Mali (89%), Sierra Leon
the last 20 years by almost all economic metrics, (88%), Sudan (88%), Gambia (76%), Burkina Faso
still insist to be classified as “developing (76%), and Ethiopia (74%) [19].
country,” as it entitles them to a preferential
Healthcare and public health: the access to healthcare
treatment at the WTO, countries such as Brunei,
by the general public is substantially different
Hong Kong, Kuwait, Macao, Qatar, Singapore,
between developing and developed countries [20].
and the United Arab Emirates have been cited and
People in developing countries usually have a lower
criticized for this self-declared status.
life expectancy than people in developed countries,
COMMON CHALLENGES reflecting both lower income levels and poorer public
Some of the global issues most often discussed by health [21, 22].
developing countries include globalization, global
Under-nutrition: this is also another common factor
health governance, health, and prevention needs, as
affecting developing countries, with certain groups
contrasted by issues discussed by developed nations
having higher rates of undernutrition, including
to address issues such as innovations in science and
women – particularly pregnant or breastfeeding
technology [8]. Most developing countries have these
mothers, children under five years of age, and the
criteria in common [9, 10]:
elderly. Malnutrition of children and stunted growth
 High level of poverty
of children are the causes for more than 200 million
 Human resource weakness (based on indicators of
children under five years of age in developing
nutrition, health, education and adult literacy).
countries not reaching their developmental potential
 Economic vulnerability
[23]. Some certain diseases with strong
Urban slums: According to UN-Habitat, around 33% environmental components are:
of the urban population in the developing world in  Illness/disease (malaria, tuberculosis, AIDS, etc):
2012, or about 863 million people, live in slums [11]. illness imposes high and regressive cost burdens
The form and growth of slums in different parts of the on families in developing countries [24].
world are due to many reasons. Some of the causes  Tropical and infectious diseases (neglected
include rapid rural-to-rural migration, economic tropical diseases).
stagnation and depression, high unemployment,  Unsafe drinking water, poor sanitation and
poverty, informal economy, forced or manipulated hygiene.
ghettoization, poor planning, politics, natural disasters  Indoor air pollution in developing nations
and social conflicts [12-14]. As populations expand in  Pollution (e.g. air pollution, water pollution).
poorer countries, rural people move to cities in  Motor vehicle collisions.
extensive urban migration that results in the creation  Unintentional poisoning.
of slums [15]. Slums are not just marginalized  Non communicable diseases and weak healthcare
neighborhoods holding a small population; slums are systems.
widespread, and are home to a large part of urban
Water, sanitation, hygiene (WASH): The access to
population, which are sometimes called “slum cities”
clean water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services
[16].
is at very low levels in many developing countries. In
Violence against women: Violence against women is 2015 the World Health Organization (WHO)
more prevalent in developing countries than in any estimated that “1 in 3 people, or 2.4 billion people,
other parts of the world. Acid throwing is associated are still without sanitation facilities” while 663
with Southeast Asia, Cambodia, and Nigeria. Honor million people still lack access to safe and clean
killing is associated with the Middle East and the drinking water [25, 26]. Sustainable Development
Indian Subcontinent. Marriage by abduction is found Goal 6 is one of the 17 Sustainable Development
in Ethiopia, Central Asia and the Caucasus. Abuse Goals established by the UN in 2015, particularly
related to payment of bride price (such as violence, relevant for people in developing countries as a call
trafficking and forced marriage) is linked to parts of for clean water and sanitation for all people.
Sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania [17, 18]. Another
Energy: In the area of energy, and as at 2009, about
form of violence against women is female genital
1.4 billion people in the world lived without

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electricity, and of which about 2.7 billion relied on infrastructure and limited access to financial
wood, charcoal, and dung (i.e. dry animal dung fuel) resources. The impacts of changing climate has
for home energy requirements. The lack of access to resulted in economic burdens in Least Developed
modern energy technology limits income generation, Countries (LDCs) with the average loss of: 1) 7% of
blunts efforts to escape poverty, affects people’s their gross domestic product for the year 2010,
health due to indoor air pollution, and contributes to mainly due to reduced labor productivity [38], 2)
global deforestation and climate change. Available rising sea levels cost 1% of GDP to the LDC in 2010
now are onsite solar power and improved cookstoves – 4% in the Pacific – with 65 billion dollars annually
(small-scale renewable energy technologies) that lost from the world economy [34], 3) approximately
offer rural households modern energy services [27]. 40 countries are acutely vulnerable to the impact of
Kenya is the world leader in the number of solar greenhouse gas emissions on fisheries [38].
power systems installed per capita. Climate change is
Population growth: For the past few decades, global
having major effects on the Chinese economy,
population growth has been largely driven by
society, and the environment. China is the major
developing countries, which often have higher birth
emitter of carbon dioxide [28].
rates (higher fecundity rate) than developed countries.
Pollution: water pollution is another great challenge Family planning can help to slow population growth
in many developing countries, as water pollution has and decrease poverty in these countries as proposed
been suggested as the leading worldwide cause of by the United Nations. Since poverty can be inherited
death and diseases, and that it accounts for the deaths due to self-reinforcing mechanisms that cause
of more than 14,000 people daily [29, 30]. poverty, once it exists, therefore, to escape from the
Indoor air pollution: this is also a major health hazard “cycle of poverty” or “poverty trap” will entail
in developing countries as many depend on the outside intervention. This could persist across
burning of biomass. As much as three billion people generations leading to “development trap” in
in developing countries across the globe rely on developing countries [39].
biomass in form of wood, charcoal, dung, and crop Poor governance: Going by democracy indices such
residue, as their domestic cooking fuel, which is done as the V-Dem Democracy indices and Democracy
indoors in environments that lack proper ventilation index (The Economist), many developing countries
with serious health risks to poor women and children are considered flawed democracies or authoritarian
[31, 32]. It well known that globally, 4.3 million regimes. Some of these so called democratic countries
deaths were attributed to exposure to indoor air are often challenged by widespread corruption and
pollution (IAP) in developing countries in 2012, nepotism and a low confidence and participation in
almost all in low and middle income countries. The democratic process, with political instability and
South East Asian and Western Pacific regions bear political corruption as common problems [40, 41].
most of the burden with 1.69 and 1.62 million deaths,
DILEMMAS FACED BY DEVELOPING
respectively, with almost 600,000 deaths in Africa
COUNTRIES
[33]. The affordable solution to the effects of indoor
A lot of dIlemmas are facing developing countries in
air pollution is said to be complex, however, the
the area of social security due to entrenched
strategies can include improving combustion,
corruption and nepotism at all levels of government
reducing smoke exposure, improving safety and
by the leaders, cum political instability/poor
reducing labor, reducing fuel costs, and addressing
management [40] which has led to extreme poverty,
sustainability [32].
high unemployment rates, widespread poverty, child
Vulnerability to climate change: the effects of climate labor, malnutrition, homelessness, substance abuse,
change is now being felt around the globe which has prostitution, overpopulation, civil disorder, human
resulted to extreme weather events, droughts, floods, capital flight, a large informal economy, high crime
biodiversity loss, disease and sea level rise, which are rates (extortion, robbery, burglary, murder, homicide,
dangerous for the most at societies and the arms trafficking, sex trafficking, kidnapping, rape,
environment [34]. Although 79% of carbon emissions etc), low education levels, school desertion, and a
are produced by advanced countries [35], and host of others.
developing countries have not been the major cause
SOLUTION TO THE CHALLENGES
of climate change, but are the most at risk from the
Some ways/solutions to the challenges to social
effects of these changes and may face challenges in
security according to Pete Grieve are [42]:
adapting to climate change due to the intersecting
1. Increase payroll taxes.
issues of high climate vulnerability, low economic
2. Tax high earners more.
status [36, 37], restricted access to technology, failing
3. Add new tax sources.

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4. Reduce benefits for high earners, and [9] “Criteria for identification of LDCs,” United
5. Raise the retirement age. Nations Department of Economic and Social
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[12] “What are slums and why do they exist?”
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[15] R. Westra (2011), “Renewing socialist
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SEO5PZfYsNis3jDptA3FnHsJ39fki4iqqzfa8bS3aR

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Figure 5. Social security card.jpg

Source:https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=91
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Figure 3. National Security Agency T26n1ir_hKEBeJFHEFghCublUDit85MHlXnKekt
Source:https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=91 blL2jsaBVK2Ako_TZvHERr1rIemb7N3FdaWX7F
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@ IJTSRD | Unique Paper ID – IJTSRD71561 | Volume – 8 | Issue – 6 | Nov-Dec 2024 Page 224