Data Types & Built-in Constants

Data Types:

●​ int: A 16-bit integer (e.g., -32,768 to 32,767).

●​ unsigned int: A 16-bit unsigned integer (e.g., 0 to 65,535).
●​ long: A 32-bit integer (e.g., -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647).
●​ unsigned long: A 32-bit unsigned integer (e.g., 0 to 4,294,967,295).
●​ float: A single-precision floating-point number.
●​ double: A double-precision floating-point number (same as float on Arduino Uno).
●​ char: An 8-bit ASCII character.
●​ boolean: A true/false value.

Built-in Constants:

●​ HIGH: Represents a high digital value (usually 5V).

●​ LOW: Represents a low digital value (usually 0V).
●​ INPUT: Defines a pin as an input.
●​ OUTPUT: Defines a pin as an output.
●​ INPUT_PULLUP: Enables internal pull-up resistor for an input pin.

Example Program:

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);

// Data Types
int integerVar = 100;
unsigned int unsignedVar = 50000;
long longVar = 100000L;
unsigned long ulongVar = 4000000000UL;
float floatVar = 3.14;
double doubleVar = 3.14159;
char charVar = 'A';
boolean boolVar = true;

// Built-in Constants
pinMode(13, OUTPUT); // Set pin 13 as output
digitalWrite(13, HIGH); // Set pin 13 to high (LED on)
 Serial.print("Integer: ");
Serial.println(integerVar);
Serial.print("Unsigned Integer: ");
Serial.println(unsignedVar);
Serial.print("Long: ");
Serial.println(longVar);
Serial.print("Unsigned Long: ");
Serial.println(ulongVar);
Serial.print("Float: ");
Serial.println(floatVar);
Serial.print("Double: ");
Serial.println(doubleVar);
Serial.print("Char: ");
Serial.println(charVar);
Serial.print("Boolean: ");
Serial.println(boolVar);
}

void loop() {
// Your code here
}

Output:

Integer: 100
Unsigned Integer: 50000
Long: 100000
Unsigned Long: 4000000000
Float: 3.14
Double: 3.14159
Char: A
Boolean: 1
Operators

Arithmetic Operators:

●​ +: Addition
●​ -: Subtraction
●​ *: Multiplication
●​ /: Division
●​ %: Modulus

Bitwise Operators:

●​ &: Bitwise AND

●​ |: Bitwise OR
●​ ^: Bitwise XOR
●​ ~: Bitwise NOT
●​ <<: Bitwise shift left
●​ >>: Bitwise shift right

Compound Operators:

●​ +=: Addition assignment

●​ -=: Subtraction assignment
●​ *=: Multiplication assignment
●​ /=: Division assignment
●​ %=: Modulus assignment

Comparison Operators:

●​ ==: Equality
●​ !=: Inequality
●​ >: Greater than
●​ <: Less than
●​ >=: Greater than or equal to
●​ <=: Less than or equal to

Boolean Operators:

●​ &&: Logical AND

●​ ||: Logical OR
●​ !: Logical NOT
Program:

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);

// Arithmetic Operators
int a = 10;
int b = 5;
Serial.print("Sum: ");
Serial.println(a + b); // 15
Serial.print("Difference: ");
Serial.println(a - b); // 5
Serial.print("Product: ");
Serial.println(a * b); // 50
Serial.print("Quotient: ");
Serial.println(a / b); // 2
Serial.print("Remainder: ");
Serial.println(a % b); // 0

// Bitwise Operators
int x = 12; // Binary: 1100
int y = 7; // Binary: 0111
Serial.print("Bitwise AND: ");
Serial.println(x & y); // 4 (Binary: 0100)
Serial.print("Bitwise OR: ");
Serial.println(x | y); // 15 (Binary: 1111)
Serial.print("Bitwise XOR: ");
Serial.println(x ^ y); // 11 (Binary: 1011)
Serial.print("Bitwise NOT: ");
Serial.println(~x); // -13 (Binary: 0011)
Serial.print("Shift Left: ");
Serial.println(x << 2); // 48 (Binary: 110000)
Serial.print("Shift Right: ");
Serial.println(x >> 2); // 3 (Binary: 0011)

// Compound Operators
int z = 10;
z += 5; // z = z + 5
Serial.print("Compound Addition: ");
Serial.println(z); // 15

// Comparison Operators
Serial.print("Is a equal to b? ");
Serial.println(a == b); // false
 Serial.print("Is a not equal to b? ");
Serial.println(a != b); // true
Serial.print("Is a greater than b? ");
Serial.println(a > b); // true
Serial.print("Is a less than b? ");
Serial.println(a < b); // false

// Boolean Operators
bool cond1 = true;
bool cond2 = false;
Serial.print("Logical AND: ");
Serial.println(cond1 && cond2); // false
Serial.print("Logical OR: ");
Serial.println(cond1 || cond2); // true
Serial.print("Logical NOT: ");
Serial.println(!cond1); // false
}

void loop() {
// Your code here
}

Output:

Sum: 15
Difference: 5
Product: 50
Quotient: 2
Remainder: 0
Bitwise AND: 4
Bitwise OR: 15
Bitwise XOR: 11
Bitwise NOT: -13
Shift Left: 48
Shift Right: 3
Compound Addition: 15
Is a equal to b? 0
Is a not equal to b? 1
Is a greater than b? 1
Is a less than b? 0
Logical AND: 0
Logical OR: 1
Logical NOT: 0
Control Statements and Loops

Control Statements:

1.​ if Statement
○​ Executes a block of code if its condition is true.

Structure:

if (condition) {

// code to execute

2. else: Executes code if if condition is false

Structure:

if (condition) {

// code if true

} else {

// code if false

3. else if: Checks additional conditions

Structure:

if (condition1) { // code if condition1 is true

} else if (condition2) {// code if condition2 is true}

else {// code if all conditions are false

}
Program:

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
int temperature = 25;

if (temperature > 30) {

Serial.println("Hot");
} else if (temperature > 20) {
Serial.println("Warm");
} else {
Serial.println("Cold");
}
}

void loop() {
// Your code here
}

Output:

Warm
Loop:

●​ for Loop: Repeats code a specified number of times

for (initialization; condition; increment)

{ // code to execute }

●​ while Loop: Repeats code while a condition is true

while (condition) { // code to execute }

●​ do...while Loop: Repeats code at least once, then while condition is true

do { // code to execute } while (condition)

Functions and Library Functions

User-Defined Functions:

●​ Definition: Functions created to perform specific tasks.

Syntax:

returnType functionName(parameters) {

// code to execute

return value; // if needed

Example:

int add(int a, int b) {

return a + b;

}
I/O Functions

1.​ digitalRead(pin)
○​ Reads the value from a specified digital pin (HIGH or LOW).

Example Program:​
void setup() {

Serial.begin(9600);

pinMode(2, INPUT); // Set pin 2 as input

void loop() {

int buttonState = digitalRead(2); // Read the state of pin 2

Serial.print("Button State: ");

Serial.println(buttonState);

delay(1000); // Wait for 1 second

Expected Output:​

Button State: 0

Button State: 1

2.​ digitalWrite(pin, value)

○​ Writes a HIGH or LOW value to a specified digital pin.

Example Program:​
void setup() {

pinMode(13, OUTPUT); // Set pin 13 as output

}
 void loop() {

digitalWrite(13, HIGH); // Turn on LED

delay(1000); // Wait for 1 second

digitalWrite(13, LOW); // Turn off LED

delay(1000); // Wait for 1 second

3.​ Expected Output:

○​ The LED on pin 13 will blink on and off every second.
4.​ pinMode(pin, mode)
○​ Configures a pin to behave either as an input or an output.

Example Program:​
​
void setup() {

pinMode(9, OUTPUT); // Set pin 9 as output

void loop() {

// No additional code needed for this example

5.​ analogRead(pin)
○​ Reads the value from an analog pin (0 to 1023).

Example Program:​
​
void setup() {

Serial.begin(9600);
 }

void loop() {

int sensorValue = analogRead(A0); // Read value from analog pin

A0

Serial.print("Analog Value: ");

Serial.println(sensorValue);

delay(1000); // Wait for 1 second

Expected Output:​
​
Analog Value: [value between 0 and 1023]

6.​ analogWrite(pin, value)

○​ Writes an analog value (PWM wave) to a pin.

Example Program:​
​
void setup() {

pinMode(9, OUTPUT); // Set pin 9 as output

void loop() {

for (int value = 0; value < 255; value++) {

analogWrite(9, value); // Fade LED brightness

delay(10);

for (int value = 255; value > 0; value--) {

 analogWrite(9, value); // Fade LED brightness

delay(10);

7.​ Expected Output:

○​ The LED connected to pin 9 will fade in and out.
8.​ analogReference(type)
○​ Configures the analog reference voltage.

Example Program:​
​
void setup() {

analogReference(EXTERNAL); // Use external reference voltage

void loop() {

// No additional code needed for this example

Char Functions

1.​ isAlpha(c)
○​ Checks if a character is an alphabetic letter.

Example Program:​
​
void setup() {

Serial.begin(9600);

char myChar = 'A';

 Serial.print("Is '");

Serial.print(myChar);

Serial.print("' an alpha character? ");

Serial.println(isAlpha(myChar));

void loop() {

// Your code here

Expected Output:​
Is 'A' an alpha character? 1

2.​ isAlphaNumeric(c)
○​ Checks if a character is an alphanumeric letter.

Example Program:​
void setup() {

Serial.begin(9600);

char myChar = '1';

Serial.print("Is '");

Serial.print(myChar);

Serial.print("' an alphanumeric character? ");

Serial.println(isAlphaNumeric(myChar));

}
void loop() {

// Your code here

Expected Output:​
​
Is '1' an alphanumeric character? 1

3.​ isDigit(c)
○​ Checks if a character is a digit.

Example Program:​
void setup() {

Serial.begin(9600);

char myChar = '7';

Serial.print("Is '");

Serial.print(myChar);

Serial.print("' a digit? ");

Serial.println(isDigit(myChar));

void loop() {

// Your code here

Expected Output:​
​
Is '7' a digit? 1
4.​ isHexadecimalDigit(c)
○​ Checks if a character is a hexadecimal digit.

Example Program:​
void setup() {

Serial.begin(9600);

char myChar = 'F';

Serial.print("Is '");

Serial.print(myChar);

Serial.print("' a hexadecimal digit? ");

Serial.println(isHexadecimalDigit(myChar));

void loop() {

// Your code here

Expected Output:​
Is 'F' a hexadecimal digit? 1

5.​ isSpace(c)
○​ Checks if a character is a whitespace character.

Example Program:​
​
void setup() {

Serial.begin(9600);

char myChar = ' ';

 Serial.print("Is '");

Serial.print(myChar);

Serial.print("' a whitespace character? ");

Serial.println(isSpace(myChar));

void loop() {

// Your code here

Expected Output:​
Is ' ' a whitespace character? 1

6.​ isWhitespace(c)
○​ Checks if a character is a whitespace character (same as isSpace).

Example Program:​
void setup() {

Serial.begin(9600);

char myChar = '\t';

Serial.print("Is '");

Serial.print(myChar);

Serial.print("' a whitespace character? ");

Serial.println(isWhitespace(myChar));

}
 void loop() {

// Your code here

Expected Output:​
Is '​ ' a whitespace character? 1

7.​ isUpperCase(c)
○​ Checks if a character is an uppercase letter.

Example Program:​
void setup() {

Serial.begin(9600);

char myChar = 'G';

Serial.print("Is '");

Serial.print(myChar);

Serial.print("' an uppercase letter? ");

Serial.println(isUpperCase(myChar));

void loop() {

// Your code here

}
 Expected Output:​
​
​
Is 'G' an uppercase letter? 1

8.​ isLowerCase(c)
○​ Checks if a character is a lowercase letter.

Example Program:​
void setup() {

Serial.begin(9600);

char myChar = 'm';

Serial.print("Is '");

Serial.print(myChar);

Serial.print("' a lowercase letter? ");

Serial.println(isLowerCase(myChar));

void loop() {

// Your code here

Expected Output:​
Is 'm' a lowercase letter? 1
 Math Functions

1.​ abs(x)
○​ Returns the absolute value of x.

Example Program:​
void setup() {

Serial.begin(9600);

int value = -50;

Serial.print("Absolute value of ");

Serial.print(value);

Serial.print(" is ");

Serial.println(abs(value));

void loop() {

// Your code here

Expected Output:​
​
Absolute value of -50
constrain(x, a, b)
The constrain() function limits the value of x to the range between a and b. If x is smaller
than a, it returns a. If x is larger than b, it returns b. Otherwise, it returns x.​
Syntax:​
​
constrain(x, a, b)

●​
○​ x: the value to constrain.
○​ a: the lower bound.
○​ b: the upper bound.

Example Program:​
void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
int value = 150;
int constrainedValue = constrain(value, 10, 100);

Serial.print("Original value: ");

Serial.println(value);
Serial.print("Constrained value: ");
Serial.println(constrainedValue);
}

void loop() {
// Your code here
}
Expected Output:​
Original value: 150
Constrained value: 100

2. max(x, y)
The max() function returns the larger of the two values, x or y.​
Syntax:​
max(x, y)
Example Program:​
void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
int a = 10;
int b = 20;
 int maximum = max(a, b);

Serial.print("Maximum of ");
Serial.print(a);
Serial.print(" and ");
Serial.print(b);
Serial.print(" is ");
Serial.println(maximum);
}

void loop() {
// Your code here
}
Expected Output:​
Maximum of 10 and 20 is 20

3. min(x, y)
The min() function returns the smaller of the two values, x or y.​
Syntax:​
min(x, y)
Example Program:​
void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
int a = 10;
int b = 20;
int minimum = min(a, b);

Serial.print("Minimum of ");
Serial.print(a);
Serial.print(" and ");
Serial.print(b);
Serial.print(" is ");
Serial.println(minimum);
}

void loop() {
// Your code here
}
Expected Output:​
Minimum of 10 and 20 is 10
4. pow(base, exponent)
The pow() function calculates the power of a number. It returns base raised to the power
of exponent.​
Syntax:​
pow(base, exponent)
Example Program:​
​
void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
int base = 2;
int exponent = 3;
double result = pow(base, exponent);

Serial.print(base);
Serial.print("^");
Serial.print(exponent);
Serial.print(" = ");
Serial.println(result);
}

void loop() {
// Your code here
}
Expected Output:​
​
2^3 = 8

5. sqrt(x)
The sqrt() function calculates the square root of a number.​
Syntax:​
sqrt(x)
Example Program:​
void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
int number = 16;
double squareRoot = sqrt(number);

Serial.print("Square root of ");

Serial.print(number);
Serial.print(" is ");
Serial.println(squareRoot);
}

void loop() {
 // Your code here
}

Expected Output:​
Square root of 16 is 4

Serial Communication Functions

1.​ Serial.begin(baudRate)
○​ Initializes serial communication at a specified baud rate.

Example Program:​
void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600); // Start serial communication at 9600 baud
}

void loop() {
Serial.println("Hello, World!"); // Send "Hello, World!" over serial
delay(1000); // Wait for 1 second
}
Expected Output:​
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
(Repeats every 1 second)

2.​ Serial.print(data)
○​ Prints data to the serial monitor without a newline.

Example Program:​
void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
}

void loop() {
Serial.print("Temperature: ");
Serial.print(25); // Prints 25 without moving to the next line
Serial.print("C");
delay(1000);
}
Expected Output:​
​
Temperature: 25C
 3.​ Serial.println(data)
○​ Prints data to the serial monitor followed by a newline (new line after each
output).

Example Program:​
void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
}

void loop() {
Serial.println("Arduino is awesome!"); // Sends data with a new line after each print
delay(1000);
}
Expected Output:​
​
Arduino is awesome!
Arduino is awesome!
(Repeats every 1 second)

4.​ Serial.available()
○​ Returns the number of bytes available to read from the serial port.

Example Program:​
​
void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600); // Start serial communication
}

void loop() {
if (Serial.available() > 0) { // If data is available to read
int incomingByte = Serial.read(); // Read the incoming byte
Serial.print("Received: ");
Serial.println(incomingByte); // Print received byte as an integer
}
}

5.​ Expected Behavior:

○​ The program will print the ASCII value of the character sent via serial
communication (e.g., if you send the letter A, it will print 65).
6.​ Serial.read()
○​ Reads incoming serial data.
Example Program:​
​
void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600); // Start serial communication
}

void loop() {
if (Serial.available() > 0) {
char incomingChar = Serial.read(); // Read the incoming byte as a char
Serial.print("I received: ");
Serial.println(incomingChar); // Print the received character
}
}

7.​ Expected Output:

○​ If you send the letter A, the output will be:

I received: A

8.​ Serial.readBytes(buffer, length)

○​ Reads multiple bytes from the serial port into a buffer.

Example Program:​
char buffer[10];

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
}

void loop() {
if (Serial.available() >= 10) { // If 10 or more bytes are available
Serial.readBytes(buffer, 10); // Read 10 bytes into buffer
Serial.print("Received: ");
Serial.write(buffer, 10); // Print the received data
}
}

9.​ Expected Behavior:

○​ The program will wait until it receives 10 bytes and then print the data.
10.​Serial.readString()
○​ Reads all available characters from the serial buffer and returns them as a string.
Example Program:​
void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600); // Start serial communication
}

void loop() {
if (Serial.available() > 0) {
String inputString = Serial.readString(); // Read input as a string
Serial.print("You typed: ");
Serial.println(inputString); // Print the received string
}
}

11.​Expected Output:
○​ If you send the string "Hello", the output will be:

​
You typed: Hello

12.​Serial.write(data)
○​ Writes binary data to the serial port.

Example Program:​
void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600); // Start serial communication
}

void loop() {
Serial.write(72); // Send the ASCII code for 'H'
delay(1000); // Wait 1 second before sending again
}

13.​Expected Output:
○​ The character H will be printed every 1 second (since the ASCII code for 'H' is
72).
14.​Serial.end()
○​ Disables serial communication.

Example Program:​
void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600); // Start serial communication
}
void loop() {
Serial.println("Ending Serial Communication");
delay(1000);
Serial.end(); // Disable serial communication after printing once
}

15.​Expected Output:​
Ending Serial Communication

Reference:
Arduino Official Website: https://www.arduino.cc/reference/en/