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Frequency Domain and Fourier Transformed

Clara Gonçalves
March 2024

1 Fourier Series
The Fourier series is a powerful mathematical tool used to represent periodic functions as a sum of sinusoidal
functions. It allows us to decompose complex signals into simpler components, which facilitates analysis and
manipulation in various applications, including signal processing, communication systems, and mathematical
modeling.

1.1 Representation of a Sinusoid


A sinusoidal function, also known as a sine wave, can be represented as:

y(t) = A sin(wx + θ)
where:
• A is the amplitude of the sinusoid, representing the maximum displacement from the mean value,
• sin denotes the sine function,

• w is the angular frequency, indicating how rapidly the function oscillates,


• x is the independent variable, typically representing time,
• θ is the phase shift, determining the horizontal displacement of the waveform.

1.2 Building Blocks of Fourier Series


The Fourier series represents a periodic function as a sum of sinusoidal terms with different frequencies and
amplitudes. By combining multiple sinusoids with appropriate amplitudes, frequencies, and phases, we can
accurately approximate a wide range of periodic signals.
The general form of the Fourier series representation of a periodic function f (x) with period T is given
by:
∞
X
f (x) = a0 + (an cos(nx) + bn sin(nx))
n=1

where:
• a0 is the average value of the function over one period,

• an and bn are the Fourier coefficients, representing the amplitudes of the cosine and sine terms, respec-
tively,
• n is the harmonic number, indicating the frequency component of the sinusoids.

1
1.3 Frequency and Amplitude Domain
The Fourier transform is a mathematical operation that allows us to analyze signals not in the time or spatial
domain, but in the frequency domain. By transforming a signal from the time domain to the frequency
domain, we can visualize its frequency components and their respective magnitudes.
This transformation provides valuable insights into the spectral characteristics of the signal, including
dominant frequencies, harmonics, and noise components. The frequency spectrum is symmetric about the
amplitude (vertical) axis, meaning that the average value of the spectrum is zero. This is due to the fact that
the Fourier coefficients of real-valued signals have conjugate symmetry, resulting in cancellation of positive
and negative frequency components.

2 Fourier Transform
The Fourier transform is a mathematical operation that decomposes a function of time (or space) into its
constituent frequencies, revealing the frequency components present in the signal.

2.1 Continuous Fourier Transform (CFT)


The continuous Fourier transform F (ω) of a function f (t) is defined as:
Z ∞
F (ω) = f (t)e−iωt dt
−∞

where:
• ω is the angular frequency,

• i is the imaginary unit (i2 = −1),


• e is the base of the natural logarithm,
• t is the time variable,
• f (t) is the function of time.

The Fourier transform F (ω) represents the frequency domain representation of the function f (t), showing
the amplitude and phase of each frequency component.

2
2.2 Inverse Fourier Transform
The inverse Fourier transform allows us to reconstruct the original function from its frequency domain
representation. It is given by:
Z ∞
1
f (t) = F (ω)eiωt dω
2π −∞
The inverse Fourier transform maps the frequency domain representation F (ω) back to the time domain
function f (t), recovering the original signal.

2.3 Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)


In practice, signals are often discrete rather than continuous. The discrete Fourier transform (DFT) is used
to compute the Fourier transform of a discrete signal.
Let x[n] be a discrete signal. The DFT of x[n] is given by:
N
X −1
X[k] = x[n]e−i2πkn/N
n=0

where:
• N is the number of samples in the signal,
• k is the index of the frequency component,
• x[n] is the value of the signal at time index n.
The DFT computes the frequency domain representation X[k] of the discrete signal x[n].

2.4 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)


The fast Fourier transform (FFT) is an efficient algorithm for computing the DFT of a discrete signal.
It reduces the computational complexity of the DFT from O(N 2 ) to O(N log N ), making it practical for
real-time signal processing and large-scale data analysis.

3 Fourier Transform in Images


The Fourier Transform is a powerful tool in image processing that allows us to analyze the frequency content
of images. When applied to images, the Fourier Transform decomposes the spatial information of the image
into its constituent frequencies.

3.1 Phase and Amplitude


In the context of image processing, the Fourier Transform provides two key components: the amplitude
spectrum and the phase spectrum. The amplitude spectrum represents the magnitude of different frequency
components present in the image, while the phase spectrum encodes the spatial arrangement or phase
relationships between these frequency components. Understanding both the amplitude and phase spectra is
crucial for various image processing tasks, including image filtering, restoration, and analysis.

3.2 Filtering and Frequency Domain


The Fourier Transform allows us to perform image filtering in the frequency domain, offering a powerful
alternative to spatial domain filtering. By modifying the amplitude or phase spectra of an image, we can
selectively enhance or suppress specific frequency components. This capability enables a wide range of
image enhancement and restoration techniques, including noise reduction, sharpening, edge detection, and
frequency-based domain transformations such as Fourier domain filtering and homomorphic filtering.

3
3.3 The Convolution Theorem
The Convolution Theorem states that convolution in the spatial domain is equivalent to multiplication in the
frequency domain, and vice versa. This theorem is of great significance in image processing, as it provides a
fundamental relationship between spatial and frequency domains. By applying linear filters and convolutions
directly in the frequency domain through simple element-wise multiplications, we can achieve computational
efficiency and often better performance compared to spatial domain operations.

3.4 The Nyquist-Shannon Sampling Theorem


The Nyquist-Shannon Sampling Theorem, also known as the Nyquist Criterion, is a fundamental principle
in digital signal processing that governs the sampling and reconstruction of continuous signals. It states that
to accurately reconstruct a continuous signal from its samples, the sampling rate must be at least twice the
highest frequency present in the signal. In the context of image processing, the Nyquist-Shannon theorem
ensures that the sampling frequency of digital images is sufficient to avoid aliasing and faithfully represent
the image’s spatial content.

3.5 Relation to the Gaussian Pyramid


The Nyquist-Shannon Sampling Theorem has a direct relationship with the Gaussian Pyramid in image
processing. The Gaussian Pyramid is a multi-scale representation of an image obtained by repeatedly
applying Gaussian blurring and subsampling operations. By adhering to the Nyquist-Shannon Sampling
Theorem, the Gaussian Pyramid ensures that each level of the pyramid satisfies the sampling criterion,
preventing aliasing and loss of high-frequency information during the downsampling process. This property
makes the Gaussian Pyramid a valuable tool in image analysis, compression, and computer vision tasks.

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