Unit-I

Interference, Diffraction and Polarisation

Essay type answer questions
1.Describe interference in thin film by reflection? **
✓ The formation of beautiful colours in thin films such as soap bubbles due to solar light can explained by the
phenomenon of interference of light waves.
✓ Let us consider a parallel thin film of uniform thickness ’𝑡’ and having refractive index ‘µ’ as show in
following figure.

✓ When a monochromatic light ‘AB’ incident with incident angle ‘i’ on upper surface of thin film, then a part
incident light should be reflected at point ‘B’ as ‘BE’ ray. Remaining portion is refracted and transmitted through
film as ‘BC’ ray.
✓ This transmitted ‘BC’ ray reflected at point C due to lower surface of the film as ‘CD’ ray and emerged at point
D as ‘DE’ ray.

✓ These two reflected beams are super imposing to each other and produce interference patterns.

✓ The intensity of produced interference patterns depends on path difference between ray1 and ray 2.

✓ To measure the path difference ray1 and ray2 draw a perpendicular DG to BE.

✓ From figure, it is clear that path difference is given by

= 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚(𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) − 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟(𝐵𝐺)

= 𝜇(𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) − (1)(𝐵𝐺) (1)

To calculate (𝑩𝑪 + 𝑪𝑫):

From ∆𝐵𝐻𝐶 From ∆𝐷𝐻𝐶

𝐻𝐶 𝐻𝐶
cos 𝑟 = cos 𝑟 =
𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝐷

𝐻𝐶 𝐻𝐶
BC = cos 𝑟 CD = cos 𝑟

𝑡 𝑡
BC = cos 𝑟 CD = cos 𝑟

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 𝑡 𝑡
Now (𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) = cos 𝑟 + cos 𝑟

2𝑡
(𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) = (2)
cos 𝑟

To calculate BG:

From ∆𝐵𝐻𝐶 From ∆𝐷𝐻𝐶

𝐵𝐻 𝐻𝐷
tan 𝑟 = 𝐻𝐶 tan 𝑟 = 𝐻𝐶

HC tan 𝑟 = 𝐵𝐻 HC tan r = 𝐻𝐷

t tan 𝑟 = 𝐵H t tan 𝑟 =HD

Now 𝐵𝐻 + 𝐻𝐷 = t tan 𝑟 + t tan 𝑟

𝐵𝐻 + 𝐻𝐷 = 2t tan 𝑟
𝐵𝐷 = 2t tan 𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐵𝐻 + 𝐻𝐷 = 𝐵𝐷 (3)
Now From ∆𝐵𝐺𝐷
𝐵𝐺
sin 𝑖 = 𝐵𝐷
BD sin 𝑖 = 𝐵𝐺
𝐵𝐺 = sin 𝑖 BD

𝐵𝐺 = sin 𝑖 2t tan 𝑟
sin 𝑟
𝐵𝐺 = sin 𝑖 2𝑡 cos 𝑟 { 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑙 ′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 sin 𝑖 = 𝜇 sin 𝑟
sin 𝑟
𝐵𝐺 = (𝜇 sin 𝑟) 2𝑡 cos 𝑟
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟
𝐵𝐺 = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 (4)
The equations (2) and (4) are substute in (1), then

𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝜇(𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) − (1)(𝐵𝐺)

2𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝜇 (cos 𝑟) − (2𝜇𝑡 )
cos 𝑟

2𝜇𝑡
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = cos 𝑟 [1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟]

2𝜇𝑡
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = cos 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑟

𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟

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At point B, reflection takes place due to upper surface of thin film which acts as denser medium, hence the ray
𝜆
undergoes an additional phase difference 𝜋 (or) path difference .
2
Therefore
𝜆
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 + 2
Condition for bright fringes:
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 + 2 = 𝑛𝜆

𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆 − 2
2𝑛𝜆−𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 2
𝝀
𝟐𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 = (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏) 𝟐 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, … … … ..
Condition for dark fringes:
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝜆 𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 + 2 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 + 2 = 2𝑛 2 + 2
𝟐𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 = 𝒏𝝀 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, … … … ..

2.Describe the formation of Newton’s Rings?**

✓ Newton’s Rings are best example for interference in a non-uniform thin film.
✓ Concentric circular rings are formed due to interference of two reflected rays from the top and bottom surface of a
non-uniform thin film enclosed between a plano-convex lens and a glass plate. These rings are invented by Sir Isaac
Newton, hence these rings are called “Newton Rings’’.

Newton Rings

Reason for formation of central dark spot:

𝜆
✓ In case of Newton rings, path difference between two reflected rays is given by 2𝑡 + 2 .
✓ At the point of contact ‘o’ of convex lens and glass plate, thick ness of air film is negligibly small compared to a
wavelength of light.
𝜆 𝜆
✓ But at the point of contact 𝑡 = 0, hence path difference = 2(0) + = .
2 2

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 2𝜋
✓ ∴ Phase difference = × 𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒
𝜆
2𝜋 𝜆
Phase difference = ×
𝜆2
Phase difference = 𝜋
✓ If phase difference between two rays becomes 𝜋, then the total light incident at point of contact should be reflected
back as shown in above figure and destructive interference will be takes place. This, destructive interference is
responsible for formation of central dark spot.

Reason behind the formation of alternative dark and bright circular rings:

✓ The thickness of thin air film at point of contact is zero and gradually increases as we move outward.
✓ The locus of points where the air film has the same thickness falls on a circle whose centre is the point of contact,
hence circular newton rings formed.
✓ 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 then bright newton ring is 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑.
∴ 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑛𝜆

✓ 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 then dark ring is 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑.
𝜆
∴ 𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2

3. Derive the conditions for dark and bright fringes for Newton Rings? ***

✓ Newton’s rings are formed due to the interference between the light rays reflected from the lower surface of the
lens and the upper surface of the glass plate.
✓ Let ‘R’ be the radius of curvature of the lens and ‘𝑡’ be the thickness of the air film at point P.

✓ A part of incident monochromatic light reflected at point ‘B’ as ray1 without phase change. The remaining part of
the light is transmitting through air film and reflected as ray2 from the upper surface of glass plate.
✓ Now these two rays interferer to each other and newton’s rings are formed.
✓ The intensity of newton’s rings depends on the path difference.
Path difference in case of interference in a thin film by reflection is given by
𝜆
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 + 2 (1)
But in case of Newton’s rings refractive index or air (𝜇) = 1 and angle of refraction ( 𝑟) = 0
𝜆
∴ 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 2(1)𝑡 cos 0 + 2
𝝀
∴ 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒉 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟐𝒕 + 𝟐 (2)

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 𝜆 𝜆
✓ At point of contact, thickness of thin film (t) = 0 ⇒ 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 2(0) + ⇒
2 2
𝜆
When the path difference between two rays is equals to , then destructive interference takes place which forms
2
a dark fringe. Hence, the central spot in the newton rings appeared as dark in colour.

✓ Condition for bright fringe (or) Constructive Interference :

𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ
𝜆
2𝑡 + 2 = 𝑛𝜆
𝜆
2𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆 − 2
2𝑛𝜆−𝜆
2𝑡 = 2

𝝀
𝟐𝒕 = (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏) 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … … (3)
𝟐

✓ Condition for dark fringe (or) Destuctive Interference:

𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ
𝜆 𝜆
2𝑡 + 2 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
2𝑡 + = 2𝑛 +
2 2 2
𝟐𝒕 = 𝒏𝝀 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … (4)

4. Describe the theory of Newton’s Rings? ***

(or)
Derive expression for diameters of bright and dark fringes?
✓ Let ‘L’ be plano convex lens which is placed on a plane glass plate (P), then a non-uniform air film is produced
between lens and glass plate as shown following figure.

✓ Let ‘R’ be the radius of curvature of lens and ‘r’ be the radius of newton ring and ‘t’ is thickness of thin film.
✓ According circular property 𝑁𝐴 × 𝑁𝐵 = ON × 𝑁𝑂′
𝑟 × 𝑟 = t × (2𝑅 − 𝑡)

𝑟 2 = 2𝑅𝑡 − 𝑡 2

𝑟 2 = 2𝑅𝑡 { ∵ 𝑅 > > 𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 }

𝑟2
∴ t = 2𝑅

✓ Expression for diameter of bright ring:

𝝀
Condition to form bright ring for Newton’s ring is given by 𝟐𝒕 = (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏) 𝟐
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑,

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 𝑟2
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑢𝑡 t =
2𝑅

𝑟2 𝝀
𝟐( 2𝑅 ) = (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏) 𝟐

𝑟2 𝝀
𝑅
= (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏) 𝟐

𝝀𝑅
𝑟 2 = (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏) 𝟐

𝐷 𝝀𝑅
( 2 )2 = (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏) 𝟐

𝝀𝑅
𝐷 2 = 𝟒(𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏) 𝟐

𝐷 2 = 𝟐𝝀 𝑅 (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏)

𝐷 = √𝟐𝝀 𝑅 (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏)

∴ 𝐷 ∝ √ (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏)

∴ 𝐷 ∝ √ 𝑶𝒅𝒅 𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔

∴ The diameters of the bright ring are directly proportional to square root of odd natural numbers.
✓ Expression for diameter of dark ring:
Condition to form dark ring for Newton’s ring is given by 𝟐𝒕 = 𝒏𝝀 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑,……..
𝑟2
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑢𝑡 t = 2𝑅

𝑟2
𝟐( 2𝑅 ) = 𝒏𝝀

𝑟2
= 𝒏𝝀
𝑅

𝑟 2 = 𝒏𝝀𝑹
𝐷
( )2 = 𝒏𝝀𝑹
2

𝐷 2 = 𝟒𝒏𝝀𝑹

𝐷 = √𝟒𝒏𝝀𝑹

𝐷 = 𝟐 √𝒏𝝀𝑹

∴ 𝐷 ∝ √𝒏

∴ 𝐷 ∝ √ 𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔
∴ The diameters of the dark rings are directly proportional to square root of natural numbers.
5. Describe the determination of wavelength of given light source by using Newton’s rings experiment?
✓ Wavelength of the given light source can be estimated by measuring the diameters of the various rings (either
we can choose dark or bright rings) and knowing radius of the curvature the lens.
✓ Let R, 𝜆, 𝐷𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑚 be the radius of curvature of the lens, wavelength of source, diameter of 𝑛𝑡ℎ ring and
diameter of 𝑚𝑡ℎ ring respectively.
✓ We know that, the expression for the diameter of the dark ring is given by 𝐷 2 = 4𝑛𝑅𝜆
∴ The expression for the diameter of the dark ring is given by 𝐷𝑛 2 = 4𝑛𝑅𝜆 (1)
𝑡ℎ 2
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝐷𝑚 = 4𝑚𝑅𝜆 (2)

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 (1) − (2) ⇒ 𝐷𝑛 2 − 𝐷𝑚 2 = 4𝑛𝑅𝜆 − 4𝑚𝑅𝜆
𝐷𝑛 2 − 𝐷𝑚 2 = 4𝑅𝜆(𝑛 − 𝑚)
𝐷𝑛 2 − 𝐷𝑚 2
∴𝜆= 4𝑅(𝑛−𝑚)
∴ From above equation, we can determine the wavelength of given source.
6. Describe the determination of refractive index of given liquid by using newton’s rings experiment?
✓ To determine refractive index (𝜇) of liquid, instead of forming an air film, we have to form liquid film.
✓ Firstly, the Newton’s rings experiment is performed when air film is presented between lens & glass plate,
then we have,
𝐷𝑛 2 − 𝐷𝑚 2 = 4𝑅𝜆(𝑛 − 𝑚) (1)

✓ Secondly, we placed newton rings experimental set up inside a container and a liquid of refractive index (𝜇)
is poured into without disturbing the newton’s ring arrangement, then diameters of 𝑛𝑡ℎ and 𝑚𝑡ℎ dark rings
are noted, then we have
2 2 4𝑅𝜆(𝑛−𝑚)
𝐷′𝑛 − 𝐷 ′ 𝑚 = 𝜇
(2)

(1) 𝐷𝑛 2 − 𝐷𝑚 2 4𝑅𝜆(𝑛−𝑚)
𝑁𝑜𝑤 ⁄(2) ⇒ 𝐷′𝑛 2 − 𝐷′𝑚 2
= 4𝑅𝜆(𝑛−𝑚)
𝜇

𝐷𝑛 2 − 𝐷𝑚 2 1
𝐷′𝑛 2 − 𝐷′𝑚 2
= 1
𝜇

𝐷𝑛 2 − 𝐷𝑚 2
∴ 𝜇= 𝐷′𝑛 2 − 𝐷′𝑚 2

From above equation we can determine the refractive index of given liquid.

7.Describe the Fraunhofer’s diffraction due to single slit?***

✓ Let us consider ‘M’ be the monochromatic source, ‘L1’ & ‘L2’ are the collimating &converging lenses
respectively. Let ‘AB’ is a slit whose width is ‘e’ and 𝑆𝑆′ be the screen which able to notice the
diffraction patterns.

𝑺′

✓ When a collimated monochromatic plane wavefront incident normally on the slit ‘AB’, then according
Huygen’s principle, every point on the wave front should be acts as secondary source and produced
secondary wavelets which are spreading in all directions.

✓ The secondary wavelets which travel in the direction of propagation of incident light are collected by
lens L2 and focused at point 𝑃0 on the screen. These secondary wavelets have no path difference, hence
intensity at 𝑷𝟎 is maximum and referred as “Principal maximum”.

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✓ The secondary wavelets which are travels with some diffraction angle with direction of incident light,
those are collected by lens L2 and focused at point P1 on the screen.

✓ The intensity variations on screen should be governed by path difference between two wavelets which
are originated from single wave front.

✓ ∴ To find out the path difference we draw a normal from A to B as shown in figure.

From figure Δ𝐴𝐵𝐿

𝐴𝐿
sin 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝐿 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝑒

𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Sin 𝜃 = 𝑒

𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒(∅) = 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

2𝜋
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝛿) = × 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒(∅)
𝜆

2𝜋
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝛿) = 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (1)
𝜆

✓ Suppose the width dividing into ‘n’ equal parts, then the amplitude of wavelet from each part is ‘a’.

✓ The phase difference between two successive wavelets of amplitude ‘a’ is given by
1
𝑑 = 𝑛 [ 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒]

1 2𝜋
𝑑=𝑛 [ 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ] (2)
𝜆

✓ According to vector additions law, the resultant amplitude of induvial wavelet of amplitude ‘a’ is given
by
𝑑
asin n
2
𝑅= 𝑑
sin
2

1 2𝜋
asin n [ 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ] 1 2𝜋
2𝑛 𝜆
𝑅= 1 2𝜋 { ∵ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (2) 𝑑 = 𝑛 [ 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ]
sin [ 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ] 𝜆
2 𝑛𝜆

𝜋
asin [ 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ]
𝜆
𝑅= 𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛 [ 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ]
𝑛𝜆

asinα 𝜋
𝑅= 𝛼 { ∵ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝛼 }
𝑠𝑖𝑛 [ ] 𝜆
𝑛

asinα
𝑅= 𝛼 { ∵ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 sin 𝜃 ≅ 𝜃 }
( )
𝑛

sinα
𝑅 = 𝑛𝑎 [ ]
α

sinα
𝑅 = 𝐴[ ] { ∵ 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝑛𝑎 = 𝐴 }
α

sinα 2
𝑅 2 = 𝐼 = 𝐴2 [ ] { ∵ 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦}
α

8|Page
 sinα 2
∴ 𝐼 = 𝐴2 [ ]
α

This is general expression for intensity due to Fraunhofer’s diffraction due to single slit.

Condition for principal maxima:

sinα
We know that 𝑅 = 𝐴 [ ]
α

𝐴
𝑅 = α [ sinα]

𝐴 𝛼3 𝛼5 𝛼7 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
𝑅 = α [α− + − +⋯] { ∵ sin 𝑥 = = 𝑥 − + − +⋯
3! 5! 7! 3! 5! 7!

𝛼2 𝛼4 𝛼6
𝑅 = 𝐴[1− + − +⋯]
3! 5! 7!

If 𝛼 = 0 ⇒ R is maximum ⇒ 𝐼 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
𝜋
𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0
𝜆

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0

𝜽 = 𝟎°

When 𝜃 = 0° means that light rays are non-diffracted and maximum intensity fringe will be formed at point 𝑃0
and referred as “Principal Maxima”.

Condition for Minima:

sinα 2
We know that 𝐼 = 𝐴2 [ ]
α

When sin 𝛼 = 0 ⇒ Intensiy (I) = 0 (𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚)

sin 𝛼 = 0

𝛼 = ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, ±3𝜋 … …

𝛼 = ±nπ Where n = 1,2,3 … … …

𝜋
𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ±𝑛𝜋
𝜆

𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = ±𝒏𝝀 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 … … …

Condition for secondary maxima:

For secondary maxima positions, differentiating expression of Intensity w.r.to the 𝛼 and equating to zero.
𝑑𝐼
∴ 𝑑𝛼 = 0

𝑑 sinα 2
[𝐴2 ( ) ]=0
𝑑𝛼 α

sinα 𝑑 sinα
[𝐴2 . 2 ( ) . 𝑑𝛼 ( )] =0
α α

9|Page
 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
sinα 𝛼 cos 𝛼−sin 𝛼 𝑑 𝑢 𝑣 −𝑢
[𝐴2 . 2 ( ).( )] = 0 {∵ 𝑑𝑥 ( 𝑣 ) = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
}
α 𝛼2 𝑣2

sin 𝛼 (𝛼 cos 𝛼 − sin 𝛼) = 0

𝛼 cos 𝛼 − sin 𝛼 = 0

𝛼 cos 𝛼 = sin 𝛼

𝛼 = tan 𝛼

to solve the above equation say y = tan 𝛼 = 𝛼

∴ y = tan 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦=𝛼

The intersection points of the curves y = tan 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝛼 gives the condition for the secondary maxima
which are as shown in following graph.

3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
From the graph the intersection points are 𝛼 = 0, ± , ± , ± … … … … ..
2 2 2

But 𝛼 = 0 already satisfies the principal maximum condition, so it is excluded.

3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
𝛼= ± , ± , ± … … … … ..
2 2 2

𝜋
𝛼 = ±(2𝑛 + 1) 2
𝜋 𝜋
𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ±(2𝑛 + 1) 2
𝜆

𝝀
𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = ±(𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏) 𝟐 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … … ….

10 | P a g e
Intensity distribution curves for single slit experiment:
A graph is drawn between 𝛼 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐼), then the plot as shown in following figure which is generally
referred as “Intensity distribution curve.

From graph it clear that,

If 𝛼 = 0 ⇒ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚

𝐼𝑓 𝛼 = ±nπ ⇒ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚

π
𝐼𝑓 𝛼 = ±(2𝑛 + 1) 𝟐 ⇒ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚

8.Describe the Fraunhofer Diffraction due to double silt?***

✓ Let us consider ‘M’ be the monochromatic source, ‘L1’ & ‘L2’ are the collimating &converging lenses
respectively. Let ‘AB’ and ‘CD’ are two rectangular slits of same width in the order of ‘e’ and separated
by distance ‘d’ and 𝑆𝑆′ be the screen which able to notice the diffraction patterns.
𝑺′

M
M

✓ When a collimated monochromatic plane wavefront incident normally on the arrangement of double slits
named ‘AB’ and ‘CD’, then according Huygen’s principle every point on the wave front should be
acts as secondary source and produced secondary wavelets which are spreading in all directions.

✓ The secondary wavelets which travel in the direction of propagation of incident light are collected by
lens L2 and focused at point 𝑃0 on the screen. These secondary wavelets have no path difference, hence
intensity at 𝑷𝟎 is maximum and referred as “Principal maximum”.

✓ The secondary wavelets which are travels with some diffraction angle with the direction of incident light,
those are collected by lens L2 and focused at point P1 on the screen.

11 | P a g e
✓ Since we use double slits here, so from each slit we get a wavelet of amplitude in the order of
sinα 𝜋
𝐴[ ] 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 α = 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (1)
α 𝜆

✓ The intensity variations on screen depends on path difference between those two wavelets which
originated from two different wave fronts.

✓ To find out the path difference we draw a normal from A to C as shown in figure.

From figure Δ𝐴𝑁𝐶

𝐶𝑁
sin 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐶 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑁 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑒 + 𝑑

𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Sin 𝜃 =
𝑒+𝑑

𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (𝑒 + 𝑑)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

2𝜋
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = × 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝜆

2𝜋
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝛿) = (𝑒 + 𝑑)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (2)
𝜆

✓ The resultant amplitude of two wavelets is calculated by “ vector addition method ” as follows.
(𝑂𝑀)2 = (𝑂𝑁)2 + (𝑁𝑀)2 + 2(𝑂𝑁)(𝑁𝑀)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
Asinα 2 Asinα 2 Asinα Asinα
𝑅2 = ( ) +( ) + 2( )( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
α α α α
Asinα 2 Asinα 2
𝑅2 = 2( ) + 2( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
α α
Asinα 2
𝑅2 = 2 ( α
) [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿]
Asinα 2
𝑅2 = 2( α ) [1 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛿⁄2 − 1] {∵ cos 𝜃 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃⁄2 − 1 }
Asinα 2
𝑅2 = 4( α ) [𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛿⁄2]

Asinα 2 𝜋 𝜋
𝑅2 = 4 (
α
) [𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( (𝑒 + 𝑑)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)]
𝜆
{ 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (2) ∵ 𝛿⁄2 = 𝜆
(𝑒 + 𝑑)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃}
Asinα 2 𝜋
∴𝐼= 4( α ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 { 𝑆𝑎𝑦 ∵ 𝜆
(𝑒 + 𝑑)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝛽} (𝟑)
(3) is general equation for intensity on screen which specifies the combined effect of diffraction and interference
phenomenons.
Asinα 2
The term ( ) represents the diffraction due to single slit while the term 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 represents interference
α
effect of two diffracted wavelets.

Interference effect:
Case 1: (Condition for maximum intensity)
Asinα 2
We know that intensity on screen due to double slit is given by 𝐼 = 4 ( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽
α
For maximum intensity ∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 = 1
. ∴ 𝛽 = ±𝑚𝜋, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 = 0,1,2,3, … … … ..
𝜋 𝜋
∴ 𝜆 (𝑒 + 𝑑)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ±𝑚𝜋 { ∵ 𝜆 (𝑒 + 𝑑)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝛽 }
∴ (𝒆 + 𝒅)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = ±𝒎𝝀
Case 2: (Condition for minimum intensity)
For minimum intensity 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 = 0
𝜋
∴ 𝛽 = ±(2𝑚 + 1) 2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 = 0,1,2,3, … … … ..

12 | P a g e
 𝜋 𝜋
(𝑒 + 𝑑)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ±(2𝑚 + 1) 2
𝜆
𝝀
∴ (𝒆 + 𝒅)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = ±(𝟐𝒎 + 𝟏) 𝟐 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒎 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … … … ..
Diffraction effect:
case1: If 𝛼 = 0 ⇒ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝜽 = 𝟎°

case2:𝐼𝑓 𝛼 = ±nπ ⇒ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 ± 𝒏𝝀

π 𝝀
𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟑: 𝐼𝑓 𝛼 = ±(2𝑛 + 1) 2 ⇒ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ⇒ 𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = ±(𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏) 𝟐

Intesity distribution curve:

−3𝜋

9.Describe the Fraunhofer’s diffraction due to Grating ( N-slits)?***

✓ Let us consider a grating of ‘N’ numbers parallel slits named AB, CD, EF, GH……etc each of width ‘e’ and
separated distance ‘d’ as shown in figure.
𝑺′

13 | P a g e
 ✓ When the monochromatic wavefront WW’ allowed normally on grating, then according Huygen’s prinple,every
point on wavefront should be act as secondary source and produce secondary wavelets.
✓ The secondary wavelets which are propagated in the direction of incident light are collected by lens and focused
on screen at point P0, these non diffracted rays have no path difference hence highest intensity appeared at P0 which
is called as “ Principal Maximum”.
✓ The secondary wavelets which are propagated some angle to direction of incident are collected by lens and focused
on screen at point P1.
✓ The intensity on screen should be depends on path difference, so the path difference between two successive
wavelets is given by (𝑒 + 𝑑)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
2𝜋
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑑) = 𝜆 (𝑒 + 𝑑)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜋
(𝑑) = 2β { ∵ say β = (𝑒 + 𝑑)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 } (1)
𝜆

sinα
✓ Here we use N number of slits hence we have N number of wavelets of amplitude (a) is 𝐴 [ α
] (2)
𝑑
asin n
✓ Now the resulstant amplitude can calculated by vecter addtition law given by (R) = 𝑑
2
(3)
sin
2
(1) And (2) in (3)

sinα 2β
𝐴[ ]sin N
α 2
R= 2β
sin
2

sinα
sin N β
R = 𝐴[ ]
α sin β
sinα 2 sin N β 2
𝑅 2 = 𝐴2 [ α ] [ sin β ]
sinα 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑁β
𝐼 = 𝐴2 [ α ] 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 β (4)
Case1: Condition for maximum intensity (Principal maxima):
sinα 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑁β
We know that intesity on the screen due to grating (𝐼) = 𝐴2 [ ]
α 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 β

For maximum intensity sin β = 0

∴ 𝛽 = ±𝑛𝜋 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … …
𝐼𝑓 sin β = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑, 𝑠𝑜 𝑤𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐿 − ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒.
𝑑
sin N β (sin N β)
𝑑𝛽
Lim = lim 𝑑
𝛽→±𝑛𝜋 sin β 𝛽→±𝑛𝜋 (sin β)
𝑑𝛽

N.cosN β
= lim 𝑐𝑜𝑠β
𝛽→±𝑛𝜋

cosN(±𝑛𝜋)
= N. cos (±𝑛𝜋)

= N.(1)
sin n β
∴ Lim =𝑁
𝛽→±𝑛𝜋 sin β

sinα 2
𝐼 = 𝐴2 [ α
] [𝑁 ]2 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚.
The condition for pricipal maximum is 𝛽 = ±𝑛𝜋

𝜋
(𝑒 + 𝑑)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ±𝑛𝜋
𝜆

14 | P a g e
 ∴ (𝒆 + 𝒅)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = ±𝒏𝝀

Case 2:Condition for minimum intensity (Minima):

sinα 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑁β
We know that intesity on the screen due to grating (𝐼) = 𝐴2 [ α
] 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 β

For minimum intensity SinNβ = 0

Nβ = ±𝑚𝜋
𝜋
N(𝜆 (𝑒 + 𝑑)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ±𝑚𝜋
𝒎𝝀
(𝒆 + 𝒅)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = ± 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒎 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 … … …
N

Case 3:Condition for secondary maxima:

sinα 2 sin N β 2
We know that intesity on the screen due to grating 𝐼 = 𝐴2 [ α
] [ sin β
]

𝑑
For secondary maxima intensities position 𝑑𝛽 [𝐼]=0

𝑑 Asinα 2 sin N β 2
𝑑𝛽
[𝐴2 [ α ] [ sinβ
] ]=0

𝑑 sin N β 2
𝑑𝛽
{ [ sin β ] }=0

sin n β 𝑑 sin N β
2. [ sin β
] 𝑑𝛽 [ sin β
] =0

N.sin β cos N β−sin N β cos β

[ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 β
] =0

sin β . Ncos N β − sin N β . cos β = 0

N. sin β cos N β = sin N β cos β
N tanβ = tan N β
𝑁
= tan N β
cot β

𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
= tan N β
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒

𝑁
sin N β =
√𝑁2 +𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝛽

𝑵𝟐
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑁β = 𝑵𝟐 +𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟐 𝜷

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑁β 𝑵𝟐
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 β
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 β(𝑵𝟐 +𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟐 𝜷)

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑁β 𝑵𝟐
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 β 𝑵𝟐 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 β+𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜷)

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑁β 𝑵𝟐
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 β 𝑵𝟐 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 β+𝟏−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 β

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑁β 𝑵𝟐
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 β
= (𝑵𝟐 −𝟏)𝑠𝑖𝑛2 β+1

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑁β 𝑵𝟐
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 β
= 1+(𝑵𝟐 −𝟏)𝑠𝑖𝑛2 β

𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 secondary 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒂

= Intensity of 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒍 maxima

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As N increases ,the intensity of secondary maxima relative to pricipal maxima decreases and becomes negligible.
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝑵𝛃 𝟏
= 𝟏+(𝑵𝟐 −𝟏)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝛃
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝛃

Intensity distribution curve for fraunhofer diffraction due to N-slits.

11.Describe the constuction and working of Nicol’s Prism?***

Introduction:
Nicol’s prism is optical device which was made from calcite crystal and used to produce and analyse the plane polarised
light.In 1828, the scientist Nicol designed this optical device.
Construction:
✓ Consider a calcite crystal named 𝐴𝐵′ 𝐶𝐷𝐸𝐹𝐺𝐻′, who’s length is 3 times as its width and
having 𝐵′ and 𝐻′ are the blunt corners as shown in figure.
✓ The calcite structure is Rhombohedron.
✓ The plane 𝐵′D 𝐻′F is known as Prinipal section and parllelogram in shaped having angles
71° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 108°
✓ Upper and lower surfaces of crystal A𝐵′CD and EFG 𝐻′ grounded such that angles 𝐵′D𝐻′
and 𝐵′F𝐻′ are reduced from 71° 𝑡𝑜 68°.
✓ Calcite crystal cut into two pieces along JHKB plane and recombine with gum type
transparent material which is called canada balsam.
✓ The two end faces of crystal kept open and sides are blackened to absorb the total internal
reflected light.
Working principle:
✓ Double refraction is working principle of Nicol’s prism.
✓ When a unpolarised light is allowed on certain crysrals such as calcite, torumaline, then it is split in to two rays
namely ordinary ray and extraordinary ray which are plane polarised. This pheonomenon is called Double
refraction or Birefregence.
Action (or) Working:
✓ When a ray of unpolarised light is allowed on front surface (D𝐵′) of crystal as shown in figure, then incident ray
should be spit into two rays namely ordinary and extraordinary ray.

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 ✓ The refractice indices possessed by the Nicol’s prism are given by
For Canada balsam in the order of 1.55
For Ordinary ray in the order of 1.65
For Extraordinary ray in the order of 1.48
✓ The canada balsam layer (𝜇𝐵 = 1.55) is acting as a rarer medium for ordinary (𝜇𝑜 = 1.65) and O-ray doesn’t
transmitted through canda balsam layer and it is under goes the “Total internal reflection”. The internal
reflected light is absorbed by the blackened coating, thus O-ray was eliminated by Nicol’s prism.
✓ In order to obtain total internal reflection at calcite & canada balsam layer interface, the incident angle should be
greater than critical angle.
critical angle of O-ray with respect to the canada balsam layer is given by 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (1.55⁄1.65)

𝜃𝑐 = 69.2°
✓ The canada balsam layer is acting as a denser medium for e-ray hence e-ray transmitted through it and emerging
from the end face of Nicol’s prism, thus we obtained only plane polarised e-ray.
Limitations:
✓ Nicol’s prism act as polariser only for slight convergent and slightly diverent incident beams.
✓ Nicol’s prism doesn’t act as polariser for more concergent and more divergent beams.
12.Describe the Quarter wave plate?**
✓ Quarterwave plate is optical device which is used to produce circularly (or) elliptically polarised light.
✓ When the thickness (t) of bi-refracting uniaxial crystal such as calcite, cut such that path difference between
𝜆
ordinary ray and extraordinary ray is becomes in the order 4
known as “Quarterwave plate”.
✓ When the unpolarised light allowed normally on surface of quarterwave plate, then it will be split in to two rays
O-ray and E-ray and travells in same direction as shown in figure.

✓ We know that in the calcite crystal O-ray and E-ray travels with different velocities hence path difference
produced.
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑂 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 = 𝜇0 𝑡

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 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐸 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 = 𝜇𝑒 𝑡
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑂 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦 = 𝜇0 𝑡 − 𝜇𝑒
= 𝑡(𝜇0 − 𝜇𝑒 ) (1)
𝜆
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 4
(2)
𝜆
4
= 𝑡(𝜇0 − 𝜇𝑒 )
𝜆
𝑡= 4(𝜇0 −𝜇𝑒 )
𝜆
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝜇0 > 𝜇𝑒 ⇒ 𝑡= 4(𝜇0 −𝜇𝑒 )
𝜆
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝜇𝑒 > 𝜇𝑜 ⇒ 𝑡 = 4(𝜇 −𝜇 )
𝑒 𝑜

13.Describe the Half wave plate?**

✓ Half wave plate is optical device which is used to produce plane polarised light.
✓ When the thickness (t) of bi-refracting uniaxial crystal such as calcite, cut such that path difference between
𝜆
ordinary ray and extraordinary ray is becomes in the order 2
known as “Half wave plate”.
✓ When the unpolarised light allowed normally on surface of half wave plate, then it will be split in to two rays O-
ray and E-ray and travells in same direction as shown in figure.
✓ We know that in the calcite crystal O-ray and E-ray travels with different velocities hence path difference
produced.
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑂 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 = 𝜇0 𝑡
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐸 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 = 𝜇𝑒 𝑡
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐸 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑡 − 𝜇𝑒 𝑡
= 𝑡(𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 ) (1)
𝜆
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 (2)
2
𝜆
2
= 𝑡(𝜇0 − 𝜇𝑒 )
𝜆
𝑡=
2(𝜇0 −𝜇𝑒 )
𝜆
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝜇0 > 𝜇𝑒 ⇒ 𝑡= 2(𝜇0 −𝜇𝑒 )
𝜆
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝜇𝑒 > 𝜇𝑜 ⇒ 𝑡 = 2(𝜇 −𝜇 )
𝑒 𝑜

Unit-I
Interference, Diffraction and Polarisation
𝑺𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒚𝒑𝒆 𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

1.1. Interference

1.State the principle of super position of light waves*

When the two (or) more waves propagated through the same medium simultaneously, then the resultant
displacement is equals to algebraic sum of individual displacement of that wave is called “principle of super
position”.
𝑦 = 𝑦1 ± 𝑦2
Where y is resultant displacement of waves, 𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦2 are individual displacements of two waves.

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 𝑦1

𝑦2
Resultant wave of amplitude (y)= 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐

If the two waves are in same direction, then +ve sign should be taken

𝑦1

𝑦2
Resultant wave of amplitude (y)= 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐

If the two waves are in opposite direction, then -ve sign should be taken

2.Define interference and mention necessary conditions to form interference patterns? ***
Interference: The modification in the distribution of intensity in the region of super position is called
Interference.
Conditions:
▪ The light waves which are emitting two sources should be coherent.
▪ Two sources must emit continuous light waves of same wavelengths (or) frequency.
▪ The separation between the two sources should be small.
▪ The distance between the two sources and the screen should be large.
▪ To view interference fringes, the background should be dark.
▪ The amplitude of light waves should be equal or nearly equal.
▪ The sources should be narrow.
▪ The sources should be monochromatic.
3.What is coherence and explain the types of coherence? *
✓ To produce interference patterns coherent sources are required.
✓ The sources which are produce coherent light waves are called Coherent sources.
✓ Two light waves are said to be “coherent”, the waves must have
• Same wavelength
• Same amplitude and
• Constant phase difference
✓ There are two types of coherence

i) Temporal coherence (or longitudinal coherence)

ii) Spatial coherence (or transverse coherence)
Temporal coherence (or) longitudinal coherence:

It is possible to predict phase relation at point on the wave, with respect to another point on the same then such type
coherence is called Temporal coherence.

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Spatial coherence (or) transverse coherence:

It is possible to predict phase relation at point on the wave, with respect to another point on the second wave then such
type of coherence is called Spatial coherence.

Source

4.What is coherent length?

Coherent length is the propagation distance over which a coherent wave maintains a specified degree of
coherence.
5.What are the types interference? and explain. **
Based on the variation of amplitude in the super position region interference can be classified two types

1). Constructive interference

2). Destructive interference.
Constructive interference:
when two or more light waves propagated in the same media simultaneously, then the resultant amplitude is
equals to sum of individual amplitudes of that waves.
✓ 𝑎 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2
✓ The two light waves should be meet at same phase
✓ Path difference should be equals to integral multiple of wavelength of light used.
[𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑛𝜆]
✓ Bright fringes will be formed.

𝑎1

𝑎2
Resultant wave of amplitude (a)= 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐

Destructive interference:
When two or more light waves propagated in the same media simultaneously, then the resultant amplitude is
equals to difference of individual amplitudes of that waves.
✓ 𝑎 = 𝑎1 − 𝑎2
✓ The two light waves should be meet at out of phase relationship.
✓ Path difference should be equals to half integral multiple of wavelength of light
𝜆
used. [𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 ]
✓ Dark fringes will be formed.

𝑎1

𝑎2
Resultant wave of amplitude (a)= 𝒂𝟏 − 𝒂𝟐

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6.Explain the colours in thin films?*
✓ When a thin film is exposed to white light (solar radiation) then beautiful colours appeared due to
interference of reflected rays due to upper and lower surface of thin film.
✓ The formation of colours is depending on path difference between the rays. The path difference in thin
𝜆
film by reflection is given by 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 + 2.
✓ ∴ formation of beautiful colours governed by variations in refractive index ( 𝜇 ) , thickness( 𝑡 ), angle
of refraction( 𝑟 ).

Examples:
1.Formation of beautiful Colours in soap bubbles.
2. Formation of beautiful Colours in floating oil film.

7.Why the central spot in the newton’s rings appeared dark in colour? ***
𝜆 𝜆
At point of contact, thickness of thin film (t) = 0 ⇒ 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 2(0) + 2 ⇒ 2
𝜆
When the path difference between two rays is equals to 2 , then corresponding phase difference
becomes 𝜋 and those are destructively interfere to each other. The destructive interference gives a dark
fringe. Hence, the central spot in a newton rings appeared as dark in colour.

8.Two independent sources of same wavelength, same amplitude can’t produce interference fringes,
why? ***
(OR)
Why two independent sources of same wavelength with same amplitude can’t produce interference
finges. (I.M.P)
The independent monochromatic sources of same power they may emit same wavelength with same amplitude
but they didn’t maintain constant phase difference due to randomly varying phase, hence two independent
sources of light can never be coherent and can’t produce interference fringes.
9. Why two distinct light rays from single monochromatic source can’t produce interference pattens? .
(I.M.P)***
The light waves emitted spontaneously from different parts of the lamp, so didn’t maintain the constant phase
difference, hence they are not coherent and can’t produce interference fringes.
10.What is the method to obtain the coherent light rays? ***
When the light from the single mono chromatic source is made to split into two wavefronts by using two slits,
then these wavefronts act as secondary sources and maintain the constant phase difference and they produce an
interference patterns.
11.Does the destructive interference violates the principle of conservation of energy? Explain. **
 No, the destructive interference completely agreement with the principle of conservation of energy.
 If the two waves are interfere destructively at point then intensity 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∝ (𝑎 − 𝑎)2 ⇒ 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∝ 0 .
 In a region composed of one maximum and the one minimum, the energy
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∝ (4𝑎2 + 0) ⇒ 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 4𝑎2

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 4𝑎2 +0
So, the average energy is = 2𝑎2 , so there is merely redistribution of light energy takes place.
2
Hence the destructive intereference follows the law of conservation of energy.
Mention applications of Interference phenomenon? *
✓ Testing the flatness of surfaces
✓ Testing quality of lens surface
✓ To find the thickness of thin film
✓ Interference filters are used to filter the radiation as for as our need.
✓ To find wavelength of used source
✓ To find refractive index of given liquid.

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 1.2. Diffraction
12.What are the differences between interference and diffraction?

Interference Diffraction
1 Superposition is due to two separate Superposition is due to secondary wavelets
wavefronts originating from two different originating from different parts of the same
coherent sources wave front.
2 Generally, Fringes have equal width The between fringes never equal
3 All bright fringes have the same intensity The intensity of fringes gradually decreases
with increasing of order
4 All dark fringes have zero intensity The intensity of bright fringes is not zero.

13.Define the term “Diffraction”?

Definition:

✓ When the light falls on the obstacle who’s size comparable with the wavelength of light, then light
bends arounds the obstacle and enters into its geometrical shadow. This phenomenon is referred as
“Diffraction of light rays”.
✓ If the size of the object is not comparable to wavelength, then diffraction patterns are never formed.

14.What are the differences between Fresnel’s and Fraunhofer’s diffraction?

Comparison between Fresnel’s and Fraunhofer’s diffraction:

Fresnel’s diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction

1 Source and screen should be at finite Source and screen should be at infinite
distance distance
2 Lenses are not required to focus the light Lenses are required to focus the light rays
rays
3 Incident wave front should be spherical or Incident wave front should be plane wave
cylindrical front
4 Either point source (or) illuminated Extended source is used
narrow slit is used
5 Diffraction only studied in the direction Diffraction can be studied in all directions.
of propagation of light.

15.What is plane diffraction grating? ***

An arrangement of large number of parallel slits of the same width and separated by equal opaque spaces is known as
Diffraction Grating.

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 ✓ Condition for principal maxima in Fraunhofer’s diffraction due to grating is given by
∴ (𝑒 + 𝑑)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
𝑛𝜆
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = (𝑒+𝑑)
1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑁𝑛𝜆 ∵ (𝑒+𝑑)
=𝑁

✓ (𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 ′𝐺 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 ′ .

✓ (𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑠.
✓ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑁𝑛𝜆 is known as grating equation.

16.What is grating spectrum? **

✓ The spectrum which is obtained due to grating under illumination of light is called “Grating Spectrum”.
✓ If a monochromatic light is allowed on grating then different orders of bright images are formed either sides of
central image symmetrically as shown in figure.

✓ If white light is allowed on grating then different orders of VIBGYOR are formed either sides of central image
symmetrically as shown in following figure.

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17.What are the characteristics of grating spectra? ***
Characteristics of Grating spectra:

✓ The Grating equation is given by 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑁𝑛𝜆, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚, 𝑁 =

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒
✓ For white light, sin value of angle of diffraction is directly proportional to wavelength.
Ex: Angle of diffraction of red is more than angle of diffraction of violet.
✓ The spectra of different orders positined either side of zeroth order symmetrically.
✓ In the Grating spectrum violet positioned at innermost and red positioned at outmost.
✓ Most intensiy goes to zeroth order and rest is distributed among remaining orders.
✓ Central image is appeared as white in colour due to coincidence of central maxima’s of all wavelengths.
✓ As the number lines in the grating are large, then bright parllel lines are appeared more sharp. These bright sharp
lines are called “ spectral lines”.
✓ The spectral lines are more and more dispersed as we goes to higher orders.
✓ The maximum number of possible orders of grating spectrum is given by
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
=𝑛 { 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 sin 𝜃
𝑁𝜆
1 1
=𝑛 {∵ (𝑒+𝑑)
=𝑁
𝑁𝜆
(𝒆+𝒅)
𝝀
=𝒏

1.3. Polarisation
18.Define polarisation and howmany types of polarisation ?
Polarisation:
✓ The restriction of light rays in patricular single direction is known as “Polarisation”.
✓ Polarisation is direct evidence of transverse nature of light.
Polarised light can classified into expecially three types
i. Plane polarised light
ii. Circular polarised light
iii. Elliptically polarised light
19.What is the plane polarised light?
After passing through polariser( tourmaline crystal), the vibrations of the incident light are confined to a paticular
plane only, then it is called “Plane polarised light”.

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20.What is the circular polarised light?
After passing through polariser, the vibrations of the incident light are traces a circular paths only, then it is called
“Circularly polarised light”.

If it traces a clock wise direction then it is called “Right circularly polarised” , while it is traces a anti-clock wise
direction then it is called “Left circularly polarised”.
21.What is the elliptically polarised light?
After passing through polariser, the vibrations of the incident light are traces elliptically paths only, then it is called
“Elliptically polarised light”.

If it traces a clock wise direction then it is called “Right elliptically polarised” , while it is traces a anti-clock wise
direction then it is called “Left elliptically polarised”.

22.What is the brewsters angle? ***

The angle incidence at which reflected light totally polarised when unpolarised light is incident on glass plate is called
“Brewster’s angle “ or “Polarising angle”.

23.State the Malus law? ***

When a plane polarised light from polariser is passed through the analyser, then the intensity of trnsmitted polarised light
is varies as square of the cosine of the angle between plane transmission and plane of polariser.
𝐼0
∴ 𝐼 = 𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃, 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼1 = 2
, 𝐼0 = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡.

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24.What is the double refraction?***

✓ When a unpolarised light is allowed on certain crysrals such calcite,torumaline, then it is split in to two rays
namely ordinary ray and extraordinary ray which are plane polarised. This pheonomenon is called double
refraction or Bi-refregence.

25.What is the difference between ordinary and extraordinary rays ?

✓ The ray which is doesn’t obeys the laws of the refraction and has vibrations parallel to principal section is called
Extra ordinary ray.
✓ The ray which is obeys the laws of the refraction and has vibrations perpendicular to principal section is known as
Ordinary ray.
26.What is Nicol’s prism ?
Nicol’s prism is optical device which was made from calcite crystal and used to produce and analyse the plane polarised
light.
In 1828, the scientist Nicol designed this optical device

27.What is the working principle of Nicol’s prism? **

Double refraction and total internal reflection both phenomenon’s are helpful to Nicol’s prism functioning.

28.What is the quarterwave plate? ***

✓ Quarterwave plate is optical device which is used to produce circularly (or) elliptically polarised light.
✓ When the thickness (t) of bi-refracting uniaxial crystal such as calcite, cut such that path difference between
𝜆
ordinary ray and extraordinary ray is becomes in the order 4
known as “Quarterwave plate”.
𝜆
✓ The thickness of quarterwave plate is given by 𝑡= 4(𝜇0 −𝜇𝑒 )
29.What is the half wave plate? ***
✓ Half wave plate is optical device which is used to produce plane polarised light.
✓ When the thickness (t) of bi-refracting uniaxial crystal such as calcite, cut such that path difference between
𝜆
ordinary ray and extraordinary ray is becomes in the order 2
known as “Half wave plate”.
𝜆
The thickness of half wave plate is given by 𝑡= 2(𝜇0 −𝜇𝑒 )
30.What are the applications of polarisation ? **

✓ Polarisation used to differentiate the longitudinal and transverse wave.

✓ Used in glare reduced glasses
✓ Used to produce and show 3-D movies.
✓ Used in automobile mirrors.
✓ Used in infrared spectroscopy.
✓ Used to study the physics of early universe.
✓ Used to perform the stress analysis of plastics.

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 Unit-II
Lasers and Fiber optics
2.1. Lasers
Essay type answer questions
1.Derive the relationship between Einstein’s coefficients? **

The famous scientist Einstein establishes the relation between the three coefficients of st i m ul a t e d absorption,
spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission which are generally called as “Einstein’s relations”.

Let N1 be the number of atoms per unit volume with energy E1 and N2 be the number of atoms per unit volume
with energy E2 and ( ) be the density of photons. When the photons interact with ground level atoms, both upward
(absorption) and downward (emission) transition occurs.
At the equilibrium the upward transitions must be equal downward transitions.

Upward transition:
Stimulated absorption rate depends upon the number of atoms available in the lowest energy state as well as the energy
density photons.
Stimulated absorption rate  N1

 ()

= B12 N1 ()
Where
B12 is the Einstein coefficient of stimulated absorption.
Downward transition:
The spontaneous emission rate depends up on the number of atoms present in the excited state.Spontaneous emission rate
 N2
= A21N2

Where
A21 is the Einstein coefficient of spontaneous emission
Stimulated emission rate depends upon the number of atoms available in the excited state as well as the energy density
of photons.
Stimulated emission rate  N2
 ()

= B21N2 ()

Where
B21 is the Einstein coefficient of stimulated emission.

If the system is in equilibrium the upward transitions must be equal downward transitions.

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𝐵12𝑁1𝜌() = 𝐴21𝑁2 + 𝐵21𝑁2𝜌()

𝐵12𝑁1𝜌() − 𝐵21𝑁2𝜌() = 𝐴21𝑁2

𝜌()(𝐵12𝑁1 − 𝐵21𝑁2) = 𝐴21𝑁2
A21 𝑁2
ρ(υ) = (𝐵
12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2 )

Divide with 𝐵21𝑁2 in numerator and denominator in right side of the above equation.

A21 𝑁2
𝐵12 𝑁2
ρ(υ) = (𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2 )
𝐵12 𝑁2

A21
𝐵12
ρ(υ) = 𝑁1 𝐵21
( − )
𝑁2 𝐵12

𝑁1 (𝐸2 −𝐸1 )
⁄𝐾 𝑇
But, 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑤 = 𝑒 𝐵
𝑁2

A21
𝐵21
ρ(υ) = (𝐸2−𝐸1 ) (1)
⁄𝐾 𝑇 𝐵
(𝑒 𝐵 − 21 )
𝐵12

From Planck’s law, the radiation density is given by

8πhυ3⁄
𝐶3
ρ(υ) = (𝐸2 −𝐸1 )⁄ (2)
(𝑒 𝐾𝑇 −1)

From comparison of (1) & (2)

A21 3 𝐵12
we got = 8πhυ ⁄ 3 and =1
𝐵12 𝐶 𝐵21
A21
= 8πh⁄ 3 and 𝐵12 = 𝐵21
𝐵12 𝜆
The above relations referred as Einstein coefficients relations.

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2.Describe the Lasing action? *

The lasing action can be understood by following diagram.

Step (a): All the atoms presented in the active medium are in state of non-excited.
Step (b): Pumping
The raising the atoms from ground state to excited state by allowing suitable energy is called “Pumping”.
Step (b): Papulation Inversion
The stage of making, population of higher energy level is greater than the population of lower energy level by
means of optical pumping.
Step(c): Spontaneous & Stimulated emissions
Some of the excited atoms at meta stable state may emit photons spontaneously in various directions. Each
spontaneous photon triggers the stimulated emissions along the direction of its propagation. The photons
emitted in a direction other than axial direction will pass through the sides of the medium and are lost forever.
Step(d) &Step(e): Optical feedback and Amplication
Back and forth of motion of photons between the two mirrors one fully reflected and another is partially
reflected, the stimulated emission sharply increases and amplication of light takes place.
Step(f): Oscillations
Due to number of oscillations of stimulated photons between two mirrors which are arranged at Brewster’s
angle, a strong continuous LASER beam emitted through partially reflected mirror.

3.Define an Excitation mechanism and explain various types of excitation mechanisms?

The method which is employed to obtain population inversion is known as “Excitation Mechanism”.
Excitation of atom can be done by number of ways. The most commonly used excitation methods are
 Optical pumping
 Electrical discharge pumping
 Chemical pumping
 Injection current pumping

Optical pumping:
✓ Optical pumping is a process in which light is used to raise the atoms from a lower energy level
to higher level to create population inversion.
✓ Optical pumping is used in solid laser.

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 ✓ Examples: - Ruby laser, Nd:YAG Laser (Neodymium: Yttrium Aluminum Garnet), Nd: Glass Laser

Electrical discharge pumping:

✓ In electric discharge pumping, atoms are excited into excited sate by collisions with fast
moving electrons in electric discharge tube.
✓ Electrical discharge pumping is used in gas lasers.
✓ Examples:- He-Ne laser, CO2 laser, argon-ion laser, etc

Inelastic collisions of atoms:

When the gaseous medium constists of two different atoms,then one atom is excited by means of electric
discharge. This excited atom collide with the different atoms in the medium inelastically and transferring
its energy.

Chemical pumping:
✓ In this method the chemical energy released during the chemical process, that energy will excite the
atoms to higher level and create population inversion.
✓ Whenever hydrogen reacts with fluorine, it liberates lot of heat energy, by utilizing this heat energy
the atoms excite into higher states and create population inversion.
✓ Examples: HF and DF lasers.

Direct consertion:
✓ This pumping mechanism is used in semiconductor lasers.
✓ When p-n junction is forward biased, the width of depletion layer decreases and recombination of hole
and electron takes place as result it emits radiation.
✓ Examples: - InP and GaAs lasers
4.Describe the construction and working of He-Ne laser? ***
✓ He-Ne laser is continuous four level gas laser.
✓ The first He-Ne gas laser was fabricated by Ali Javan and his team in the year of 1961.

Construction
✓ In the He-Ne laser 80 cm length and 1 cm diameter discharge tube is generally used.
✓ In He-Ne gas laser, the He and Ne gases are taken in the ratio 10:1 in the discharge tube as shown in figure.
✓ Two reflecting mirrors are fixed on either ends of the discharge tube, one is partially reflecting and the
other is fully reflecting and such arrangement is called Optical cavity (or) Resonator.
✓ When the two windows are set at Brewster’s angle, the output laser is linearly p olarized.
✓ Source of energy: Electrical discharge tube
✓ Active Medium: He-Ne gas mixture
✓ Active element: Ne atom
✓ Pumping Mechanism: In elastic collisions of atoms

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Working
✓ When we the supply the suitable potential difference across the electrodes then as soon as
electrons are liberated from cathode and attracted by anode which is called “electric discharge”.
✓ Due to high potential difference across electrodes electrons are gain higher velocities.
✓ The fast-moving electrons are passing through the gas mixture and collide with the He gas atoms
hence He -atoms are goes to higher levels F2 and F3 from ground state F1 by absorbing the
electrons kinetic energy.
✓ Since F2 and F3 states are acting as metastable states, so the He atom cannot return to ground state
through spontaneous emission.
✓ So, there is a maximum possibility of energy transfer between He and Ne atoms through atomic
collisions.
✓ When the He atoms which are presented in the levels F2 and F3 collide with Ne atoms (ground state
E1) then Ne atoms gets excitation into higher levels E4 and E6.

✓ Due to the continuous excitation of Ne atoms, we can achieve the population inversion at energy
levels E5 and E3
✓ The various transitions E6 → E5, E4 → E3 and E6 → E3 leads to the emission of wavelengths

3.39 m, 1.15 m and 6328A0 respectively.

✓ The first two corresponding to the infrared region while the last wavelength is corresponding to the
visible region wavelength in the order of 6328 A0.
✓ The Ne atoms present in the E3 level are de-excited into E2 level, by spontaneously emitting a
photon of around wavelength 6000A0.
✓ When a narrow discharge tube is used, the Ne atoms present in the level E2 collide with the walls of
the tube and get de-excited to ground level E1.
✓ The excitation and de-excitation of He and Ne atoms is a continuous process and thus it gives
continuous laser radiations.

Advantages:
✓ He-Ne laser emits continuous laser radiation.
✓ Due to the setting of end windows at Brewster’s angle, the output laser is linearly polarized.
✓ Gas lasers are more monochromatic and directional when compared with the solid-state
laser

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5.Describe the construction of working of Nd: YAG Laser? ***
✓ Nd: YAG laser is a solid state four level laser.
✓ Nd stands for Neodymium and YAG for Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (Y3Al5O12).
✓ First demonstrated by J.E. Geusic and others in 1964.
✓ Nd3+ ions are act as active medium.
Construction
✓ The schematic construction diagram of Nd:YAG laser as follows.

✓ The essential parts of Nd:YAG laser are

Source of energy: krypton or xenon flash lamp
Active Medium: Nd doped YAG rod. (10 cm length and 6-9 cm diameter)
Active element: Nd3+
Pumping Mechanism: optical pumping
One end of the Nd-YAG rod is fully silvered and the other end is partially silvered which serve as
optical cavity.
✓ The Nd doped YAG rod and a krypton flash lamp placed in a elliptical reflector cavity.
✓ The intensity of krypton lamp is controlled by a capacitor.

Working (or) Lasing action:

✓ The simplied energy level diagram for working of Nd:YAG laser as shown in figure.

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 ✓ When the Krypton flash lamp is switched on, a part of light energy will be flashes on Nd doped YAG
rod and Nd3+ ions are gets excited to higher energy levels E4 and E5 from the ground state E1.
✓ The excited Nd3+ ions are can’t stay longer time and spontaneously undergoes non-radiative transition
from E5 ⟶ E3 and E4 ⟶ E3.
✓ Accumulation of Nd3+ ions at energy level E3 leads to population inversion and E3 acts as meta stable
state.
✓ A photon is produced when an Nd3+ ion makes spontaneous transition from E3 ⟶ E2 energy level.
✓ This spontaneous photon stimulates another excited atom to make a downward transition.
✓ This stimulated photon and initial photon trigger many excited ions to emit photons.
✓ These many photons travel back and forth through active medium between the two mirrors and amplify
the photon strength very rapidly.
✓ At each reflection at the front -end mirror, light is partially transmitted through it which cause loss of
energy of resonator.
✓ The losses at the end mirror settles the medium balance the again and a steady stronger laser beam will
emerge from the front-end mirror in infrared region of wavelength 1.06 μm.
✓ The Nd3+ ions are return to ground state E2 from the energy level E1 through non-radiative transitions.
Applications of Nd-YAG Laser
✓ These lasers are widely used for cutting, drilling, welding in the industrial
products.
✓ It is also used in the endoscopic applications.
6.List the applications of lasers in various fields? **
Due to high intensity, high monocromacity and high directionality of lasers, they are widely used in various fields like
1. communication
2. computers
3. chemistry
4. photography
5. industry
6. medicine
7. military
8. scientific research
1. Communication
➢ In case of optical communication semiconductors laser diodes are used as optical sources and its bandwidth is
(1014Hz) is very high compared to the radio and microwave communications.
➢ More channels can be sent simultaneously
➢ Signal cannot be tapped
➢ As the band width is large, more data can be sent.
➢ A laser is highly directional and less divergence, hence it has greater potential use in space crafts and
submarines.
2. Computers
➢ In LAN (local area network), data can be transferred from memory storage of one computer to other
computer using laser for short time.
➢ Lasers are used in CD-ROMS during recording and reading the data.
3. Chemistry
➢ Lasers are used in molecular structure identification
➢ Lasers are also used to accelerate some chemical reactions.
➢ Using lasers, new chemical compounds can be created by breaking bonds between atoms are molecules.
4. Photography
➢ Lasers are also used in the construction of holograms.
➢ Lasers can be used to get 3-D lens less photography.

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 5. Industry
➢ Lasers can be used to blast holes in diamonds and hard steel
➢ Lasers are also used as a source of intense heat
➢ Lasers are used to drill holes in ceramics.
➢ Lasers are used to cut glass and quartz.
➢ Lasers are used for heat treatment in the tooling and automotive industry.
➢ Lasers are used in electronic industry in trimming the components of ICS.
➢ High power lasers are used to weld or melt any material.
➢ Lasers are also used to cut teeth in saws and test the quality of fabric.
6. Medicine
➢ Lasers are used for cataract removal.
➢ Lasers are used for eye lens curvature corrections.
➢ Lasers are used in bloodless surgery.
➢ Lasers are used in cancer diagnosis and therapy.
➢ Lasers are used in destroying kidney stones and gallstones.
➢ Argon and carbon dioxide lasers are used in the treat men of liver and lungs.
➢ Lasers used in endoscopy to scan the inner parts of the stomach.
➢ Lasers used in the elimination of moles and tumours which are developing in the skin tissue.
➢ Lasers are used in plastic surgery.
➢ Lasers are used in the treatment of mouth diseases.
7. Military
➢ Lasers can be used as a war weapon.
➢ High energy lasers are used to destroy the enemy air-crofts and missiles.
➢ Lasers can be used in the detection and ranging likes RADAR.

8. Scientific field
➢ Lasers are used for isotope preparation.
➢ Lasers are employed to create plasma.
➢ Lasers are used in air pollution, to estimate the size of the dust particles.
➢ Lasers are used in the field of 3D-photography
➢ Lasers used in Recording and reconstruction of hologram.
➢ Lasers used to produce certain chemical reactions.
➢ Lasers are used in Raman spectroscopy to identify the structure of the molecule.

2.1. Lasers
Short type questions and answers
1.What is meant by LASER?
❖ A laser is a device that generates light by a process called STIMULATED EMISSION.
❖ LASER is an acronym stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

2.What are the characteristics of LASERS? **

The laser light exhibits some peculiar properties than compare with the convectional light. Those are

• Highly directionality
• Highly monochromatic
• Highly intense
• Highly coherence

3.What is stimulated absorption of radiation? **

The process of excitation of atom f r o m g r o u n d s t a t e into excited state by absorbing the incident

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 photon is called “Stimulated absorption”.

4.What is the spontaneous emission radiation? *

The process of de-excitation of atom itself from exited state into ground state after its life time and
emitting a photon is called “Spontaneous emission”.
Ex: Emission of light from the mercury lamp or tungsten lamp.

5.What is the stimulation emission radiation? ***

The process of de-excitation of atom into ground state from excited state by interacting with an additional
photon within its life time by emitting of an additional photon.
➢ Example: Emission of light from laser source

6.comapre and contrast the spontaneous emission and stimulated emission of radiation? ****
Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission
1. The spontaneous emission was postulated by 1. The stimulated emission was postulated by
Bohr Einstein
2. Additional photons are not required in 2. Additional photons are required in stimulated
spontaneous emission emission

3. One photon is emitted in spontaneous emission 3. Two photons are emitted in stimulated
emission
4. The emitted radiation is poly-monochromatic 4. The emitted radiation is monochromatic
5. The emitted radiation is Incoherent 5. The emitted radiation is Coherent
6. The emitted radiation is less intense 6. The emitted radiation is high intense
7. The emitted radiation have less directionality 7. The emitted radiation have high directionality

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 8. Example: : light from sodium or mercury lamp 8. Example: light from laser source

7. What is the population inversion? ***

✓ The stage of making, population of higher energy level is greater than the population of lower energy level
is called population inversion.
✓ According to Boltzmann’s distribution the population of an energy level 𝐸𝑖 at temperature T is given by

𝑁𝑖 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝐸𝑖 ⁄𝐾𝑇

Where 𝑁0 𝑖𝑠 the population of the lower level or ground state and k is the Boltzmann’s constant.

8.What is the pumping? ***

✓ The process of raising the particles from ground state to excited state to achieve population
inversion is called pumping.
9.What is the metastable state? ***
The higher energy in which life time of exited atoms more in the order of 10-3 sec is called “ Meta stable
state”. Population inversion generally takes place in metastable state.

10.What are different types of excitation mechanisms? **

Excitation of atom can be done by number of ways. The most commonly used excitation methods are
 Optical pumping
 Electrical discharge pumping
 Chemical pumping
 Injection current pumping
11.What are applications of lasers? **
Due to high intensity, high monocromacity and high directionality of lasers, they are widely used in various fields like
Communication
➢ More channels can be sent simultaneously
➢ Signal cannot be tapped
➢ As the band width is large, more data can be sent.
Computers
➢ In LAN (local area network), data can be transferred from memory storage of one computer to other
computer using laser for short time.
➢ Lasers are used in CD-ROMS during recording and reading the data.

Chemistry
➢ Lasers are used in molecular structure identification

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 ➢ Lasers are also used to accelerate some chemical reactions.
➢ Using lasers, new chemical compounds can be created by breaking bonds between atoms are molecules.
Photography
➢ Lasers are also used in the construction of holograms.
➢ Lasers can be used to get 3-D lens less photography.
Industry
➢ Lasers are also used as a source of intense heat
➢ Lasers are used to drill holes in ceramics, hard steel, diamonds.
➢ Lasers are used to cut glass and quartz.
Medicine
➢ Lasers are used for cataract removal.
➢ Lasers are used in cancer diagnosis and therapy.
➢ Lasers are used in destroying kidney stones and gallstones.
Military
➢ Lasers can be used as a war weapon.
➢ High energy lasers are used to destroy the enemy air-crofts and missiles.
➢ Lasers can be used in the detection and ranging likes RADAR.

Scientific field
➢ Lasers are used for isotope preparation.
➢ Lasers are employed to create plasma.
➢ Lasers are used in air pollution, to estimate the size of the dust particles.

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 2.2. Optical Fibers
Essay type questions and answers
1.Describe
i) The refractive index profile of step index optical fiber?
ii) Transmission of signal in step index fibre?
(or)
Describe the step index optical fiber? *

Refractive index profile of step index optical fiber:

 In step index fibre the refractive index of the core medium is uniform and undergoes an abrupt change at
the interface of core and cladding as shown in figure.
d

Transmission of signal in step index fibre:

 Based on propagation modes these are two types
✓ Single mode: Only one light signal is allowed by the optical fiber.
✓ Multi-mode: More than one light signal is allowed by Graded index optical fiber.
 The propagation of signals through the multi-mode fibre is shown in fibre. The shape of propagation
of the optical signal is in zigzag manner.

 Generally, the signal through the fibre is in digital form i.e. in the form of pulses representing 0s and 1s.
 From figure the ray 1 follows shortest path and the ray 2 follows longer path than ray 1 due to different
angle of incidences. Hence the path between two rays causes super impose waves and output signals are
overlapped to each other. This phenomenon is called “Intermodal dispersion”.
𝑉2
The number of possible modes in step index fibre is given by = 2
2𝜋
Where, V is the number of possible propagation modes in the core of step index fibre = 𝜆 𝑟(𝑁𝐴)
Where
𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑒
NA= 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜆 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

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2.Describe
i) The refractive index profile of Graded index optical fiber?
ii) Transmission of signal in Graded index fibre?
(or)
Describe the Graded index optical fiber?*
Refractive index profile of step index optical fiber:
 In graded index fibers, the refractive index of the core medium is varying in the parabolic manner such
that the maximum refractive index is present at the center of the core.
d
 The diameter of the core is about 50 micro meters.
 Attenuation is very less in graded index fibers
 Numerical aperture is less in graded index fibers
 This fibre is refractive type fiber. n

Transmission of signal in graded index optical fibre:

 Based on propagation modes these are two types

Single mode: Only one light signal is allowed by the optical fiber.
Multi-mode: More than one light signal are allowed by Graded index optical fiber.

 In multi-mode graded index fibre, the width of core less than as compared to the width of cladding thusallows many
rays at a time and each ray follows its own path and so it is called multi-mode fibre.
 Considertwo rays, ray-1 and ray-2 are incident on to the fibre with different angles of incidence as shown in figure.

Multi-mode graded index fibre

 Both of them adjust their velocities due to variation in refractive index and get focused at the samepoint.
Hence no path difference and no over lapping of signals thus the two rays will be received at the same time without
distortion i.e., there is no inter modal dispersion
𝑉2
 The number of possible modes in graded index fibre is given by = 4
2𝜋
Where, V is the number of possible propagation modes in the core of Graded index fibre = 𝜆 𝑟(𝑁𝐴)
Where
𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑒
NA= 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜆 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

3.What are the differences between step index and graded index fibers? ****

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 Step index fibre Graded index fibre
1.The optical fiber in which refractive index of the core is 1. The optical fiber in which refractive index of the core is
uniform and undergoes an abrupt change at the interface of varying in the parabolic manner such that center has
core and cladding is known as Step index optical fibre. maximum is known as Graded index optical fiber.

2. The transmitted optical signal will cross the

2. The transmitted optical signal will never crossthe fibre
fibre axis during every reflection at the corecladding axis at any time.
boundary.
3. The shape of propagation of the optical signal 3. The shape of propagation of the optical signal
is in zigzag manner. appears in the helical or spiral manner
4. Attenuation is more for multi- mode step index fibres but
Attenuation is less in single mode step 4. Attenuation is very less in graded index fibres
index fibres

5. Numerical aperture is more for multi- mode

5. Numerical aperture is less in graded indexfibres
step index fibres but it is less in single mode stepindex fibres

4.What are the differences between the single and multi-mode optical fibers? ****

Single mode fibre Multi-mode fibre

1. In single mode optical fibres only one mode of 1.In multi- mode optical fibres many o f modes of
propagation is possible propagation are possible.
2. These fibres have small core diameter and the 2. These fibres have large core diameter and the difference between
difference between the refractive indices of core and the refractive indices of core and cladding is also large compared to
cladding is very small. the single mode
fibres.

3. In single mode fibres there is no 3. Due to multi- mode transmission, the dispersion is
dispersion, so these are more suitable forcommunication. large, so these fibres are not used for communicationpurposes.

4. The process of launching of light into 4. The process of launching of light into single mode
single mode fibres is very difficult fibres is very easy.
5. Numerical aperture is less. 5.Numerical aperture is more.

6.Attenuation is less 6.Attenuation is more

7. No intermodal dispersion takes place 7.Intermodal dispersion takes place

8.Fabrication is very difficult and the 8.Fabrication is very easy and the fibre is cheaper.
fibre is costly.
9.These are more suitable forcommunication. 9.These fibres are not used for communicationpurposes.

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5)
i) The define Acceptance Angle and derive expression for the acceptance angle
ii) Define the Acceptance cone and mention its significance? ****
Acceptance Angle
The maximum angle of incidence at which the light ray enters into the core and guided through the fibre is called
“Acceptance Angle”.

Expression for Acceptance angle: (Half angle of acceptence cone (𝜃𝑎 ))

 Let 𝑛0 , 𝑛1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛2 are refractive indices of air, core and cladding respectively.
 When a light ray (OA) is allowed on optical fibre with an incidence angle (𝜃𝑎 ) then the light ray enters into core and
refracts with anlge refraction (𝜃𝑟 ). The refracted ray moving towards to cladding and incident at Point B (core and
cladding interface) with angle of incident 90 − 𝜃𝑟 .

90 − 𝜃𝑟

 If the angle 90 − 𝜃𝑟 is equal to the critical angle of core and cladding interface, then the incident ray should be
propagating along the interface of core and cladding as shown in above figure.
 If the angle of incident at point A (Air and core interface) is less than acceptance angle (𝜃𝑎 ) , then 90 − 𝜃𝑟 will
be greater than the critical angle which favorable condition to takes place total internal reflection.

Now Apply the Snell’s law at point A

sin 𝜃𝑎 𝑛
= 𝑛1
sin 𝜃 𝑟 0
𝑛
sin 𝜃𝑎 = 𝑛1 sin 𝜃𝑟 (1)
0
Now Apply the Snell’s law at point B

sin(90−𝜃𝑟 ) 𝑛
= 𝑛2 { ∵ sin 90 = 𝟏
sin 90 1
𝑛2
∴ sin(90 − 𝜃𝑟 ) = 𝑛
1
𝑛
cos 𝜃𝑟 = 𝑛2
1

𝑛 2
∴ sin 𝜃𝑟 = √1 − (𝑛2 ) { ∵ sin 𝜃 = √𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽
1

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 𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2
sin 𝜃𝑟 = √ 𝑛1 2
√𝑛1 −𝑛2 2
2
sin 𝜃𝑟 = (2)
𝑛1
Equation (2) in (1)
𝑛 √𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2
sin 𝜃𝑎 = 𝑛1 [ ]
0 𝑛1
√𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2
sin 𝜃𝑎 = 𝑛0
sin 𝜃𝑎 = √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
∴ Acceptance angle ( 𝜃𝑎 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (√𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 )
Acceptance cone:
A cone obtained by rotating a ray at the end face of an optical fibre, around the fibre axis with
acceptance angle is known as acceptance cone.
Significance:
✓ If the incident light ray is allowed with in this conical surface, then the ray propagated through
fibre by the principle total internal reflection.
✓ If the incident light ray is allowed out of this conical surface, then the ray doesn’t undergo the
T.I.R and enters into cladding, hence signal loss will be takes place.

6.Define Numerical Aperture (NA) and derive expression for it? ****
✓ Numerical aperture is defined as the light gathering capacity of an optical fiber.
✓ It is directly proportional to the acceptance angle.
✓ Numerically it is equal to the sin of the acceptance angle.
𝑁𝐴 = sin(𝑎𝑐𝑐e𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐e 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙e)

𝑁𝐴 = sin (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (√𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 ) )

𝑁𝐴 = √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2

∴ 𝑁𝐴 = √𝒏𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐 𝟐 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝒂

✓ Numerical Aperture can be expressed in terms of fractional change (∇).

∴ 𝐍𝐀 = √𝒏𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐 𝟐

∴ 𝐍𝐀 = √(𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 )(𝒏𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐 )
(𝒏𝟏 −𝒏𝟐 )
∴ 𝑵𝑨 = √(𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 )∆𝒏𝟏 { ∵ 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆(𝛁) = 𝒏𝟏

∴ 𝑵𝑨 = √(𝟐𝒏𝟏 )∆𝒏𝟏 { ∵ 𝑰𝒇 𝒏𝟏 ≈ 𝒏𝟐 ⇒ 𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 = 𝟐𝒏𝟏

∴ 𝑵𝑨 = √𝟐∆𝒏𝟏 𝟐

∴ 𝑵𝑨 = 𝒏𝟏 √𝟐∆

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 ✓ Light gathering capacity is can be increased by increasing fractional change.
6.Explain the electromagnetic wave propagation in an optical fiber? **
✓ Let us consider a optical fiber having permittivity (𝜀) and permeability (𝜇).
✓ Generally optical fibers are fabricated with dielectric materials which having zero resistivity.
✓ when the information carrying light signal propagating through optical fiber (dielectric material) then
it follows the set of equations called “Maxwell equations” which are given bellow.
𝝏𝑫
𝛁×𝑯 =𝑱+ (𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆′ 𝒔 𝒍𝒂𝒘 ) (𝟏)
𝝏𝒕
𝝏𝑩
𝛁 × 𝑬 = − 𝝏𝒕 ( 𝑭𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒂𝒚′ 𝒔 𝒍𝒂𝒘 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏) (𝟐)

𝛁. 𝑩 = 𝟎 (𝐆𝐚𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐥𝐚𝐰 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐬𝐦) (𝟑)

𝝆
𝛁. 𝑬 = − 𝜺 ( 𝑮𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒔 𝒍𝒂𝒘 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚) (4)
𝟎

Equation (1) can rearrange such that

𝜕𝐷
(𝟏) ⇒ 𝛁 × 𝑯 = 𝐽 + 𝜕𝑡

For dielectrics 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜎) = 0 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑗 = 𝜎𝜖𝐸) 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.
𝑩 𝜕𝐷
𝛁×𝝁 =0+ ∵ 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻
𝜕𝑡

𝟏 𝜕𝜀𝐸
(𝛁 × 𝑩) = ∵ 𝐷 = 𝜀𝐸
𝝁 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝐸
(𝛁 × 𝑩) = 𝜇𝜀
𝜕𝑡

𝜕 𝜕2𝐸
(𝛁 × 𝑩) = 𝜇𝜀
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕𝐵 𝜕2𝐸
𝛁× = 𝜇𝜀
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2𝐸
𝛁 × (−𝛁 × 𝑬 ) = 𝜇𝜀 𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2𝐸
- 𝛁 × (𝛁 × 𝑬 ) = 𝜇𝜀 𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2 𝐸
- [ 𝛁. ( 𝛁. 𝐄 ) − 𝛁 2 𝐸 ] = 𝜇𝜀 𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2𝐸
- [ 𝛁. ( 𝟎) − 𝛁 2 𝐸 ] = 𝜇𝜀 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝛁. 𝐄 = 0
𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2𝐸
∴ 𝛁 2 𝐸 = 𝜇𝜀 (5)
𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2𝐵
Similarly, we deduce for magnetic field is given by 𝛁 2 𝐵 = 𝜇𝜀 (6)
𝜕𝑡 2

1 𝜕2 𝜓 1
Compare the both equations with general wave equation is given by 𝛁 2 𝜉 = 𝑣2 𝑤here velocity 𝑣 =
𝜕𝑡2 √𝜇𝜀

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 1
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑣 =
√𝜇𝜀

6.What is Attenuation of optical fiber (or) Propagation Losses and mention what are the various
factors?**
✓ When the light signals propagate through the optical fibers losses arises due to various factors, these losses are
generally termed as “Attenuation of light signals” (or) Propagation Losses.
−𝛼𝐿
✓ The output power (Pout ) at distance L from the input signal is given by 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑒 ⁄10

Where

Pout = output power at a distance L

Pin = input power

L =length of the fibre and

α = attenuation co efficient
✓ Taking logarithm on both sides of the above equation, we get
𝟏𝟎 𝑷
𝐀𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭(𝜶) = 𝑳 𝐥𝐨𝐠 [ 𝑷 𝒊𝒏 ] 𝒅𝒃/𝒌𝒎.
𝒐𝒖𝒕
✓ Thus, attenuation in the fibre is defined as the ratio of the output power to the input power.

The attenuation in optical fibers arises mainly due to following factors:

1. Material or impurity losses: The doped impurities during the fabrication of the fibres cause losses in
the lightpropagated through the fibre.

2. Scattering losses: glass is an amorphous material and hence gives rise to losses due to inhomogeneity
in material content.

3. Absorption losses: Absorption depends on the material of the core and cladding and is inversely related
to transmission. There are three mechanisms called ion-resonance absorption, UV absorption and IR
absorption which are causes absorption losses.

4. Bending losses: These losses become prominent when the fibre installation is done improperly by
bending at greaterangles.

5. Radiation induced losses: When x-rays or gamma rays interact with fibre, the structure of the fibre
will be altered and the fibre becomes dark. This contributes for signal losses called “Radiation induced
losses”.

6. Inherent defect losses: The inherent defect losses are nothing but surface defects in the core arises due
to presence of contaminants like oil, grease which could modify the refractive index of the core and
cladding and produce losses.

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 7. Transmission losses: When a part of the incident light is caught in the cladding it can be either lost
outside or is trapped in the cladding and is not available for propagation.

8. Core cladding losses: The core and cladding have different attenuation coefficient due to different
refractive indices. This might cause losses.

2.2. Fiber optics

Short questions and answers
9.What is an optical fiber and mention essential parts of optical fiber? *

The optical fibre mainly consists the following six parts as shown in figure

1. Core: The innermost layer of optical fiber is called core where optical signal transmitted.
2. Cladding: Core is surrounded by a second layer called “Cladding” which keeps optical signal with in the
core.
3. Silicon coating: silicon coating is provided between cladding and buffer jacket to improve quality of
transmission of optical signal.
4. Buffer jacket: Protects the fibre from moisture and abrasion.
5. Strength member: Provide the necessary toughness and tensile strength.
6. Outer jacket: Protects the fibre from radiation, rain and …others.

10.What is the working principle of optical fiber? ****

✓ Optical fibers are working on basic principle called “Total Internal Reflection”.

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 ✓ If the angle of incidence (i) greater than critical angle(𝜃𝑐 ), then the incident light should be total reflected in
to same medium and this phenomenon is called “Total Internal reflection”.

11.What are the necessary conditions for occur total internal reflection in optical fiber?
✓ The conditions for total internal reflection in the optical fiber is
• Refractive index of core (n1) > Refractive index of (n2)
• The light should be propagating from core (denser medium) to cladding (cladding).

12.What is the acceptance angle (or) Half angle of acceptence cone (𝜃𝑎 ) of optical fiber? ****
The maximum angle of incidence at which the light ray enters into the core and guided through the fibre is called
“Acceptance Angle”.

∴ Acceptance angle ( 𝜃𝑎 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (√𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 )

13. What is Numerical Aperture (NA) of optical fiber? ****
✓ Numerical aperture is defined as the light gathering capacity of an optical fiber.
✓ It is directlyproportional to the acceptance angle.
✓ Numerically it is equal to the sin of the acceptance angle.
𝑁𝐴 = sin(𝑎𝑐𝑐e𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐e 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙e)

𝑁𝐴 = sin (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (√𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 ) )

𝑁𝐴 = √𝒏𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐 𝟐

14. What is attenuation (or) propagation loss of an optical fiber? ***

✓ When the light signals propagate through the optical fibers losses raised due to various factors, these losses are
generally termed as “Attenuation of light signals” (or) Propagation Losses.

10 𝑃
Attenuation coefficient(𝛼) = log [ 𝑖𝑛 ] 𝑑𝑏/𝑘𝑚.
𝐿 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
Where

Pout = output power at a distance L

Pin = input power

L =length of the fibre and

✓ Thus, attenuation in the fibre is defined as the ratio of the output power to the input power.

15.What are the applications of optical fibers in communication system? *

1. Optical fibres are widely used in communication systems as wave guides.
2. Approximately 10,000 signals can be transmitted simultaneously through optical fibre.
3. As the fibres with stand temperature and avoids moisture the information can be delivered with high quality.

47 | P a g e
 4. The protective layers avoid cross talk.
5. They can be used for secret communication during wars.
6. Owing to higher band width the fibres carry more information with higher rate.
16.What are the application of optical fibres in medicine field? *
✓ The optical fibres are used to view the cells, tissues and internal parts of the body affected by
disease. This technique is called “endoscopy”.
✓ Optical fibres are used to treat lung disorders.
✓ They are used in surgeries of major joints like knees and shoulders.
✓ They are used in investigation of problems in heart, respiratory system and pancreas.

17.What is the role of optical fibers in fabrication of sensors? *

✓ Optical fibres are useful to sense and measure the acoustic fields, temperature, pressure, strain,
acceleration, currents and magnetic fields.
✓ The typical optical fibre sensing unit constricts of a light source, optical fibre and the detector. The
sensing field surrounding the fibre induces disturbances in the light signal and it is recorded by the
detector. These are commonly used to sense sound waves (acoustics), displacements, pressure and
temperature.

Typical optical sensor technique

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 3. Dielectrics &Magnetic materials

3.1. Dielectrics

Essay type questions and answers

1.Explain different types of polarisations? ****
Polarisation is a process of separation of charges inside dielectric material due to presence of external
electric field. Based on the types of separated charges, polarisation can be classified in to especially three
classes, those are
➢ Electronic polarisation
➢ Ionic polarisation
➢ Orientation polarisation Or Dipolar polarisation
Electronic Polarisation:
The displacement of electron cloud with respect to positive nucleus inside the atom in presence of external
field is called “Electronic Polarisation”.
Explanation:
✓ Let consider an atom which is presented inside the dielectric material of permivity () When a external electric
field (E) is applied to the dielectric material then electron cloud is displaced in the opposite direction to the
applied field, while positive nucleus is attracted towards applied field, hence a dipole will be formed with
dipole moment ().

✓ Dipole moment () is directly proportional to applied field (E)

i.e.,   E
e =  e E where αe is the electronic polarizability
µ𝑒
According of definition of Polarisation 𝑃𝑒 =
𝑉
For V=1 units, 𝑃 = µ𝑒
For N number of atoms 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑁µ𝑒
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸
ɛ𝑜 𝐸(ɛ𝑟 − 1) = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸

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 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸
(ɛ𝑟 − 1) =
ɛ𝑜 𝐸
𝑁𝛼𝑒
(ɛ𝑟 − 1) =
ɛ𝑜
𝑁𝛼𝑒 (ɛ𝑟 −1) ɛ𝑜
ɛ𝑟 = +1 (or) 𝛼𝑒 = (1)
ɛ𝑜 𝑁
From equation (1), electronic Polarisability is independent of temperature.

Ionic Polarisation: The displacement of negative ions with respect to the positive ions
inside the dielectric ionic crystals is called “Ionic Polarisation”.

✓ The net dipole moment of Ionic crystal is zero in absence of electric field mainly due to periodic
arrangement of ionic crystal.
✓ But when such ionic crystal is placed in an external electric field, the positive ions get attracted by
the applied field (E) and negative ions get displaced in the opposite direction to E. i.e., the crystal
gets ionic polarization. Hence there exists a net dipole moment ( µ𝑖 ).

(a). Un polarised ionic dielectric crystal (b). Polarised ionic dielectric crystal

✓ We knew that, dipole moment is directly proportional to applied field i.e., µ𝑖 ∝ 𝐸

µ𝑖 = 𝛼𝑖 𝐸 E where αe is the Ionic polarizability

µ𝑖
According of definition of Polarisation 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑉
For V=1 units 𝑃 = µ𝑖
For N number of atoms 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑁µ𝑖
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑁𝛼𝑖 𝐸 (2)
If M is mass of +ve ion, m is the mass of -ve ion, e charge of electron and 𝜔0 is the angular
velocity of ion then the ionic Polarisability is given by
𝑒2 1 1
𝛼𝑖 = 𝜔 2 [ +𝑚 ] (3)
0 𝑀

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 Now equation (3) in (1) then, ionic polarisation is,

𝑒2 1 1
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑁𝐸 𝜔 2 [ +𝑚 ] (4)
0 𝑀

Orientation Polarisation (or) Dipolar Polarisation:

The partially alignment of molecular dipole moment inside the polar dielectric i n presence of applied
electric field is called orientation polarisation.
✓ The certain molecules which have dipoles with permanent dipole moment are referred as Polar
molecules and corresponding dielectric is called polar dielectrics.
✓ In the absence of applied field, the net dipole moment of molecule is zero mainly due to random
orientations of polar molecules hence polar dielectric is not polarized.
✓ In the presence of applied field (E), the polar molecules are aligned in the direction of applied field
and polarised, but polar molecules are slightly turn by small angle due to thermal agitation.

(a). Molecular dipoles are randomly oriented when E=0 (b).When field applied the dipoles are partially aligned.

✓ The averaged induced orientation dipole moment is directly proportional to applied filed i.e., µ𝑜 ∝ 𝐸
µ𝑜 = 𝛼𝑜 𝐸 where αo is the orientation polarizability
µ𝑜
According of definition of Polarisation 𝑃𝑜 = 𝑉
For V=1m3 𝑃𝑜 = µ𝑜
For N number of atoms 𝑃𝑜 = 𝑁µ𝑜
𝑃𝑜 = 𝑁𝛼𝑜 𝐸 (5)
✓ The Orientation Polarisability is strongly depends on permanent dipole moment and temperature and
expression is given by
𝜇2
𝛼𝑜 = (6)
3 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

From (5) and (6)

𝜇2
𝑃𝑜 = 𝑁𝐸 3 𝐾 𝑇
(7)
𝐵

From (7) it is clear that orientation polarisation is inversely proportional to temperature and directly
proportional to the square of permanent dipole moment.

51 | P a g e
2.The describe concept of local field of the dielectric material and derive expression for local
field.****
Local field (or) Internal field (or) Lorentz field:
Definition:Local field is defined as the total resultant electric field acting on an atom inside the dielectric
material in presence of applied field.

Dielectric material

Imaginary sphere (or) Lorentz sphere

Position of atom

Expression for Local field:

✓ Let us consider dielectric material which placed in between the parallel plates of a charged capacitor.
✓ when external electric field is applied to capacitor then the dielectric is polarised.
✓ Let an atom at a point A inside dielectric material.
✓ Lorentz imagined a spherical region around atom which covers the maximum surface of polarised
dielectric with A as center as shown figure.
✓ Let the electric field due to charged capacitor is E1
the electric field due to induced dipoles on dielectric is E2
the electric field inside the spherical region is E3 and
the electric field due to the surface charges on the sphere region is E4.
Now
Local field is given by
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸1 + (−𝐸2 ) + 𝐸3 + 𝐸4

𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 + 0 + 𝐸4 { ∵ 𝐸 = 𝐸1 −𝐸2 And E3 =0}

𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 + 𝐸4 (1)

52 | P a g e
Calculation of field E4 :

✓ Let us consider enlarge view of spherical region shown in figure.

✓ Let dA is differential area on sphere of radius r lying between 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝜃 , where 𝜃 is the angle
between the direction of reference and the direction of applied field, then
𝑑𝐴 =2𝜋(𝑆𝑄)(𝑄𝑅) (2)

From ∆𝐴𝑆𝑄
𝑆𝑄
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =  𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑆𝑄 (3)
𝑟

From 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑄𝑅

𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑄𝑅
𝑑𝜃 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠  𝑑𝜃 =  𝑟𝑑𝜃 = 𝑄𝑅 (4)
𝑟

(3) and (4) are in (2)

𝑑𝐴 = 2𝜋 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝐴 = 2𝜋 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃 (5)
Now differential charge (dq) for the differential area (dA) is given by
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑑𝐴. Pcos𝜃
𝑑𝑞 = 2𝜋 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃 . Pcos𝜃

Now differential electric field (dE4) due to surface charges on spherical region is given by
𝑑𝑞×𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑞
𝑑𝐸4 = {∵ 𝐸 = }
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

2𝜋 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃 .Pcos𝜃×𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑑𝐸4 = 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
P 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝐸4 =
2𝜀0
𝑃
𝑑𝐸4 = 2𝜀 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
0
𝑃 𝜋
𝐸4 =
2𝜀0
∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝑡 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝑃 𝜋
𝐸4 = − 2𝜀 ∫0 𝑡 2 dt
0

53 | P a g e
 𝑃 𝑡3
𝐸4 = − 2𝜀 [ 3 ]𝜋0
0
𝑐𝑜𝑠3 𝜃 𝜋
𝑃
𝐸4 = − 2𝜀 [ ]0 {∵ t = cosθ }
0 3
𝑃
𝐸4 = − 6𝜀 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜋 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 0]
0
𝑃
𝐸4 = − 6𝜀 [−1 − 1] { ∵ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 1}
0
𝑃
𝐸4 = − 6𝜀 [−2]
0
𝑃
𝐸4 = 3𝜀 (6)
0

Now (6) in (1),

𝑃
∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 (𝐸𝑖 ) = 𝐸 + 3𝜀
0

3.Derive Clausius -mosotti equation ***

(or)
Derive relation between Dielectric constant (ɛ𝒓 ) and Polarisability (𝜶) of dielectric material.

Clausius -mosotti equation:

✓ The relationship between dielectric constant (ɛ𝑟 ) and Polarisability (𝛼) of polarized dielectric material is
commonly referred as “Clausius-Mosotti equation”.
✓ To derive this relation, let us consider that a dielectric material is polarized by applying an external electric
field and let the internal field is Ei.
✓ The inducedi dipole moment () in a dielectric is proportional to (Ei) i.e., µα Ei   = Ei. (1)
where α is the polarizability of the dielectric.
𝜇
✓ According to definition of Polarisation 𝑃 =
𝑉
✓ For unit volume V=1units  𝑃 = 𝜇
✓ If there are N number of atoms per unit volume of a dielectric then polarization, 𝑃 = 𝑁𝜇 (2)

(1) in (2)  𝑃 = 𝑁α𝐸𝑖

𝑷
𝑃 = 𝑁α [ 𝑬 + 𝟑𝜺 ]
𝟎
𝑷
𝑃 = 𝑁α 𝑬 + 𝑁α 𝟑𝜺
𝟎
𝑷
𝑃 − 𝑁α 𝟑𝜺 = 𝑁α 𝑬
𝟎
𝑁α
𝑃[1 − 𝟑𝜺 ] = 𝑁α 𝑬
𝟎
𝑁α 𝑁α 𝑬
1− =  ∵ P = ɛ𝑜 𝐸 (r −1) }
𝟑𝜺𝟎 ɛ𝑜 𝐸[𝜀𝑟 −1]
𝑁α 𝑁α 𝑬
1 = 𝟑𝜺 + ɛ𝑜 𝐸[𝜀𝑟 −1]
𝟎
𝑁α 𝑁α
1=[ 𝟑𝜺𝟎
+ ɛ𝑜 [𝜀𝑟 −1]
]
𝑁α 3
 = 𝟑𝜺 [𝟏 + [𝜀 −1] 
𝟎 𝑟

54 | P a g e
 𝑁α 𝜀𝑟 −1+3
 = 𝟑𝜺 [ 
𝟎 𝜀𝑟 −1
𝑁α 𝜀 +2
 = 𝟑𝜺 [ 𝜀𝑟 −1 
𝟎 𝑟

𝑵𝛂 𝜺𝒓 −𝟏
= ()
𝟑𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 +𝟐

Above equation (3) is required Clausius -Mosotti equation which gives the relationship between
(𝜀𝑟 ) and Polarisability (𝛼) of polarized dielectric material.
4.What is ferroelectricity and mention its properties. **
The exhibition of spontaneous polarisation in certain type of dielectric materials is referred
as “Ferroelectricity” and corresponding dielectric materials are “Ferro electrics”.
Ex: Rochelle salt, Potassium dihydrogen phosphate and Barium Titanate.

Properties of ferro electric materials:

Ferro electrics are dielectrics but all dielectrics are not ferro electrics. For ferro electrics the
dielectric constant depends on temperature according to Curie Weiss law i.e.,
𝜺 = 𝑪⁄𝑻 ± 𝑻
𝑪

Where C is Curie’s constant, T is the temperature of the ferro electric and Tc is the critical
temperature.
The temperature dependence of dielectric constant is

55 | P a g e
✓ The ferro electrics possess spontaneous polarization in the region where, T<Tc. the variation
of polarisation with temperature is represents the following diagram.

✓ Rochelle salt exhibits ferro electricity in the temperature range of -18oC to 23oC.
✓ The ferro electrics exhibit hysteresis behavior similar to those of ferro magnetic materials.

3.1. Dielectrics
Short type questions and answers
1.Define Dielectrics and mention its properties?
The certain nonconductors which are used to store the charges are called “Dielectrics”.
Properties of Dielectrics:
i. All the dielectrics are insulators but not all the insulators are dielectrics. Dielectrics exhibit
polarization (separation of positiveand negative charges) but insulators don’t exhibit.
ii. Dielectrics are nonmetallic substances.
iii. Very large energy gap (>3ev)
iv. Due to the lack of free electrons and high electrical resistivity of 106 to 1016 Ω.
v. These are negative temperature co efficient materials.
vi. In dielectrics all the electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus or atom or molecule.
vii. If high voltages are applied, they allow a little amount of current to pass through them.
viii. Examples: Glass, Rubber, Ebonite, Mica, Wood and Paper…etc

2.What is Electric Dipole?

Two equal and opposite charges which are separated by a finite distance are referred as “Electric
Dipole”. Dielectrics may act as permanent or temporary dipoles.

56 | P a g e
 3.What is electric dipole Moment? **
The product of the charge and the distance between the charges corresponding to a electric dipole is called
“Electric Dipole Moment”. Let q and r be the charge of each pole and distance between the charges
respectively, then electric dipole moment is given by
 = qr

Units:
coulomb-meter or debye

4. What is permittivity (ɛ)? *

✓ “Permitivity” is a easily polarizable nature of dielectric or medium.

✓ It represents the ability of the material to allow the electric flux through in it.
✓ It is indicated by ɛ and is measured in farad/meter.

5.Permittivity of free space (ɛ0)?*

The electrical permittivity of the air is called the permittivity of free space, indicated by 0
ɛ0=8.85X10-12 F/m

6.What is Dielectric constant? ****

The ratio between capacity with dielectric to the capacity without dielectric is known as “Dielectric
constant” or “Relative Permittivity” of medium.
𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒘𝒕𝒉 𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒄
Dielectric constant (ɛ𝒓 ) = = 𝒅⁄𝒄𝒐
𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄

✓ Dielectric constant is also defined as the ratio to the permittivity of material to permivity of free space.
ɛ𝑟 = ɛ⁄ɛ𝑜
✓ No units and dimensions.

7 . D e f i n e t h e t e r m D i e l e c t r i c p o l a r i z a t i o n ( P ) ? **

Dipole movement per unit volume when the dielectric material is subjected to external electric field is
called “Dielectric Polarisation”.
µ
𝑃=
𝑉

for v=1 units  𝑃=µ

If N number of atoms are presented in a molecule, then dipole movement is given by
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑁µ

57 | P a g e
8.What if Dielectric polarizability ()  **
The ability of dielectric material to allow its charges to get separated in presence of external electric field is
called “Dielectric Polarisability”.
Dipole moment () Applied electric filed (E)
µ
 = E  α =
𝐸

If E = 1 farad/m then 𝛂 = µ

where α is called the dielectric polarizability. Now It can be defined as the induced dipole moment per
unit applied electric field, and measured in farad/m2.
9.Dielectric susceptibility ( χ ) ? *
The measure of amount of Polarisation inside the dielectric in presence of external electric field.

Polarisation (P)  total electric flux density (ɛ𝑜 𝐸)

𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑃) = χ ɛ𝑜 𝐸
Here χ is called proportinal constant called susceptibility.
𝑃
∴ susceptibility (χ) =
ɛ𝑜 𝐸

10. What is Dielectric flux density (D)? (Or) Define the electric displacement? *
The total number of electric lines passing through the dielectric .is referred as “Electric flux density” or
Dielectric displacement. It isdenoted by D and is measured in coulomb/m2. i.e.,
DE
 D = E
𝐷 = ɛ𝑟 ɛ𝑜 𝐸 { ∵ ɛ𝑟 = ɛ⁄ɛ𝑜 }

11.Deduce the relation among the Polarization (P), Electric field (E) & Dielectric constant (ɛ𝒓).****
As the polarization measures the additional flux density arising from the presence of the materialas
compared to free space. Hence 𝐷 = ɛ𝑜 𝐸 + 𝑃

 ɛ𝑟 ɛ𝑜 𝐸 = ɛ𝑜 𝐸 + 𝑃 { 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐷 = ɛ𝑟 ɛ𝑜 𝐸
P = ɛ𝑜 𝐸 (r −1)
12.Deduce the relation between the susceptibility ( χ ) & Dielectric constant (ɛ𝒓) ****

We know that, Polarisation (P) = ɛ𝑜 𝐸 (r −1)

P = ɛ𝑜 𝐸 (r −1)
𝑃
= (r −1)
ɛ𝑜 𝐸

58 | P a g e
 𝑃
  = r −1 {∵ χ = }
ɛ𝑜 𝐸

13.What is local field (or) Lorentz field (or) Internal field? )**
The total resultant field acting over the atom which is located inside the dielectric material in presence of
external field is called “Local field”.
𝑃
∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 (𝐸𝑖 ) = 𝐸 + 3𝜀
0

14.What is clausius-mosotti equation and mention its equation? *

The relationship between dielectric constant (ɛ𝑟 ) and Polarisability (𝛼) of polarized dielectric material is commonly
referred as “Clausius-Mosotti equation”.
𝑵𝛂 𝜺𝒓 −𝟏
=
𝟑𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 +𝟐
Above equation is called Clausius -Mosotti equation which gives the relationship between
(𝜀𝑟 ) And Polarisability (𝛼) of polarized dielectric material.

15.What is ferro electricity? ***

The exhibition of spontaneous polarisation in certain type of dielectric materials is referred as
“Ferroelectricity” and corresponding dielectric materials are “Ferro electrics”.
Ex: Rochelle salt, Potassium dihydrogen phosphate and Barium Titanate.
16.What are the polar dielectrics?****
The certain molecules which have dipoles with permanent dipole moment are referred as Polar molecules
and corresponding dielectric is called polar dielectrics.
Ex: H2O, HCl, N2O, NH3……. etc
17.What are the non-polar dielectrics? ***
In an atom or molecule, If the center of gravity of positive charge coincides with the center of gravity of
negative charge, then the distance between two charges becomes zero. Hence the net dipole movement is
zero. Such molecule is called “non-polar molecule and medium formed these molecules is called “Non
polar dielectric.
H2, N2, CO2, CH4, C6H6 …etc.

3.2 Magnetic materials

Essay type questions and answers

1.Comare and contrst the various types of magnetics materials.****

59 | P a g e
 Día magnetics Para magnetics Ferro magnetics Anti-Ferro Ferri
magnetics magnetics

1.The materials in which net The materials in which net The materials in The materials which The materials which
dipole moment exists in dipole moment exists in the which largest net consist of anti- consist of anti-
opposite direction to applied direction of applied dipole moment exists parallel magnetics parallel magnetics
magnetic field are called “Dia magnetic field are called mainly due to moments with same moments with
magnetics”. “Para magnetics” . electron spin and magnitudes are different
aligned in the of called “Anti-Ferro magnitudes are
direction to applied magnetics”. called “Ferri
field are called magnetics”.
“Ferro magnetics”.

2. They doesn’t allow the They Partially allows They allow large They allow the They allow large
magnetic lines through them magnetic lines through number of magnetic magnetic lines number of magnetic
in presence of external field. them. lines through them. partially. lines through them.

3. The magnetic induction The magneticinduction Strong magnetic The magnetic Strong magnetic
occurs in opposite direction occurs in the direction induction occurs in induction occurs in induction occurs in
to applied field. Of applied field. direction of applied the direction direction of applied
field. Of applied field. field.
4.Magnitisation (M) is Magnetisation positive and Magnetisation Magnetisation Magnetisation
negative. moderate. positive and high. positive and positive and high.
moderate.
5. Susceptibility (χ) Susceptibility (χ) Susceptibility(χ) Susceptibility (χ) Susceptibility(χ)
is negative. is low and positivevalue. is high and positive is low and positive is high and positive
value. value. value
6.Relative permeability of Relative permeability of Relative Relative Relative
these materials less than these materials greater permeability of permeability of permeability of
unity,(μr<1) than unity, these materials than these materials less these materials far
( μr>1) far greater unity, ( than unity, greater than unity,
μr>>1) ( μr>1) ( μr>>1)
7. Susceptibility(χ) is χ varies withtemperature χ varies with χ varies with χ varies with
independent of temperature. according to Curie’s temperature temperature temperature
according to Curie- according to Curie- according to Curie-
law, 𝝌 = 𝑪⁄𝑻
Weiss law, Weiss law, Weiss law,

𝝌 = 𝑪⁄𝑻 ± 𝑻
𝑪
𝝌 = 𝑪⁄𝑻 ± 𝑻 𝝌 = 𝑪⁄𝑻 ± 𝑻
𝑪
𝑪

8. All Organic materials Alkali and Transition and Salts of ferrites

Transition metals. Rare earth metals transition elements

9.Ex:Bimuth,antimony, Ex: Aluminum, Ex: Iron, cobalt, Ex: Oxides of Ni, Ex: Complex
gold,water,merury,alcohol,air copper,platinum,chromiu nickel and Number Cr, ferrous …etc. oxides, XFe2So4 ,
and hydrosen..etc m, of alloys. where X=Mn, Mg,
manganese and Ni,Co and Zn.
Oxygen..etc

60 | P a g e
2.Describe Hysterisis behaviour of ferro magneitc materials?****
(Or)
Plot the B-H curve for ferrromagnetics and what is hysteresis loss?
Hysterisis: The logging of magnetic induction (B) behind the applied magnetic intensity (H) is called
“Hysterisis”.
Explanation:

✓ When a ferro magnetic specimen subjected to external magnetic field intensity (H), then variation of B
with variation H can be understood by following figure.

Magnetic induction

Positive Saturated point

Positive Retentivity

Applied Magnetic Intensity

Negative Coercivity field Positive Coercivity field

Negative Retentivity
Negative Saturated point
point

Hysteresis curve of ferro magnetics

✓ In figure point ‘O’ represents initially unmagnetized specimen at absence of magnetic intensity.( B=0 when
H=0 ).
✓ As ‘H’ is increased, ‘B’ also increases in the path ‘oa’ and saturated at point ‘a’. Further increase the field,
no effect is observed.
✓ Now ‘H’ is decreased, ‘B’ also decreases but doesn’t follows the actual path ‘oa’ and it takes another path
‘ab’. Thus ‘B’ lags behind ‘H’. Even though ‘H’ becomes zero, there exists some value of ‘B’ as ‘ob’.
✓ The magnetic induction(B) remaining in the specimen, in the absence of magnetic intensity(H) is called
“Residual magnetism” (ob).
✓ The power of specimen to retaining magnetization is called “Retentivity” or “Remanence” (Br).
✓ If the magnetic intensity (H) is increased in negative direction then the value of ‘B’ further decreases and
61 | P a g e
 becomes zero at ‘c’. The magnetic intensity (H) required to destroys the residual magnetism in specimen
is called “Coercivity field” (Hc) and equals to ‘oc’.
✓ If ‘H’ is increased beyond ‘oc’, then the specimen is magnetized in reverse direction along path ‘cd’ and
negatively saturated. If ‘H’is increased beyond this saturated point (d) then no effect is observed.
✓ Now ‘H’ is increased in forward direction, then curve followed ‘defa’ path.
✓ So far entire this explanation, we noticed that ‘B’ is always logs behind the H. The logging of ‘B’ behind
the ‘H’ is called “Hysteresis”.
✓ The closed curve ‘abcdefa’ represents the cycle of magnetization of specimen and known as “Hysteresis
curve”.
✓ The magnetic energy lost for one cycle is called “Hysteresis loss”.
Applications:
✓ Hysteresis curve is useful to classify the material either soft or hard magnetic material.
✓ Useful estimate loss of energy during the magnetization process.
3.Domain concept of ferro magnetism (or) Wiess molecualr field theory (Qualitative treatmet):**

• In ferro magnetic materials, the internal molecualr field sets up spontaneous magnetization but the net
magnetisation of that material is zero .
• In order to explain the disapperence of spontaneous magnetisastion in ferro magnetics, In 1907, P.Weiss
proposed the molecualr field theory called “Weiss theory of ferro magnetism” or “Domain theory of
ferromagnetism”.

H=0 H

when H=0, magnetic moments of each In presence field H, magnetic moments of

domain aligned randomly. all domains aligned in field direction

Postulates:
• A macroscopic ferromagnetic is divided into small regions called “Domains”.
• Each domain is spontaneously magnetized to saturation and has a definite manetic moment.
• In the absence of appiled field (H), the directions all domain are aligned randomly, so the net
magnetic moment becomes zero.
• If magnetic field is appiled on the ferro magnetic material then the all domains alingned in
field direction hence net magnetisation is developed.
• According to weiss theory, the internal molecular field (Hi) is given by
𝐻𝑖 = 𝐻 + 𝛾𝑀 …………………..(1)
62 | P a g e
 Where
𝐻 = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝛾 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑀 = 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• The suspectibility of ferro magnetics depends on temparature as per as Curie-Weiss law , i.e.,
𝝌 = 𝑪⁄𝑻 ± 𝑻
𝑪

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝐶 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

4. What are Soft and Hard magnetic materials and list their properties?***

63 | P a g e
 3.2. Magnetic materials
Short type questions and answers
1.Define the magnetic flux density(B) , magnetic field strengh(H) and magnetisation(M). How they are related to
each other? *

Magnetic flux density (B): The number of magnetic lines passing through unit area is called “Magnetic flux density”
(or) Magnetic induction field strgenth(B).
∅
𝐵=𝐴
𝑤𝑏
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠: 𝑚2 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑇𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑎

Magnetic field stregth (H):

The force experienced by a unit north pole in a magnetic field is called “Magnetic field strength(H). It is
expressed in Am-1.
Magnetization (M):
Magnetization is defined as the amount of magnetism induced in the material and is defined as the
magnetic moment per unit volume and is expressed in Am-
2.What is the relation among the Magnetic induction (B), Magnetic intensity(H) and Magnetization (M)?***

𝜇0 M

3.Define the magnetic susceptibility ( χ ) and relative permeability(𝝁𝒓 ). Obtain the relation between them.****

Magnetic susceptibility ( χ ) : The ratio of magnetization (M) of the sample to the applied magnetic field
strength (H) is called Magnetic susceptibility. As both M and H have same units, hence χ is a dimensionless
quantity.

𝜒 = 𝑀⁄𝐻

Relative Permeability(𝝁𝒓 ):

The ratio of permeability of material to the permeability of free space is called “Relative permeability”.
𝛍
𝛍𝐫 =
𝛍𝟎

64 | P a g e
 Relation between Magnetic susceptibility ( χ ) and Relative Permeability(𝝁𝒓 ):

We know that

3.Why the diamagnetic materials are having negative susceptibility? ***

We know that susceptibility of magnetic material is given by

𝜒 = − 𝑀⁄𝐻

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡, 𝜒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑀).
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒. 𝑂𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒.

4. Mention the temperature of effect of para magnetic susceptibility?****

(Or)
State the curie law of para magnetism. What is a curie temperature?
According to curie law, temperature is inverse proportional to susceptibility of para magnetism, hence para magnetism
reduced and becomes dia magnetic magnetic material. The temperature at which paramagnetic becomes dia magnetic
material is called curi temperature.

𝜒 ∝ 1⁄𝑇

𝜒 = 𝑐⁄𝑇

Where, C is proportional constant called curie- constant.

5.Explains the significance of curie-temperature of ferro magnetism?**
Ferromagnetic materials are characterized by a definite temperature (Tc), called the curie- temperature. The ferromagnetic
behaviour vanishes beyond the curie-temperature and transforms into para magnetic material. Now the para magnetic state
obeys the curie-Weiss law.
𝜒 = 𝑐⁄𝑇 − 𝜃 where T > Tc

6.What are difference between curie-temperature and Neel temperature? ***

The susceptibility of anti-ferro magnetic materials is increases with increasing of temperature and reaches a maximum at
certain temperature is called is “Neels temperature” (TN). If the temperature is beyond the TN, then ferrimagnetic
material transform into para magnetic state.
The curie-Weiss law for ferro magnetics s given by 𝜒 = 𝑐⁄𝑇 + 𝜃 where T > Tc

65 | P a g e
The susceptibility of para magnetic material is decreases with increasing of temperature. At which temperature para
magnetic transform into dia magnetic material is “curie-temperature” (Tc).
𝜒 = 𝑐⁄𝑇

Where C is proportional constant called curie- constant.

7.What are the ferrites? What is their importance? ****

The most important group of ferrimagnetic materials is ferrites. Ferrites consist of ferric oxide (Fe2O3) combined one or
more divalent metals.
✓ Ferrites are represented by a general formula written as MFe2O4, where M represents any metallic element.
Characteristics of ferrites:
• Ferrites exhibits the hysteresis loop.
• Ferrites possess high permeability values normally, but some ferrites can be made to have low
permeability values.
8.What is Hysteresis? ****

• The logging of magnetic induction (B) behind the magnetic intensity(H) is called “Hysteresis”.
• The loop which is obtained during the hysteresis is called “Hysteresis loop”.
• Ex: Ferro magnetics and Anti ferro magnetics are exhibits the Hysteresis behaviour.
9.What is Hysteresis loss? ****
The supplied magnetic energy is lost in form of heat energy during hysteresis process is called “Hysteresis loss”.
It is calculated the energy as energy dissipated per cycle of magnetisation.

= ∮ 𝐻 𝑑𝐵 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐵 − 𝐻 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒.

Ferro and Anit ferri magnetic materials are exhibits the low Hysteresis loss hence that are widely used in cores of the
transformers and armatures of motor.

10. Compare and contrast the soft and hard magnetic materials. (V.V.I.M.P)****

Soft magnetic materials Hard magnetic materials

1. These materials can be easily magnetized or 1. These materials cannot be easily magnetized or
demagnetized. demagnetized.
2. These can be magnetized by small fields 2. These can be magnetized by high fields because
because domain walls adjust direction easily. domain walls cannot adjust direction easily.
3. It exhibits steep hysteresis curve. 3. It exhibits broad hysteresis curve.
4. They have small area under the B-H loop. Theyhave 4. They have broad area under the B-H loop. They
small magnitude of energy loss. have high magnitude of energy loss.

5. They have high values of permeability and 5. They have small values of permeability and
susceptibility. susceptibility.
6. Their coercivity and retentivity are small. 6. Their coercivity and retentivity are high.
7.These materials are used in transformers, electric 7.These materials are used in loud speakers, micro
motors, magnetic amplifiers, etc. phones, magnetic detectors, etc.

11.What is spontaneous magnetisation?

(or)

66 | P a g e
 What is domain? And explain.
(Or)
What is Weiss-molecular field theory (or) domain theory.***

✓ According to Wiess hypothesis, the entire ferromagnetic volume splits into large number of small regions called
as domains.
✓ The existence of magnetisation spontaneously, for each domain in the ferro magnetics, even though no need of
external magnetic field is called “Spontaneous magnetisation”.
✓ The net magnetisation for the entire ferro magnetic material is zero due to random orientations of dipole
moments (magnetisations) of each domain.
✓ The spontaneous magnetisation exits in the material only below curie-temperature.

12.What is Bohr magneton? How is it related to electron magnetic moment? ****

✓ Bohr magneton is the elementary electron magnetic moment. It is elementary in the sense that no electron can
have a magnetic moment below it.
✓ It is the natural unit for the measurement of atomic magnetic moments.
✓ It denoted by 𝜇𝑩
𝑒ℎ
✓ It has value in the order of 𝜇𝑩 = 4𝜋𝑚 = 9.28 × 10−24 𝐴. 𝑚2

13.Give an account of uses of ferrites?

(Or)

What are applications of ferri magnetic materials? ****

✓ Ferrites are used in thermal sensing switches which are used in refrigerators, air conditioners, etc.
✓ Ferrite rods are used in generation of ultrasonics waves by the magnetostriction method.
✓ Insulating property of ferrites finds their use in electric motors, loud speakers…etc.
✓ Ferrites are used in computer storage system due to its wider hysteresis loop.
✓ Mixed ferrites are used transformers and inductors.
14.Mention the engineering applications magnetic materials? **
✓ Soft magnetic materials are widely used in power transformers, motors, generators, electromagnets ...etc.
✓ Hard magnetic materials are used fabrication of permanent magnets, loud speakers, micro phones, magnetic
detectors …etc.
✓ Magnetic tapes are used in memory storage.
✓ Ferrites are used in thermal sensing switches which are used in refrigerators, air conditioners, etc.
✓ Ferrite rods are used in generation of ultrasonics waves by the magnetostriction method.
✓ Insulating property of ferrites finds their use in electric motors, loud speakers…etc.
✓ Ferrites are used in computer storage system due to its wider hysteresis loop.
✓ Mixed ferrites are used transformers and inductors.

15.What is the difference between permanent magnet and electro magnet? *

✓ A permanent magnet is a solid material which produces its own consistent magnetic field because material is
magnetised.

67 | P a g e
 ✓ An electromagnet is produced the magnetic field due to flow of current through in it and magnetic field is
disappears when the current is turned off.

4.1. Quantum Mechanics

Essay type questions and answers

1.What is the de-Broglie hypothesis? and derive expression for de-Broglie wavelength.***
✓ In 1924, de Broglie extended the dual nature of light to material particles like electrons, protons, neutrons
etc.
✓ According to de Broglie hypothesis, a moving particle is associated with a wave which is known as de
Broglie wave (or) matter wave. According to de Broglie the wave length of the matter wave is given by

𝜆 = ℎ⁄𝑝 = ℎ⁄𝑚𝑣

Where 'm' is the mass of the material particle, ‘ v ’ is its velocity and ‘ p ’ is its momentum.
Derivation for de-Broglie wavelength (𝜆):
✓ According to Planck’s quantum theory, the energy of photon (light particle) is given by,
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 (1)
Where ‘ h ’ is a Planck’s constant and 𝜈 is frequency.
✓ According to Einstein’s mass- energy relation, the energy of photon is given by
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 (2)
Where ‘ m ’ is the mass of the photon and ‘ c ’ is the velocity of the photon.
✓ From (1) and (2)
ℎ𝜈 = 𝑚𝑐 2

ℎ 𝑐 ⁄𝜆 = 𝑚𝑐 2 { 𝑐 = 𝜈𝜆 ⇒ 𝜈 = 𝑐 ⁄𝜆 }

ℎ⁄𝜆 = 𝑚𝑐

ℎ⁄𝑚𝑐 = 𝜆 {momentum(p)=mass× velocity}

ℎ ⁄𝑝 = 𝜆

Debroglie wavelength (𝜆) = ℎ⁄𝑝

68 | P a g e
2.Derive Schrodinger’s one-dimensional time independent wave equation? ***
✓ Let us consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ and 𝜓 be the wave function of particle along x
direction at any time, then classical differential equation of wave motion is given by
𝜕2𝜓 1 𝜕2 𝜓
= 𝑉 2 𝜕𝑡 2 (1)
𝜕𝑥 2

The solution of above equation is given by 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑖(𝑘𝑥+𝜔𝑡) (2)

𝜕𝜓
= 𝐴(−𝑖𝜔) 𝑒 −𝑖(𝑘𝑥+𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑡

𝜕2𝜓
= 𝐴(−𝑖𝜔) (−𝑖𝜔)𝑒 −𝑖(𝑘𝑥+𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2𝜓
= 𝐴𝑒 −𝑖(𝑘𝑥+𝜔𝑡) 𝑖 2 𝜔2
𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2𝜓
= 𝜓 𝑖 2 𝜔2
𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2𝜓
= −𝜔2 𝜓 (3)
𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2 𝜓 1
(3) in (1) ⇒ = 𝑣2 (−𝜔2 𝜓)
𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕2𝜓 𝜔2
= − 𝑉2 𝜓 (4)
𝜕𝑥 2

but we know that

𝜔 = 2𝜋 𝑣
𝑉 𝑉
𝜔 = 2𝜋 { ∴ 𝑉 = 𝑣𝜆 ⇒ 𝑣 = }
𝜆 𝜆
𝜔 2𝜋
=
𝑉 𝜆

𝜔2 4𝜋 2
= (5)
𝑣2 𝜆2

(5) in (4)
𝜕2𝜓 4𝜋 2
=− 𝜓
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜆2

𝜕2𝜓 4𝜋 2
+ 𝜓=0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜆2

𝜕2𝜓 4𝜋 2 ℎ
+ 𝜓 =0 { ∴ 𝜆=𝑝 }
𝜕𝑥 2 [ ℎ⁄𝑝] 2

𝜕2𝜓 4𝜋 2 𝑝2
+ 𝜓=0
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2

𝜕2𝜓 4𝜋 2 (2𝑚(E−V))
+ 𝜓=0 { ∵ 𝑝2 = 2𝑚(E − V)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2

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𝜕2𝜓 4𝜋 2 (2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉))
+ 𝜓=0 { ∵ 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘 ′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡(ℏ) = ℎ⁄2𝜋 ⇒ ℎ = ℏ(2𝜋) ⇒ ℎ2 = 4ℏ2 𝜋 2
𝜕𝑥 2 4𝜋 2 ℏ2

𝝏𝟐 𝝍 𝟐𝒎(𝑬−𝑽)
+ 𝝍=𝟎 (6)
𝝏𝒙𝟐 ℏ𝟐

Equation (6) is generally called as one-dimensional Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation.
Now Schrodinger’s wave equation in 3-Dimensions as follows
𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2 𝜓 𝜕2 𝜓 2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉)
+ 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕𝑧2 + 𝜓=0
𝜕𝑥 2 ℏ2

𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2 2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉)
( 2
+ + )𝜓 + 𝜓=0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 ℏ2

𝟐𝒎(𝑬−𝑽)
𝛁𝟐 𝝍 + 𝟐 𝝍=𝟎 (7)
ℏ

3.Derive time dependent Schrodinger wave equation?**

✓ Let us consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ and 𝜓 be the wave function of particle along x
direction at any time, then classical differential equation of wave motion is given by

𝜕2𝜓 1 𝜕2𝜓
= 𝑉2 (1)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡 2

The solution of above equation is given by 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑖(𝑘𝑥+𝜔𝑡) (2)

𝜕𝜓
= 𝐴𝑒 −𝑖(𝑘𝑥+𝜔𝑡) (−𝑖𝜔)
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜓
= (−𝑖𝜔)𝜓 {𝐸 = ℏ𝜔 ⇒ 𝜔 = 𝐸⁄ℏ }
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝜓
= (−𝑖 𝐸⁄ℏ)𝜓
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝜓 𝑖
= 𝑖 (−𝑖 𝐸⁄ℏ)𝜓
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝜓
= (𝐸⁄𝑖ℏ)𝜓
𝜕𝑡

𝜕
𝑖ℏ 𝜕𝑡 𝜓 = 𝐸𝜓 (3)

𝝏𝟐 𝝍 𝟐𝒎(𝑬−𝑽)
Substituting (3) in time- independent Schrodinger wave equation + 𝝍=𝟎
𝝏𝒙𝟐 ℏ𝟐

𝜕2𝜓 2𝑚
+ (𝐸𝜓 − 𝑉𝜓) = 0
𝜕𝑥 2 ℏ2

𝜕2𝜓 2𝑚 𝜕
+ ( 𝑖ℏ 𝜕𝑡 𝜓 − 𝑉𝜓) = 0
𝜕𝑥 2 ℏ2

ℏ2 𝜕 2 𝜓 𝜕
+ 𝑖ℏ 𝜕𝑡 𝜓 − 𝑉𝜓 = 0
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2

ℏ2 𝜕 2 𝜓 𝜕
+ 𝑖ℏ 𝜕𝑡 𝜓 − 𝑉𝜓 = 0
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
70 | P a g e
 ℏ2 𝜕 2 𝜓 𝜕
− 𝑉𝜓 = −𝑖ℏ 𝜕𝑡 𝜓
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2

ℏ2 𝜕 2 𝜓 𝜕
− 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝑉𝜓 = 𝑖ℏ 𝜕𝑡 𝜓

ℏ𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝝏
[− 𝟐𝒎 𝝏𝒙𝟐 + 𝑽]𝝍 = 𝒊ℏ 𝝏𝒕 𝝍

𝑯𝝍 = 𝑬𝝍 (4)
where
ℏ𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝝏
Hamilton operator (𝑯) = [− 𝟐𝒎 𝝏𝒙𝟐 + 𝑽] and energy operator (𝑬) = 𝒊ℏ 𝝏𝒕 𝝍

The equation (4) is referred as time dependent Schrodinger wave equation.

4.What is wavefunction and mention its physical significance? ***

Definition: Wave function is a mathematical tool which is used to describe the motion of particle at any position with
in time interval ‘t’.
Condition satisfied by wave function (𝜓) :
✓ 𝜓 must be finite
✓ 𝜓 must be single valued
✓ 𝜓 must be continuous
✓ wave function in space = 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 , 𝑡)
✓ Magnitude of wave function =∕ 𝜓 ∕

Physical significance of wave function (𝜓).

✓ It has no physical meaning individually.
✓ The square of the magnitude of wave function ∕ 𝜓 ∕2 in particular region represents the probability of
finding particle in that region, which provides physical significance to wave function (𝜓).
✓ Wave function is complex quantity.
𝜓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ) = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏
Complex conjugate is of the above function =𝜓 ∗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ) = 𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏
Now 𝜓𝜓 ∗ = (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏)

∕ 𝜓 ∕2 = 𝑎 2 + 𝑏 2 { ∵ 𝜓𝜓 ∗ =∕ 𝜓 ∕2

𝑃 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 { ∵ 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑃) =∕ 𝜓 ∕2
✓ The probability of finding a particle in a volume is given by
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑃𝑑𝑣) =∕ 𝜓 ∕2 𝑑𝑣

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑃𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧) =∕ 𝜓 ∕2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

✓ The probability of finding a particle over a small distance dx at position x is given by 𝑃𝑑𝑥 =∕ 𝜓 ∕2 𝑑𝑥
✓ If 𝜓𝜓 ∗ =∕ 𝜓 ∕2 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 (𝜓 ≠ 0) ⟹ particle is existed in a particular region.
✓ If 𝜓𝜓 ∗ =∕ 𝜓 ∕2 = 0 ⟹ particle is not existed in a particular region.

71 | P a g e
 ✓ The total probability of finding particle somewhere in space is must be equals to unity. This principle is called
normalisation condition and expression is given by
Pdv=∭∕ 𝜓 ∕2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 1

∭∕ 𝝍 ∕𝟐 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛 = 𝟏
5.Explain the motion of a particle in a one-dimensional potential box (or) potential well. ****
✓ Let us consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ along X-direction inside the infinite
potential rigid walls, so that the particle has no chance of escaping from them. Therefore, the particle
bounces back and forth between walls as shown in figure.

✓ The potential functions and wavefunctions of particle in various regions of one-dimensional

potential box are given by following figure.
V(x)=∞

V(x)=∞

Inside the well

Outside the well Outside the well

V(x)=0

V(x)=∞ V(x)=∞

Particle in a one-dimensional potential well

✓ From the figure,

We consider the two regions
i.Out side the well
ii.inside the well

72 | P a g e
out side the well: (𝒙 ≤ 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒙 ≥ 𝒂 )
✓ The paricles can’t existed outside the box and on the walls of the box, therefore the probability of finding
electrons outside the walls and on the walls is zero and potential energy is infinte.

𝜓(𝑥) = 0
V(x)=∞

Inside the well: (𝟎 < 𝒙 < 𝒂 )

✓ Paricle existed inside the well ,therefore the probability of finding electron inside the well is not
equals to zero, and potential energy of particle is constant everywhere hence it is taken as zero for
simplicity.

𝜓(𝑥) ≠ 0
V(x)=0

✓ To calculate the probability of finding particle, we apply Schrodinger time-independent wave equation inside the
box.
The general form of one-dimensional time independent Schrodinger wave equation is given by
𝝏𝟐 𝝍 𝟐𝒎(𝑬−𝑽)
+ 𝝍=𝟎
𝝏𝒙𝟐 ℏ𝟐
Schrodinger wave equation of particle which is presented inside the box is
𝝏𝟐 𝝍 𝟐𝒎(𝑬−𝑽)
+ 𝝍=𝟎
𝝏𝒙𝟐 ℏ𝟐
𝝏𝟐 𝝍 𝟐𝒎𝑬
+ 𝝍=𝟎 {∵ 𝑉(𝑥) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑜𝑥
𝝏𝒙𝟐 ℏ𝟐

𝝏𝟐 𝝍
+ 𝒌𝟐 𝝍 = 𝟎 (1)
𝝏𝒙𝟐

𝟐𝒎𝑬 𝟐𝒎𝑬
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝒌𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒌 = √ (2)
ℏ𝟐 ℏ𝟐

The solution for equation (1) is given by

𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐾𝑥 + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐾𝑥 (3)

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠.

Boundary condition 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟎:
At 𝑥 = 0,the probability of finding the electron is zero, i.e., 𝜓(0) = 0

There fore equaton (3) becomes

0 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐾(0) + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐾(0)
0=0+𝐵
∴ 𝐵=0 (4)

73 | P a g e
Boundary condition 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝒂:
At 𝑥 = 𝑎 also the probability of finding the electron is zero, i.e., 𝜓(𝑎) = 0

0 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐾(𝑎) + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐾(𝑎)
0 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐾(𝑎) + (0)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐾(𝑎) { ∵ 𝐵 = 0 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (4)
0 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐾(𝑎)
𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐾(𝑎) = 0
Since 𝐴 ≠ 0, then solution is 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐾(𝑎) = 0 (5)
We know that sin n𝜋 = 0 (6)
From (5) and (6)
𝐾𝑎 = n𝜋
n𝜋
𝐾=
𝑎

𝑛 2 𝜋2
𝑘2 = 𝑎2
(7)

Substute values of ‘B’ and ‘K’ in equation (3)

n𝜋 n𝜋
𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎
𝑥 + (0)𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎
𝑥
𝐧𝝅
𝝍(𝒙) = 𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒂
𝒙

In general n th wave function of particle which moving in a one dimensional potential box is represented by
𝐧𝝅
𝝍𝒏 (𝒙) = 𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒙 (8)

𝟐
where 𝐴 = 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = √𝒂
𝟐 𝐧𝝅
𝝍𝒏 (𝒙) = √𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒂
𝒙

𝟐 𝜋
If 𝒏 = 𝟏, ⇒ 𝝍𝟏 (𝒙) = √𝒂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑥
𝟐 2𝜋
If 𝒏 = 𝟐, ⇒ 𝝍𝟐 (𝒙) = √𝒂 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎
𝑥
𝟐 3𝜋
If 𝒏 = 𝟑, ⇒ 𝝍𝟑 (𝒙) = √ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 …………and so on.
𝒂 𝑎
Energy levels of the particle (Eigen values of energies)
✓ The decreate energy values of paricle which is presented inside the potential well are called eigen
values.
We know that

74 | P a g e
 𝟐𝒎𝑬
𝒌𝟐 = ℏ𝟐
𝒌𝟐 ℏ𝟐 = 𝟐𝒎𝑬
𝒌𝟐 ℏ𝟐
𝐄= 𝟐𝒎

𝟐
𝑛2 𝜋2 𝒉
( )( ) n𝜋 𝒉
𝑎2 𝟒𝝅𝟐
𝐄= 𝟐𝒎
{∵ 𝐾= 𝑎
𝒂𝒏𝒅 ℏ = 𝟐𝝅
𝟐
𝑛2 𝒉
𝐄 = 𝟖𝒎𝑎2 this is a expression for energy of particle inside the box, where n=1,2,3,…….

ℎ2
Case1: If 𝑛 = 1, then 𝐸1 = which is reffered as zero point energy.
8𝑚𝑎2

𝒉𝟐
Case2: If 𝑛 = 2, then 𝐸2 = 𝟒 [ ] = 𝟒𝑬𝟏
𝟖𝒎𝑎2

ℎ2
Case3: If 𝑛 = 3, then 𝐸3 = 9 [ 8𝑚𝑎2 ] = 9𝐸1 and so on.

There fore energy levels of electron in potential box decreate.

4.1.Quantum Mechanics
Short type questions and answers
1.What is debroglie hypothesis?****

✓ In 1924, de-Broglie extended the idea of dual nature of light to material particles like electrons, protons,
neutrons etc.
✓ According to de Broglie hypothesis, a moving particle is associated with a wave which is known as de
Broglie wave (or) matter wave. According to de Broglie the wave length of the matter wave is given b

𝜆 = ℎ⁄𝑝 = ℎ⁄𝑚𝑣

Where 'm' is the mass of the material particle, ‘ v ’ is its velocity and ‘ p ’ is its momentum.
2. Convert the de-Broglie wavelength in terms of Kinetic energy? ***
Let us consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving in x-direction, then the Kinetic energy of that particle (E) is given by

𝐸 = 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣 2

2𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2

2𝑚𝐸 = 𝑚2 𝑣 2
75 | P a g e
√2𝑚𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣

√2𝑚𝐸 = 𝒑

ℎ
de − Broglie wavelength (𝜆) = ℎ⁄𝑝 =
√𝟐𝒎𝑬

3). Derive expression for de-Broglie wavelength of particle which is accelerated through potential difference
(V)?**

Let us consider a particle of charge ‘q’ which is accelerated through potential difference ‘V’, then the kinetic energy of
that particle is equals to product of charge (q) and voltage (V).

𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑞𝑉

1⁄ 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2𝑞𝑉
2

𝑚2 𝑣 2 = 2𝑞𝑉𝑚

𝑚𝑣 = √2𝑞𝑉𝑚

𝑝 = √2𝑞𝑉𝑚

ℎ
de − broglie wavelength (𝜆) = ℎ⁄𝑝 =
√𝟐𝒒𝑽𝒎

3). Derive expression for de-Broglie wavelength of electron which is accelerated through potential difference
(V)? ***

Suppose an electron is accelerated through potential difference ‘V’, then de-Broglie wavelength of electron is given by

de − broglie wavelength (𝜆) = 𝒉 ⁄ 𝒑 = 𝒉⁄ (1)

√𝟐𝒆𝒎𝑽

For electron

charge (𝑞) = 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 c, mass (𝑚) = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔, Plank’s contant (ℎ) = 6.626 × 10−34 𝑘𝑔. Substates the
‘h’, ‘e’, and ‘m’ values in equation (1), then

ℎ 6.626×10−34 𝑘𝑔
Debroglie wavelength of electron (𝜆) = =
√2𝑒𝑚𝑉 √2×1.6×10−19 𝑐×9.1×10−31 𝑘𝑔×𝑉

76 | P a g e
 𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟔
𝝀= 𝑨𝟎
√𝑽

4.What are the matter waves and mention their properties? *

According to de-Broglie hypothesis moving a matter particles is always associated with a waves and these waves are
generally referred as “Matter waves or de-Broglie waves”.

Properties of matter waves:

✓ The de Broglie wavelength of particle of mass (m) moving with a velocity (v) is given by
(𝝀) = 𝒉⁄𝒑 = 𝒉⁄𝒎𝒗

✓ Lighter is the particle, greater is the wave length associated with it.
✓ Smaller is the velocity of the particle, greater is the wave length associated with it.
✓ When 𝑣 = 0 then 𝜆 = ∞ i.e., wave becomes indeterminate.
✓ Matter waves are generated by the motion of particles which presented in the matter.
Ex: electron, proton and neutron.
✓ Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves.
✓ Matter waves independent of charge.
✓ It is impossible to measurement of position and momentum simultaneously for the matter waves.
✓ The velocity of matter waves is always greater than the velocity of light waves, but there is experimental
evidence.
5.Derive expression for velocity of matter waves? *
According to Planck’s quantum theory, the energy of photon (light particle) is given by ,
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 (1)
Where ‘ h ’ is a Planck’s constant .
According to Einstein’s mass- energy relation, the energy of photon is given by

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 (2)
(1)𝑎𝑛𝑑(2) ⇒ ℎ𝜈 = 𝑚𝑐 2
⇒ 𝜈 = 𝑚 𝑐 2 ⁄ℎ
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝑤) = 𝜈𝜆
𝑚𝑐 2 ℎ
𝑤= ×
ℎ 𝑚𝑣
𝑐2
∴ 𝑤= (3)
𝜈
From (3) it is clear that the velocity of matter wave (w) is greater than velocity of light, but there is no evidence in
practically.

77 | P a g e
6.What is the wave function? and mention conditions satisfied by wave function. *
Definition: Wave function is a mathematical tool which is used to describe the motion of particle at any position with
in time interval ‘t’.
Condition satisfied by wave function (𝜓) :
✓ 𝜓 must be finite
✓ 𝜓 must be single valued
✓ 𝜓 must be continuous
✓ wave function in space = 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 , 𝑡)
✓ Magnitude of wave function =∕ 𝜓 ∕

7.What is the normalisation of wave function 𝜓(𝑥)?*

If the total probability of finding particle inside the well is equls to unity then the wavefunction 𝝍(𝒙) is called
normalised.
So, mathamatically written as follows
𝑎 n𝜋𝑥
𝑃 = ∫0 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 =1
𝑎 n𝜋𝑥
𝐴2 ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 =1
n𝜋𝑥
𝑎 (1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑎 )
𝐴2 ∫0 2
𝑑𝑥 =1

𝐴2 𝑎 n𝜋𝑥
∫
2 0
(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑎
) ] 𝑑𝑥 = 1

𝐴2 𝑎 𝐴2 𝑎 n𝜋𝑥
∫ (1)𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑎 ] 𝑑𝑥 = 1
2 0 2 0
n𝜋𝑥
𝐴2 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2
2
[ 𝑥 ]𝑎0 − 2
[ 2n𝜋
𝑎
]𝑎0 = 1
𝑎

n𝜋𝑥
𝐴2 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2
[𝑎 − 0] − 2
[ n𝜋𝑎 ]=1 { 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜋 = 𝑜, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 2𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑠
𝑎

𝐴2 2 2
∵ 2
𝑎 = 1 ⇒ 𝐴2 𝑎 = 2 ⇒ 𝐴2 = 𝑎 ⇒ 𝐴 = √𝑎

2
Substute 𝐴 = √ in equation (8) we obtain normalised wavefunction
𝑎

𝟐 n𝜋
𝜓(𝑥) = √ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝒂 𝑎

𝟐 𝐧𝝅
In general n th normalised wave function is represented by 𝝍𝒏 (𝒙) = √𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒂
𝒙

78 | P a g e
8.Difine the Eigen wave functions?**
✓ The wavefunctions which have eigen values of energies are called “Eigen wave functions”.
n𝜋
✓ The generilsed expression for eigen fucntion is given by 𝝍𝒏 (𝒙) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑥
𝟐
where 𝐴 = 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = √𝒂
2 𝜋
If 𝑛 = 1, ⇒ 𝜓1 (𝑥) = √𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑥
2 2𝜋
If 𝑛 = 2, ⇒ 𝜓2 (𝑥) = √ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
2 3𝜋
If 𝑛 = 3, ⇒ 𝜓3 (𝑥) = √𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎
𝑥 …………and so on.
9.Find probability of the location of the particle inside the potential box?**
We know that probability of finding paricle inside the box for small distance dx at x is given by
𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =∕ 𝜓𝑛 (𝑥) ∕2 dx

2 n𝜋
𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ( √𝑎 )2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑎
𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2 n𝜋𝑥
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2
𝑎 𝑎

The probability density maximum when

n𝜋𝑥 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
= , , ……………
𝑎 2 2 2
𝑎 3𝑎 5𝑎
𝑥 = 2𝑛 , 2𝑛 , 2𝑛 ……………..
𝑎
if n=1,then probability of location of the particle is at 𝑥 = 2
𝑎 3𝑎
if n=2,then probability of location of the particle is at 𝑥 = ,
4 4
𝑎 3𝑎 5𝑎
if n=3,then probability of location of the particle is at 𝑥 = 3 , ,
6 6

10. Is velocity of matter wave is greater than velocity of light? Justify your answer? ****
𝑐2
 The expression for matter wave is given by 𝑤 = where c= velocity of light, 𝜈 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝜈
 From above equation it is clear that the velocity of matter wave (w) is greater than velocity of light, but there is no
evidence in practically.
11.Mention the de-Broglie wavelength of electron? (Practice the problems on this formula)****
12.26
de-Broglie wavelength of electron (𝜆) = 𝐴0 where, v=potential difference.
√𝑉

12.Define the terms (i).Wave packet (ii).Phase velocity and (iii)Group velocity
Wave packet:

• A wave packet consists of group of harmonic waves. Each wave has slighly different wavelength.
• The positio of the particle could approximately determined by the position of the wave paket.

79 | P a g e
 • Phase velocity:
• The velocity of propagation of wave is called “ Phase velocity”.
𝜔
• Expression for phase velocity is given by 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑘 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜔 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, k = propagation
constant.
Group velocity:

• The velocity with which the wave packet propagates is called “ Group velocity”.
𝑑𝜔
• Expression for group velocity is given by by 𝑉𝑔 = 𝑑𝑘

where 𝑑𝜔 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑑𝑘 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.

13.Mention the relationship between phase velocity and grou p velocity?

The relationship between phase velocity and group velocity is given by

𝑑𝑉𝑝
𝑉𝑔 = 𝑉𝑝 − 𝜆 𝑑𝜆

4.2. Free electron theory & Band theory of metals

Essay type questions and answers
1.Derive the expression for electrical conductivity of metals by using quantum free electron theory.****
 In absence of electric field, all the velocities of free electrons in metal are randomly oriented and cancel to each other hence net
velocity of electrons is becoming zero.
 When the external electric field applied to the metals then, all the free electrons are drifted in opposite to applied field direction.
 All the velocities of free electrons are represented by sphere of radius V F called “Fermi sphere”.

(a). Representation of velocities of free electrons in absence of electric field

with help of fermi sphere.

(b). Representation of velocities of free electrons in presence of electric field

with help of fermi sphere.

 The radius of fermi sphere VF is index of maximum velocity of free electron in fermi energy level.
 In presence of electric field, the electrons experience a force called “Lorentz force” (FL).
 Each electron experiences a Lorentz force (FL)=eE (1)
But according to newtons second law force on each electron F=ma (2)

80 | P a g e
 Equating equations (1) and (2) ,
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑒𝐸 (3)
ℏk 𝑑𝑣 ℏ 𝑑𝑘
we know that 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣 = ℏk ⇒ v = 𝑚
⇒ 𝑑𝑡
=𝑎= 𝑚 𝑑𝑡
(4)

(4) in (3)

Where tc =Mean collision time

time

2.What is the Fermi-Dirac distribution? What is the temparature effect on the Fermi-Dirac Distribution function?
****
Fermi-Dirac Distribution :
 Fermi Dirac distribution describes the behaviour of free electron gas on basis of quantum laws and pauli exclusive principle.
 The particles which are obeys the fermi dirac statistics those are called “Fermions”.
Example: Electrons gas in Metals.
 At absolute zero temperature, the first electron can occupy the lowest energy level with spin (↑) and second electron can
occupy the same energy level with opposite (↓) spin as shown in figure. The third electron can’t occupy in this level, because
of Pauli exclusive principle. According Pauli exclusive principle “No more than two electrons occupy the same energy
level”. In this way all the free electrons can occupied in the different energy levels.

 The highest energy level occupied by free electrons at absolute zero temperature is called “Fermi energy level” (EF).

81 | P a g e
 A mathematical distribution function which gives the probability of occupation of energy levels by electrons in a metal is
called “Fermi-Dirac distribution function”. The probability F(E) of occupation of particular energy level (E) by the electrons
at temperature (T) is given by

1
𝐹(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
1+𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝐾𝐵 𝑇

Where, E = Particular energy level (ev)

EF= Fermi energy level (ev)
KB= Boltzmann constant (J/K)
T=Temperature (K)

Temparature effect:
Case 1: Probability of occupation at T=0 K, When E<EF

If E<EF then 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 = −𝑣𝑒 and 𝑇 = 0 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

1
𝐹(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
1+𝑒
𝐾𝐵 𝑇
1
𝐹(𝐸) = { ∵ 𝑒 −∞ = 0
1+ 𝑒 −∞
1
𝐹(𝐸) = 1+0
𝐹(𝐸) =1

Case 2: Probability of occupation at T=0 K, When E>EF

If E<EF then 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 = +𝑣𝑒 and 𝑇 = 0 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

1
𝐹(𝐸) = 1+ 𝑒 ∞ { ∵ 𝑒∞ = ∞
1
𝐹(𝐸) =
1+∞
1
𝐹(𝐸) =
∞
𝐹(𝐸) = 0
Case 3: Probability of occupation at T>0 K, When E=EF

1
𝐹(𝐸) = 1+ 𝑒 0 { ∵ 𝑒0 = 1
1
𝐹(𝐸) = 1+1
1
𝐹(𝐸) = 2
𝐹(𝐸) = 0.5

Probability of occupation of energy levels by electrons in the order of 50% at T > 0 K.

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3.Describe kroning penney model of metals? (K.P model) ****

 Zone theory was first introduced by Blcoh in 1928, further it was explained by Kronig and Penney.
 According to this theory, metals consist of positive ion cores and free electrons.
 The free electrons are move with in a periodic potential field among the ion cores and obeys the laws of quantum
mechanics.
 The potential energy zero at positive ion sites and maximum in between two positive ions as shown in figure.

 The periodic potential of electron is given by 𝑉(𝑥) = 𝑉(𝑥 + 𝑎).

 But, it is very difficult to solve Schrodinger wave equation with sinusoidal potential, so Croning and Penney modify
the above curves as rectangular wells and barriers as shown following figure.

From figure, we notice two regions

i).Region I ( Potential Well)

II).Region II ( Potential barrier)

Region I:

In this region, the potential of electron is 𝑉(𝑥) = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎.

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 𝝏𝟐 𝝍 𝟐𝒎(𝑬−𝟎)
Schrodinger wave equation for this region is + 𝝍 =𝟎
𝝏𝒙𝟐 ℏ𝟐
𝝏𝟐 𝝍 𝟐𝒎𝑬
+ 𝝍=𝟎
𝝏𝒙𝟐 ℏ𝟐
𝝏𝟐 𝝍
+ 𝜶𝟐 𝝍 = 𝟎 (𝟏)
𝝏𝒙𝟐
𝟐𝒎𝑬 𝟐𝒎𝑬
where 𝜶𝟐 = ⇒𝜶=√
ℏ𝟐 ℏ𝟐

Region II:

In this region, the potential of electron is 𝑉(𝑥) = 𝑉0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 − 𝑏 < 𝑥 < 𝑎.

𝝏𝟐 𝝍 𝟐𝒎(𝑬−𝑉0 )
Schrodinger wave equation for this region is + 𝝍 =𝟎
𝝏𝒙𝟐 ℏ𝟐
𝟐
𝝏 𝝍 𝟐𝒎(𝑉0 −𝐸 )
− 𝝍=𝟎
𝝏𝒙𝟐 ℏ𝟐
𝝏𝟐 𝝍
− 𝜷𝟐 𝝍 = 𝟎 (𝟐)
𝝏𝒙𝟐
𝟐𝒎(𝑬−𝑉0 ) 𝟐𝒎(𝑉0 −𝐸)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜷𝟐 = ⇒𝜷=√
ℏ𝟐 ℏ𝟐

On solving (1) and (2) by applying the Bloch theorem, we get

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶𝒂
𝑷 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶𝒂 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒌𝒂 (3)
𝜶𝒂

where
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶𝒂
P = Potential barrier strength = and
𝜶𝒂
2𝜋
K = propagation constant = 𝜆

sin 𝛼𝑎
The nature of the equation is illustrated by a plot whih is drawn between 𝑃 𝛼𝑎
+ cos 𝛼𝑎 = cos 𝑘𝑎 and 𝛼𝑎,
𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 ± 1 as shown in following figure.

From above plot, we are concluded following conclusions

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 The shaded regions are called “allowed bands” or “Zones” of energies of electrons.
 The allowed band are separated by the regions are called “Forbidden energy bands”.
 The width of allowed band is directly proportional to value of 𝛼𝑎 while width of the forbidden energy bands is
inversely proportional to 𝛼𝑎.
 If 𝑃 → ∞, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 (3) 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠
sin 𝛼𝑎
𝑃 𝛼𝑎
+ cos 𝛼𝑎 = cos 𝑘𝑎
sin 𝛼𝑎 (cos 𝛼𝑎−cos 𝑘𝑎)
𝛼𝑎
+ 𝑃
= 0
sin 𝛼𝑎
=0
𝛼𝑎
sin 𝛼𝑎 = 0
𝛼𝑎 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (0)
𝛼𝑎 = ±𝑛𝜋
𝑛𝜋
𝛼=±
𝑎
2 𝑛2 𝜋 2
𝛼 =± (4)
𝑎2
2mE
but we know that α2 = ℏ2

2mE 𝑛2 𝜋 2
∴ =
ℏ2 𝑎2

𝑛 2 𝜋 2 ℏ2
𝐸= 2m𝑎2

𝐧𝟐 𝐡𝟐
𝑬 = 𝟖𝐦𝒂𝟐

Energy of electron is independent of K; hence this is case trapped electron in a potential box.

 If 𝑃 → 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 (3) 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠

sin 𝛼𝑎
(0) 𝛼𝑎
+ cos 𝛼𝑎 = cos 𝑘𝑎

cos 𝛼𝑎 = cos 𝑘𝑎
𝛼𝑎 = 𝑘𝑎
2mE
𝛼= 𝑘 { 𝑏𝑢𝑡 we know that α2 = ℏ2
𝟐𝒎𝑬
∴ 𝜶𝟐 = 𝑲𝟐 = ℏ𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝑲 ℏ
𝐸= 𝟐𝒎
2
4π2 h 𝒉
E=
2m4π2 λ
{ ∵ ℏ = 𝟐𝝅
h2
E = 2mλ
(λp)2 h
E= 2mλ
{ ∵ λ = p ⇒ h = λp
m2 v2
E = 2m
1
E = 2 mv2
1
E = 2 mv2 +0 (5)

Tota energy of particle (E) = K. E + P. E (6)

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 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (5) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (6) 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑃. 𝐸 = 0 , ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠.
4.Explain the Energy(E) verses propagation vector(K) Diagram? ****
 The graph between energy of free electrons(E) verses propagation constant(K) is known as “E-K diagram”.
 The E-K diagram as follows

 From the above plot, we concluded that,

𝑛𝜋
✓ The curve parabolically in shape and discontinuous at 𝐾 = ± 𝑎 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … ..
𝜋 𝜋
✓ The region covered by solid curve from = + 𝑎 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑎 is called first allowed band (or) 1st Brillion zone. The
Electrons have allowed energy values in this region.
𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
✓ The region covered by solid curve from − 𝑎 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 − 𝑎 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑎 is called 2nd Brillion zone.
✓ Similarly higher order Brillion zones can be defined.
✓ The region covered by discontinuity between two brillion zone is known “Forbidden energy band”. The
electrons are haven’t allowed energy values in this region.

5.Describe the origin of energy of band gaps (Sources of energy bands):***

 We know that the every solid substance is consists of large number of atoms.
 Now, an isolated atom consists of positively charged nucleus situated at centre and negatively charged electrons are
revolve around nucleus in a various orbits.
 Each orbit has some amount of energy and , the electrons in particualr orbit should be possess decreate energy level.
 First orbit represents first energy level;second orbit represents the second level and so on.
 If large number of atoms are closely packed in solid,then the decreate energy levels of an electron are also packed
together and originated energy band.

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 Representation of Energy levels and bands in sodium

 The collection of large number of closely packed enegy levels of electrons is called “Energy Band”.
 The energies of possessed by bound electrons in solid is called “Inner bands”.
 The range of energies posessed by valence electrons are called “Valency band”.
 The range of energies posessed by free electrons are “conduction band”.
 The energy band are separated by regions which are called “Forbidden energy bonds”. No electron is stay in
this region because there is no energy levels.

 Ex : Formation of energy bands of copper.

✓ The atomic number of copper is 6 and the configuration is 1s22s22p2.

✓ The total orbitals will be 8 in1s, 2s and 2p levels but only six levels will be filled at inter atomic distance of ∞.

✓ At closer distances, the n=2 shells overlap each other and form in to band. The band splits in to valence band and
conduction bands at still closer distances.

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6.Define effective mass and derive expression for it?**

Effective mass (𝒎∗ ):

The mass of electron when it is accelerated through periodic potential is called “Effective mass”. The effective mass is differ
with mass of free electron.

Expression:

The velocity of an electron equals to group velocity of the associated wave. The group velocity of wave is given by
𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑑𝑘
(1)
𝐸
𝐸 = ℏ𝜔 ⇒ 𝜔 = (2)
ℏ
1 𝑑𝐸
𝑣𝑔 = ℏ 𝑑𝑘
1𝑑𝐸
𝑑𝑣𝑔 𝑑( )
ℏ𝑑𝑘
But acceleration (a) = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

1 𝑑2 𝐸
=ℏ 𝑑𝑡𝑑𝑘

1 𝑑2 𝐸 𝑑𝑘
= ×
ℏ 𝑑𝑡𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘

1 𝑑2 𝐸 𝑑𝑘
=ℏ 𝑑2 𝑘
× 𝑑𝑡

1 𝑑2 𝐸 𝐹 𝑑𝑘 𝐹
𝑎=ℏ 𝑑2 𝑘
×ℏ { 𝑑𝑡
=ℏ

1 𝑑2 𝐸
𝑎= ×𝐹
ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝑘

ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝑘
𝐹= 𝑑2 𝐸
×𝑎

ℏ2
𝐹= 𝑑2 𝐸
×𝑎 (3)
[ ]
𝑑𝐾2

but we know that 𝐹 = m∗ × 𝑎 (4)

ℏ2
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒 (3) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (4) 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑚∗ = 𝑑2 𝐸
[ ]
𝑑𝐾2

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7.Describe the Effective mass (𝒎∗ ) verses K relation?
ℏ2
 The effective mass of electron is given by 𝑚∗ = 𝑑2 𝐸
[ ]
𝑑𝐾2

𝑑2 𝐸
From above equation it is clear that effective mass is inversely proportional to derivative of an allowed band [𝑑𝐾2 ]

 The relation between (𝑚∗ ) verses K can be explained by means of E-K diagram which if given below.

From graph, we concluded that,

✓ Near the bottom of the band,E-K curve doesn’t differ much for free electron,hence in this regions 𝑚∗ = 𝑚.
𝑑2 𝐸
✓ At point of inflection ‘B’, the derivative 𝑑𝐾2
= 0 , hence in this regions
𝑑2 𝐸
✓ Near the top of the allowed band ‘C ‘ the derivative 𝑑𝐾2 < 0,hence 𝑚∗ = 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒.
8.Describe the concept of Hole in terms of effective mass of electron.
 The concept of effective mass provides a satisfactory dicription of the charge carriers in crystals. The crystals such
as alkali metals which have partially filled energy band, the conduction takesplace mainly due to electrons.
 The crystals in which the condution bands almost filled by the negitive mass vacancies and leaving positive mass
vacacies of positive charges are called “holes”. In this way origin of hole is decribed in terms of effective mass
electron.

9.What causes the effective mass is differ with mass of free electron?

The effective mass is differ with free electron mass mainly due to interaction between dripting electrons and atoms in solids

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 4.2. Free electron theory & Band theory of metals
Short type questions and questions
1.Write a short note on Classical free electron theory?

 It was proposed by Drude and Lorentz in the year 1900.

 According to this theory, metals consist of positive ion cores and free electrons.
 The free electrons are move with in a completely uniform potential field among the ion cores and obeys the laws
of classical mechanics.
2.Write a short note on Quantum free electron theory? ***

 t was proposed by Somerfield in the year 1928.

 According to this theory, metals consist of positive ion cores and free electrons.
 The free electrons are move with in a completely uniform potential field among the ion cores but obeys the laws
of quantum mechanics.
 According quantum free electron theory, the expression for conductivity of metals is given by
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝐹
𝜎=
𝑚∗
Where
𝑛 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜏𝐹 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑚∗ = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

3.Write short notes on Zone theory (or) Bond theory (or) Bloch theory of solids? ***

 It was proposed by Bloch in the year 1928

 According to this theory, metals consist of positive ion cores and free electrons.
 The free electrons are move with in a completely uniform potential field among the ion cores but obeys the laws of
quantum mechanics.
 The free electrons are move with in a periodic potential field among the ion cores and obeys the laws of quantum
mechanics.
4.What are merits of classical free electron theory:
 It verifies Ohm’s law.
 It explains the electrical conductivity of metals.
 It explains the electrical resistivity of metals.
 It explains the thermal conductivity of metals.
 It derives the Wiedemann’s-Franz law.
5.What demerits of classical free electron theory? *

 This theory fails to explain the photo electric effect, Compton effect and block body radiation etc.
 This theory fails to explain specific heat of metals.
1 1
 According to this theory the electrical conductivity (𝜎) ∝ but experimentally proved 𝜎 ∝
√𝑇 𝑇
 This fails to explains the mean free path of electrons.
6.What are merits of Quantum free electron theory?****

 This theory successfully explains the photo electric effect, Compton effect and block body radiation etc.
 This theory successfully explains specific heat of metals.
1
 his theory successfully proved that the electrical conductivity 𝜎 ∝ 𝑇
.
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  This theory successfully explains the mean free path of electrons.
 It explains the optical properties of metals.
7.What are the demerits of Quantum free electron theory?

 This theory fails to explains the difference among the conductors, semiconductors and insulators.
 It is fails to explains the positive hall coefficient of metals.
 It is fails to explains the lower conductivities of divalent metals than monovalent metals.
8.What is the Fermi-Dirac distribution function? *****
A mathematical distribution function which gives the probability of occupation of energy levels by electrons is called “Fermi-
Dirac distribution function”.
The probability F(E) of occupation of particular energy level (E) by the electrons at temperature (T) is given by

1
𝐹(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
1+𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝐾𝐵 𝑇

Where, E = Particular energy level (ev)

EF= Fermi energy level (ev)
KB= Boltzmann constant (J/K)
T=Temperature (K)
9.What is the effect of temparature on Fermi-Dirac Distribution function? ****
Case 1: Probability of occupation at T=0 K, When E<EF
If E<EF then 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 = −𝑣𝑒 and 𝑇 = 0 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
1
𝐹(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
1+𝑒
𝐾𝐵 𝑇
1
𝐹(𝐸) = { ∵ 𝑒 −∞ = 0
1+ 𝑒 −∞
1
𝐹(𝐸) = 1+0
𝐹(𝐸) =1

Case 2: Probability of occupation at T=0 K, When E>EF

If E<EF then 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 = +𝑣𝑒 and 𝑇 = 0 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

1
𝐹(𝐸) = 1+ 𝑒 ∞ { ∵ 𝑒∞ = ∞
1
𝐹(𝐸) =
1+∞
1
𝐹(𝐸) =∞
𝐹(𝐸) = 0
Case 3: Probability of occupation at T>0 K, When E=EF

1
𝐹(𝐸) = 1+ 𝑒 0 { ∵ 𝑒0 = 1
1
𝐹(𝐸) = 1+1
1
𝐹(𝐸) = 2
𝐹(𝐸) = 0.5

Probability of occupation of energy levels by electrons in the order of 50% at T > 0 K.

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10.What are the sources of resistivity? *

 The opposition offered by the substances to flow charge carrier is called “electrical resistance”.
 The opposition arises mainly due to scattering of electrons.
 The scattering of electrons takes place mainly due to following reasons
• Lattice vibrations or thermal vibrations
• Imperfections or crystal defects
• Presence of impurities in materials …. etc

11.Explain the temperature effect on resistivity?*

When the temperature of material increases then the lattices vibrations are takes place and electrical resistance increases.
𝜌𝑡 = 𝜌𝑖 + 𝜌(𝑇)
Where
𝜌𝑡 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝜌𝑖 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝜌(𝑇) = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠.
13.Define the core electrons, valence electrons and conduction electrons or free electrons?
 Innermost orbits, some electrons are tighly bounded with nucleus are called “Bound electrons” or “core electrons”.
 In the outermost orbits, some electrons are loosely bounded with nucleus are called “Valencc electrons”.
 The electrons which are detached from nucleus bonding are called “Free electrons” or “conduction electrons”.

14.What are the Brillion zones? ****

The electrons have allowed energy level values in a region which called “Zone”. These zones are generally “Brillion
zones”or “Allowed bands”.
15.What is forbidden energy band? ***

The brillion zones are separated by regions which are called “Forbidden energy bonds”. No electron is stay in this region
because there is no energy levels.
16.Define the terms drift velocity, mean free path?***
 Under influence of extenal electric field, the electrons are forced to move in the particualr direction. This is process is
called “drift”. The velocity aquired by the electrons due to drift process is called “Drift velocity”.
 The average distance travelled by free electron after two succesive collisions is called “Mean free path”.
17.What is effective mass of electron?****
The mass of an electron in periodic potentials of crystal is different from the mass of free electron and it generally called
as “Effective mass of electron”. Represented by 𝑚∗ .
∗ ℏ2
The expression for effective mass is given by 𝑚 = 2
𝑑 𝐸
[ 2]
𝑑𝐾

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18.compare and contact the conductors, semiconductors and insulators? ****

Conductors Semiconductors Insulators

1.conduction band and valence band 1.conduction band and valence band 1.conduction band and valence band
overlapped to each other. separated low energy gap to each are separated by high energy gap to
other. each other.
2.Band gap is zero. 2.Band gap is low 2Band gap is high.
3.electrons easily enters into 3. In presence of external electric 3.Even though in presence of field,
conduction band from valence band field electrons are enters into electrons are don’t enters into
conduction band. conduction band.
4.Free electrons are available at 4. Few electrons are available in 4. There is no charge carriers are
room temperature. conduction band at room avaible in conduction at room
temperature. temperature.
5. They possess the high electrical 5.They possess the moderate 5.Electrical conductivity almost zero
conductivity due to electrons. electrical conductivity due to either due to absence of charge carriers in
electrons or holes. Depending on conduction band.
type of semiconductor.
6.Ex: Fe, Ni, and Cr…..etc. 6.Si, Ge and GaAs…. etc 6.Rubber, wood, amd paper…etc

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 4.1. Semiconductors
Essay type questions and answers
1.What is intrinsic semiconductors and draw energy band gap diagram at various temperatures? *
 A pure semiconductor without any significant dopant species present is called “intrinsic semiconductor.

 Examples: Pure Silicon and Germanium.

 At 0 K temperature all the valency electrons of one Si atom are bound to covalent bond with another Si and hence
no free electrons available for electrical conductivity, thus semiconductors act as insulators at low temperatures.

(a). Two-dimensional representation of Si crystal at T=0 K

(b). Energy band diagram of Si at T=0K.

 The energy band diagram of Si crystal at T >0K temperature are represented as follows.

(a). Two-dimensional representation of Si crystal at T> 0 K

(b). Energy band diagram of Si at T>0K.

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2.What is intrinsic carrier concentration and derive expression?**
The number of holes presented in the valency band (or) the number of electrons presented conduction band regarding to
intrinsic semiconductor is called “intrinsic carrier concentration”. Represented by 𝐧𝐢 .
For intrinsic semiconductor
Number of holes created(p) in valency bond = Number of electrons(n) presented in conduction bond
Let electron concentration in the conduction band is given by
−(𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 )
𝑛 = 𝑁𝑐 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

Let hole concentration in the valency band is given by

−(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑉 )
𝑝 = 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

For intrinsic semiconductor 𝑛 = 𝑝 = ni say

Now the intrinsic carrier concentration is given by
−(𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 ) −(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑉 )
𝑛. 𝑝 = 𝑁𝑐 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 . 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

−𝐸𝐶 +𝐸𝐹−𝐸 −𝐸
𝑉 𝐹
2
𝐧𝐢 = 𝑁𝑐 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

−(𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 )
𝐧𝐢 2 = 𝑁𝑐 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

−𝐸𝑔
2
𝐧𝐢 = 𝑁𝑐 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

−𝑬𝒈
𝟏⁄
𝐧𝐢 = (𝑵𝒄 𝑵𝑽 ) 𝟐 𝒆 𝟐𝑲𝑩 𝑻
Where,
ni = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐸𝐶 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐸𝑉 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐸𝑔 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑦 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑁𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑉 = pseudo constants depending upon the temperature.

𝐾𝐵 = 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
4.Show that fermi energy of intrinsic semiconductor is lies between in the middle of energy gap (Eg)?***
For intrinsic semiconductor, 𝑛 = 𝑝 (1)
We know that
−(𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 )
𝑛 = 𝑁𝑐 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

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 −(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑉 )
𝑝 = 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

−(𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 ) −(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑉 )

There fore (1) becomes 𝑁𝑐 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
= 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

−(𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 )
𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑉
−(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑉 ) = 𝑁𝑐
𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
−(𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 ) (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑉 )
𝑁𝑉
𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
× 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
= 𝑁𝑐

[ 2𝐸𝐹 −(𝐸𝐶 +𝐸𝑉 ) ]

𝑁𝑉
𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
= 𝑁𝑐

Take log on both sides

[ 2𝐸𝐹 −(𝐸𝐶 +𝐸𝑉 ) ]
𝑁𝑉
log 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = log [ ]
𝑁𝑐

[ 2𝐸𝐹 −(𝐸𝐶 +𝐸𝑉 ) ] 𝑁

𝐾𝐵 𝑇
= log [ 𝑁𝑉 ]
𝑐

𝑁
2𝐸𝐹 − (𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑉 ) = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 log [ 𝑁𝑉 ]
𝑐

𝑁
2𝐸𝐹 = (𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑉 ) + 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 log [ 𝑁𝑉 ]
𝑐

1 𝑁
𝐸𝐹 = 2 {(𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑉 ) + 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 log [ 𝑁𝑉 ] }
𝑐

1 1 𝑁
𝐸𝐹 = 2 (𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑉 ) + 2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 log [ 𝑁𝑉 ]
𝑐

1 𝑁
𝐸𝐹 = 2
(𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑉 ) ∵ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝑉 = 𝑁𝑐 ⟹ log [ 𝑁𝑉 ] = 0
𝑐

1
𝐸𝐹 = (𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑉 )
2

Thus, above equation confirms that fermi energy level of the intrinsic semiconductor lies middle of the energy band gap (Eg).
5.What is extrinsic semiconductor and draw energy band diagrams for n-type and p-type semiconductor at various
temperature?*
When the impurities are added to an intrinsic semiconductor then it becomes “Extrinsic semiconductors”.
Depending upon the type impurity added to intrinsic semiconductors, extrinsic semiconductors are two types,
❖ N-type semiconductors
❖ P-type semiconductors
N-type semi conductor:
 When a small amount of pentavalent impurity such as phosphorous is added to intrinsic semiconductor Si or Ge, then
N-type semiconductor is formed.
 At temperature T=0k, four out of five valency electrons of a phosphorous are in covalent bonding with nearest Si
atoms and remaining one electron is available without any bonding.
 These excess free electrons are settled in a energy level near to conduction called “Donor energy level”.
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  At temperature T>0k, the free electrons only which are settled in donor energy level are ionised and enters in to the
conduction band.

 At temperature T=300k, the breakage of covalent bond releases electrons and constitute current i.e., electrons from
valency bond are ionised and enters in to conduction band. In this way electrons are becoming majority carriers in
N-type semiconductor.

P-type semiconductor:
 When a trivalent impurity such as Boron is added to intrinsic semiconductor Si or Ge, then P-type semiconductor is
formed.
 At temperature T=0k, three out of three valency electrons of a Boron are formed covalent bond with nearest Si
atoms and one bond left over with deficiency of an electron i.e., a hole created at this position. remaining one e is
available without any bonding.
 These excess holes are settled in new energy level near to conduction called “Accepter energy level”.

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  At temperature T>0k, the ionised electrons from valency first fulfilled by accepter level and after that enters into the
conduction band.

 At temperature T=300k, the breakage of covalent bond releases more electrons so, electrons from valency bond
are enters in to conduction band and leaves holes. In this way holes are becoming majority carriers in P-type
semiconductor.

6.Write short note on fermi energy level of extrinsic semiconductor? ***

𝑁
❖ Fermi energy level of n-type semiconductor is given by (𝐸𝐹 ) = (𝐸𝐶 − 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 log 𝑁𝐶
𝐷
From above equation it is clear that, Fermi level of n-type semiconductor lies bellow the conduction band.
𝑁
❖ Fermi energy level of p-type semiconductor is given by (𝐸𝐹 ) = (𝐸𝑉 − 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 log 𝑁𝑉
𝐴
From above equation it is clear that, Fermi level of p-type semiconductor lies above the conduction band.
Where
𝑁𝐷 = 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑁𝐴 = 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑁𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑉 = pseudo constants depending upon the temparature.

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Temperature effect on fermi energy level of extrinsic semiconductor:
The temperature of the n-type or p-type increases, fermi energy level progressively moves toward to middle of the
forbidden energy gap.

7.State law of mass action and derive expression for it?***

The product of majority and minority concentration of charge carrier of extrinsic semiconductor at particular temperature is
equal to the square of intrinsic carrier concentration at that temperature. This is known as “Law of Mass action”.
Derivation:
We know that
−(𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 )
𝑛 = 𝑁𝑐 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

−(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑉 )
𝑝 = 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

−𝑬𝒈
𝟏⁄
For intrinsic semiconductor 𝑛 = 𝑝 = ni = (𝑵𝒄 𝑵𝑽 ) 𝟐 𝒆 𝟐𝑲𝑩 𝑻 (1)
Now the electron and hole concentrations of extrinsic semiconductor are given by ( say n-type),
−(𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 )
𝑛𝑛 = 𝑁𝑐 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

−(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑉 )
𝑝𝑛 = 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

−𝐸𝑔 −𝐸𝑔

𝑛𝑛 . 𝑝𝑝 = (𝑁𝑐 𝑁𝑉 )𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (1) (𝑁𝑐 𝑁𝑉 )𝑒 𝐾𝐵𝑇 = 𝑛𝑖 2

𝑛𝑛 . 𝑝𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖 2

Where
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝑛𝑛 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.
𝑝𝑛 = ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.

Similarly for P-type semiconductor

𝑝𝑝 . 𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 2

8.What is extrinsic carrier concentration and derive expression for it? (Charge densities in n-type and p-type
semiconductor?***
Charge densities in n-type semiconductors:
According to charge neutrality condition in n-type semiconductor,
Total number of electrons presented in conduction band = Donor concentration +Number of holes in valency band.
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 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑁𝐷 + 𝑝𝑛 (1)
𝑛𝑛 = 𝑁𝐷 + 𝑝𝑛
𝑛𝑛 ≫ 𝑝𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
∴ 𝑛𝑛 ≃ 𝑁𝐷 (2)

𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑛𝑛 . 𝑝𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖 2

𝑁𝐷 . 𝑝𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖 2 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (2)
𝑛𝑖 2
𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑝𝑛 ) = 𝑁𝐷

Charge densities in P-type semiconductors:

According to charge neutrality condition in p-type semiconductor,
Total number of holes presented in valency band = Accepter concentration +Number of electrons in conduction band.
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑁𝐴 + 𝑛𝑝 (2)

𝑝𝑝 = 𝑁𝐴 + 𝑛𝑝

𝑝𝑝 ≫ 𝑛𝑝 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

∴ 𝑝𝑝 ≃ 𝑁𝐴 (3)

𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑝 . 𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 2

𝑁𝐴 . 𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 2 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (3)
𝑛𝑖 2
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑝 − 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑛𝑝 ) =
𝑁𝐴

9.What is the concept of drift in the semiconductors? And derive expression for drift current density(J) and
drift conductivity (𝝈)? ***
✓ When a semiconductor is subjected to external electric field, then the chare carriers are forced to move in
particular direction and generates electrical current. This phenomenon is called “Drift of charge carriers”.

✓ The current generated during this process is called “Drift current” (or) “Drift conductivity”.
Expression for drift current density:
✓ Let E, e, and Vd be the applied electric field, charge of charge carrier and drift velocity of charge carriers.
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 𝑽𝒅 ∝ 𝑬
𝑽𝒅 = 𝝁𝑬 (𝟏)
Where 𝜇 = 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠
But according to definition of current density,
𝐽 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠 × 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 × 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
∴Now, drift current density for n-type semiconductor
𝐽𝑛 (𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡) = 𝑛𝑒𝑉𝑑
𝐽𝑛 (𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡) = 𝑛𝑒𝜇𝑛 𝐸 (2) 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (1)
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝 − 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟,
𝐽𝑝 (𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡) = 𝑝𝑒𝜇𝑝 𝐸 (3)

Now total drift current density in semiconductor 𝐽𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (drift) = 𝐽𝑛 (𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡) + 𝐽𝑝 (𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡)

𝐽𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (drift) = 𝑛𝑒𝜇𝑛 𝐸 + 𝑝𝑒𝜇𝑝 𝐸

𝐽𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (drift) = 𝑒𝐸(𝑛𝜇𝑛 + 𝑝𝜇𝑝 )

𝐽𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (drift)
= 𝑒𝐸(𝑛𝜇𝑛 + 𝑝𝜇𝑝 )
𝐸
𝐽
𝜎 (𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡) = 𝑒𝐸(𝑛𝜇𝑛 + 𝑝𝜇𝑝 ) ∵ 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸 ⟹ 𝐸 = 𝜎

∵ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦

𝜎 (𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡) = 𝑒𝐸(𝑛𝜇𝑛 + 𝑝𝜇𝑝 )

For intrinsic semi-conductor 𝑛 = 𝑝 = ni

∴ 𝐽𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (drift) = ni 𝑒𝐸(𝜇𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 )

∴ 𝜎 (𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡) = ni 𝑒𝐸(𝜇𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 )

Where
ni = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜇𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝜇𝑝 = 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑒 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒

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10.What is the concept of diffusion in the semiconductors? And derive expression for diffusion current
density(J)? ***
✓ Even though in absence of electric field, charge carriers are moves from region of higher concentration to
lower concentration due to non-uniform concentration in a semiconductor. This process is called “Diffusion
of charge carriers”.

✓ The current generated during this process is called “Diffusion current” (or) “Diffusion conductivity”.

Expression for diffusion current density:

✓ Let ∆𝑛 be the excess electron concentration in n-type semiconductor then,
𝜕
Diffusion rate ∝ − (∆𝑛) 𝜕𝑥
𝜕
Diffusion rate = −𝐷𝑛 (∆𝑛)
𝜕𝑥
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
Dn = Diffusion coefficient of electrons
Now, diffusion current density is given by
Jn (diffusion) = charge of electron × diffusion rate
∂
Jn (diffusion) = −e[−Dn (∆n)] ∂x
∂
Jn (diffusion) = eDn (∆n)
∂x
✓ Similarly, diffusion current density due to holes
∂
Jp (diffusion) = e[−Dp (∆p)]
∂x
∂
Jp (diffusion) = −eDp (∆p)
∂x

✓ Total diffusion current density for a semi-conductor is,

JTotal (diffusion) = Jn (diffusion) + Jp (diffusion)

𝝏 𝝏
𝑱𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 (𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏) = 𝒆𝑫𝒏 (∆𝒏) − 𝒆𝑫𝒑 (∆𝒑)
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙
Where
Dp = Diffusion coefficient of holes

∆P = change in holes mass concentration

✓ Total current density due to electrons for a semi-conductor is,
JTotal (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠) = Jn (drift) + Jn (diffusion)
102 | P a g e
 𝜕
JTotal = 𝑛𝑒𝜇𝑛 𝐸 + 𝑒𝐷𝑛 (∆𝑛)
𝜕𝑥
✓ Total current density due to holes for a semi-conductor is,
JTotal (ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠) = Jp (drift) + Jp (diffusion)
𝜕
JTotal (ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠) = 𝑝𝑒𝜇𝑝 𝐸 − 𝑒𝐷𝑝 (∆𝑝)
𝜕𝑥

11.What are the einstein relations in semiconductor physics and derive the einstein equations.****

 The relation between the diffusion coefficient(D) and mobility (𝜇) of charge carriers deduced by einstein for a
semiconductor.These relation are called “Einstein relation”.
Derivation of Einstein relation:

 In absence of external electric field at thermally equilibrium condition no diffusion current is takes place.

 In absence of external electric field at thermally non-equilibrium condition charge carriers are diffuse from higher concentration
to lower concentration regions and generates the diffusion current which causes internal electric field.

 Due to generation of internal electric field, some charge carriers are drifted and generates drift current.

 Under conditions drift current balances the diffusion current.

The drift current due to excess electrons ∆𝑛

is given by
= ∆𝑛𝑒𝜇𝑛 𝐸
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 ∆𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
𝜕
= 𝑒𝐷𝑛 (∆𝑛)
𝜕𝑥
 Under conditions drift current balances the diffusion current.

𝜕
∆𝑛𝑒𝜇𝑛 𝐸 = 𝑒𝐷𝑛 (∆𝑛)
𝜕𝑥

𝐷 𝜕
∆𝑛𝑒𝐸 = 𝑒 𝜇𝑛 (∆𝑛)
𝑛 𝜕𝑥

𝐷 𝜕
𝐹 = 𝑒 𝜇𝑛 (∆𝑛) (1) ∵ ∆𝑛𝑒𝐸 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑛 𝜕𝑥

According to kinetic theory of gases, force acting on the gas particles (here electrons) is given by
𝜕
𝐹 = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝜕𝑥 (∆𝑛) (2)

103 | P a g e
 𝐷 𝜕 𝜕
From (1) and (2) 𝑒 𝜇𝑛 (∆𝑛) = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 (∆𝑛)
𝑛 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝐷
𝑒 𝜇𝑛 = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑛

𝐷𝑛 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
= (3)
𝜇𝑛 𝑒

𝐷𝑝 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
Similarly, for holes = (4)
𝜇𝑝 𝑒

From (3) and (4)

𝐷𝑛 𝐷𝑝
=
𝜇𝑛 𝜇𝑝

𝐃𝐧 𝛍𝐧
∴ = This is called Einstein relation of semiconductors.
𝐃𝐩 𝛍𝐩

104 | P a g e
 12.What is a Hall effect? and derive expression for hall coefficient along with Hall effect applications.
*****

Hall effect statement:

❖ When the current carrying semiconductor is subjected to a transverse magnetic field, then a potential difference is
developed across the semiconductor, in a perpendicular direction to both current and applied magnetic field. This
phenomenon is called “Hall effect”.
Explanation:
❖ Let us consider a semiconductor slab of width ‘w’ and thickness ‘d’ in which current ‘I’ is flowing along X-
direction.
❖ When this current carrying semiconductor is subjected to external magnetic field (B) along the Y-direction then
voltage established in Z-direction across the semiconductor.

❖ The charge carriers (electrons and holes) experience a force due to applied magnetic field (B). As result electrons are
accumulated at bottom of semiconductor while holes are accumulated at top of the semiconductor as shown in figure.
Thus, potential difference established across semiconductor.
❖ The established voltage is called Hall voltage(𝑽𝑯 ) and corresponding electric field is called “Hall electric field”
(𝑬𝑯 ).
❖ This developed hall electric field (𝑬𝑯 ) exerts a force on the electrons to prevent further accumulation at bottom surface.
Expressions for Hall electric field(𝑬𝑯 ), Hall voltage(𝑽𝑯 ), Hall efficient(𝑅𝐻 ) and Mobility of electrons (𝜇𝑒 ).
The force on electron due to applied magnetic field = 𝐵𝑒𝑣
The force on electron due to Hall voltage = 𝑒𝑬𝑯
At steady state both forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction,
𝑒𝑬𝑯 = 𝐵𝑒𝑣

∴ 𝑬𝑯 = 𝐵 𝑣

𝑉𝐻
According to definition of electric field 𝐸𝐻 =
𝑑

∴ 𝑉𝐻 = 𝐸𝐻 𝑑
∴ 𝑉𝐻 = 𝐵𝑣𝑑
𝐽
∴ 𝑉𝐻 = 𝐵𝑣𝑑 { 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐽) = 𝑛𝑒𝑣 ⇒ 𝑣 =
𝑛𝑒
𝐵𝐽𝑑
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑛𝑒

105 | P a g e
 𝐵𝐼𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑛𝑤𝑑𝑒 { 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐽) = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
= 𝑤×𝑑
𝐵𝐼
∴ 𝑉𝐻 =
𝑛𝑒𝑤

𝐵𝐼
∴ 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑛𝑒𝑤

1 𝑉𝐻 𝑤
∴ 𝑛𝑒
= 𝐵𝐼
𝑉𝐻 𝑤 1
∴ 𝑅𝐻 = 𝐵𝐼
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑒
= 𝑅𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑯𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕.

The conductivity in a semiconductor due to electrons is given by

𝜎𝑒 = 𝑛𝑒𝜇𝑒
1
𝜎𝑒 = 𝜎.
𝑛𝑒

𝜇𝑒 = 𝜎𝑒 . 𝑅𝐻

∴ 𝑀𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝜇 = 𝜎𝑒 𝑅𝐻

Applications of Hall effect:

 We can determine given material is semiconductor or not.
 We can determine the types of charge carriers dominated in the semiconductors.
 We can measure the conductivity of given semi conducting material.
 We can measure the magnetic field by measuring relative quantities.
 We can determine the mobility of charge carriers.

13.What are the differences between direct band gap and indirect band gap semiconductors? ***

Direct band gap semiconductors Indirect band gap semiconductors

1.Minimum energy of conduction band and maximum 1.Minimum energy of conduction band and maximum
energy of valency band are having same value of wave energy of valency band are having different value of wave
vector. vector.

2.Recombination of electron and holes directly and 2.Recombination of electrons and holes indirectly through
emitted a photon. traps, along with photon a phonon is also emitted.
3.Recombination time is very less. 3.Recombination time is more.
4.These semiconductors are used fabrication of LED and 4.These semiconductors are used to amplify the signals as
Laser diodes. in case of diodes and transistors.
5. These are mostly compound semiconductors. 5.These are mostly elemental semiconductors.
6.Exmples:In P,GaAs. 6. Si and Ge.

106 | P a g e
 4.1. Semiconductors
Short type questions and answers
1.What is intrinsic semiconductor or I-type semiconductor?
A pure semiconductor without any significant dopant species present is called “intrinsic semiconductor.
Examples: pure silicon and germanium.
2.What is extrinsic semiconductor?
When the impurities are added to an intrinsic semiconductor then it becomes “Extrinsic semiconductors”.
Depending upon the type impurity added to intrinsic semiconductors, extrinsic semiconductors are two types,
❖ N-type semiconductors
❖ P-type semiconductors
3.What is Intrinsic carrier concentration? And mention its expression.
The product of number of holes presented in the valency band and number electrons presented conduction band regarding
to intrinsic semiconductor is called “intrinsic carrier concentration”. Represented by 𝐧𝐢 .
−𝑬𝒈
𝟏
𝐧𝐢 = (𝑵𝒄 𝑵𝑽 ) ⁄𝟐 𝒆 𝟐𝑲𝑩 𝑻

Where,
ni = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐸𝐶 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐸𝑉 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐸𝑔 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑦 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑁𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑉 = pseudo constants depending upon the temperature.

𝐾𝐵 = 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
4.What is fermi energy level of semiconductor?**
The probability of occupation of highest energy levels by charge carriers at absolute temperature is called “Fermi energy
level”.
5.Write short note on fermi level of intrinsic semiconductor? ***

(or)
Why the fermy energy level (EF) of the intrinsic semiconductor lies in middle of the forbidden energy gap (Eg).

 Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor lies in the middle of the energy gap due to equal concentrations of electrons
and holes in conduction band and valency band respectively.
(𝐸𝐶 +𝐸𝐹 )
 𝐹𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 (𝐸𝐹 ) = 2
Where
𝐸𝐶 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐸𝐹 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑

107 | P a g e
 Fermi level of intrinsic semiconductor Independent of temperature.

6. Mention the effect of temperature on extrinsic semiconductor?***

Temperature effect on fermi energy level of extrinsic semiconductor:
The temperature of the n-type or p-type semiconductor increases, fermi energy level progressively moves
toward to middle of the forbidden energy gap.
Example:
In an n-type semiconductor at very high temperature concentration of thermally generated electrons far greater
than donor electrons, hence electrons and holes concentration almost become equal. As result fermi energy
level (EF) returns to middle of the forbidden energy gap.
7.What is the concept of drift in the semiconductors? **
✓ When the external electric field applied to the semiconductor, then the charge carriers are forced to
move in a particular direction and generates the current. This process is called “Drift of charge carriers”.
✓ The current generated during this process is called “Drift current” (or) “Drift conductivity”.
✓ The expression for is drift conductivity of extrinsic semiconductor is given by 𝑱𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒕 = 𝒆𝒏𝝁𝒏 + 𝒆𝒑𝝁𝒑
✓ For intrinsic semiconductor 𝑛 = 𝑝 = 𝐧𝐢
∴ 𝐽𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 = 𝑒𝐧𝐢 𝜇𝑛 + 𝑒𝐧𝐢 𝜇𝑝
𝐽𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 = 𝐧𝐢 𝑒(𝜇𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 )
Where
ni = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜇𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝜇𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝜇𝑝 = 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑒 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒
8.What is the concept of diffusion in the semiconductors? **
✓ In absence of electric field, charge carriers are moves from region of higher concentration to lower
concentration due to non-uniform concentration in a semiconductor. This process is called “Diffusion of
charge carriers”.
✓ The current generated during this process is called “Diffusion current” (or) “Diffusion conductivity”.
✓ The expression for is drift conductivity of extrinsic semiconductor is given by
𝝏 𝝏
𝑱𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒆𝑫𝒏 (∆𝒏) − 𝒆𝑫𝒑 (∆𝒑)
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙
Where
Dn = Diffusion coefficient of electrons
Dp = Diffusion coefficient of holes

∆n = change in electrons mass concentration

∆P = change in holes mass concentration

108 | P a g e
9.Write short note on Hall effect? ***
❖ When a current carrying semiconductor is subjected to a transverse magnetic field, then a potential difference is
developed across the semiconductor, in a perpendicular direction to both current and applied magnetic field. This
phenomenon is called “Hall effect”.
❖ The established voltage is called Hall voltage(𝑽𝑯 ) and
corresponding electric field is called “Hall electric field” (𝑬𝑯 ).
❖ Expression for Hall electric field ⇒ 𝑬𝑯 = 𝒃𝒗
𝑩𝑰
❖ Expression for Hall voltage ⇒ 𝑽𝑯 = 𝒏𝒆𝒘
𝟏 𝑽𝑯 𝑾
❖ Expression for Hall coefficient ⇒ 𝑹𝑯 = 𝒏𝒆 = 𝑩𝑰
❖ Expression for conductivity due to electrons ⇒ 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒𝜇
❖ Mobility of electrons ⇒ 𝜇 = 𝑹𝑯 𝜎
Where
𝐵 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝐼 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑤 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
R H = Hall coefficient
𝜎 = conductivity due to electrons
10.What are applications of Hall effect?****
Applications of Hall effect:
 We can determine given material is semiconductor or not.
 We can determine the types of charge carriers dominated in the semiconductors.
 We can measure the conductivity of given semi conducting material.
 We can measure the magnetic field by measuring relative quantities.
 We can determine the mobility of charge carriers.

11.Mention the Einstein’s relation for a semiconductor? ***

 The relation between Diffusion coefficient and mobility of charge carrier is termed as Einstein’s equation”.

𝐷𝑛 𝜇 𝐾𝑇
 The Einstein’s relation of semiconductor is given by 𝐷𝑝
= 𝜇𝑛 = 𝑒
𝑝

Where, 𝐷𝑛 = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝐷𝑝 = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝜇𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝜇𝑝 = 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

 Einstein’s relations are true only for non-degenerate semiconductors.

12.What is the law of mass action? ****

The product of majority and minority concentration of charge carrier of extrinsic semiconductor at particular temperature
is equal to the square of intrinsic carrier concentration at that temperature. This is known as “Law of Mass action”.

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Mathematically is given by

𝑛. 𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 2
Where
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝑛, 𝑝 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛, ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦.

13.Mention the application of semiconductors?**

 Semiconductors are used in pocket calculators, televisions.
 They are used in research laboratories of electronic instruments.
 They are ued in industrial control systems
 They are used in military equipment’s, data display and processing equipment’s.
 They are used in computers and space systems.
14.What is fermi energy level of semiconductor? And discuss location of fermi energy level of intrinsic
semiconductor with reason?**
 The probability of occupation of maximum energy level by charge carrier in an energy band is called “Femi energy
level”.
 Fermi energy level of intrinsic semiconductor lies in the middle of valency band and conduction band.
 The hole and electron carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductor are equal hence the fermi energy level is lies in
the middle of the energy gap (Eg).

15.What are the differences between direct band gap and indirect band gap semiconductors? **

Direct band gap semiconductors Indirect band gap semiconductors

1.Minimum energy of conduction band and maximum 1.Minimum energy of conduction band and maximum
energy of valency band are having same value of wave energy of valency band are having different value of
vector. wave vector.
2.Recombination of electron and holes directly and 2.Recombination of electrons and holes indirectly
emitted a photon. through traps, along with photon a phonon is also
emitted.
3.Recombination time is very less. 3.Recombination time is more.
4.These semiconductors are used fabrication of LED and 4.These semiconductors are used to amplify the signals
Laser diodes. as in case of diodes and transistors.
5. These are mostly compound semiconductors. 5.These are mostly elemental semiconductors.
6.Exmples:In P,GaAs. 6. Si and Ge.

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 5.2.Super conductors
Essay type questions and answers
1.State and explains the Meissner effect? ****
The expulsion of magnetics lines by super conductor in presence of weak magnetic field at below critical temperature
(𝑻𝒄 ) is called “Meissner effect”.
✓ When the specimen is under normal state, then applied magnetic lines are penetrated.

∴ 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (H + I)

Where
H is the external applied magnetic field
I is the magnetization produced insidethe specimen

Specimen at normal state

✓ When the specimen is under superconducting state, the applied magnetics lines are expelled as
shown in following figure. Hence the magnetic induction(B) inside the specimen is ‘0’.

∴ 0 = 𝜇0 (H + I)

∴0 = H+I
∴ −𝐻 = I

∴ −1 = 𝐼⁄𝐻

∴ 𝜒 = −1
Specimen at super conducting state

✓ Thus, the super conducting material is act as a perfectly diamagnetic material. (For diamagnetic
material 𝜒 = −1.

2.What is Critical Magnetic field (𝑯𝒄 )?**

When the magnetic field is applied on specimen which is under super conducting state then at a particular magnetic
field super conductor becomes normal conductor. The magnetic field at which super conductor becomes normal
conductor is called “Critical Magnetic field”.
𝑇
The dependence of critical field upon the temperature is given by 𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻0 (1 − 𝑇 )
𝐶
Where 𝐻𝐶 = 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

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The variation of HC w.r.t. T is shown in figure.

3.What are the types of super conductors? And explain.**

Based on dia magnetic response, super conductors are classified into two types
1.Type-I super conductors
2. Type -II super conductors
1. Type-I super conductors:
✓ Superconductors which are follows a complete Meissner effect is called type-I Superconductors.

✓ The dia magnetic response of type-I super conductor can be easily understood by following graph.

Super
Normal
conducting
state
state

Hc

✓ When the applied magnetic field intensity (H) increases gradually then the super conductor doesn’t allow the
magnetic lines through in it up to Hc.
✓ Beyond critical field (Hc), superconductor suddenly allows the magnetic flux and converted to normal conductor.
✓ Examples: - Al, Zn, Hg and Sn

2. Type -II super conductors

✓ The super conductors which are doesn’t follow the complete, Meissner effect are called “Type-II super
conductors”.

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 ✓ The dia magnetic response of type-II super conductors can be understood by following graph.

Super Mixed state

conductingg state

Normal

state
Vortex

region
HC HC
✓ When the applied magnetic field intensity (H) increases gradually then the super conductor doesn’t allow the
magnetic lines through in it up to Hc1.
✓ The specimen is in pure superconducting state up to the field 𝐻𝐶1 (lower critical field).
✓ When the field is increased beyond 𝐻𝐶2 (upper critical state)the magnetic flux lines start penetrating.
✓ The specimen is in mixed state between 𝐻𝐶1and𝐻𝐶2.
✓ Above𝐻𝐶2 , the specimen is in normal state. This means that the Meissner effect is incomplete in the
region between 𝐻𝐶1 and 𝐻𝐶2. This region is known as vertex region.
✓ These superconductors are known as hard superconductors.
✓ Examples: - Zr, Nb

4.What is the Josephson Effect? And explain.***

✓ The joining of two super conductor by an insulating layer is called “Josephson diode”.
✓ The insulator which forms the junction between two super conductors is known as Josephson
junction.
✓ The generation of super current due to the tunnelling of cooper pairs through insulator in a Josephson
diode is called “Josephson effect”.
Josephson effect is of two types:
 Dc Josephson effect
 Ac Josephson effect
DC Josephson effect:

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 The generation of small direct super current in absence of external field in a Josephson diode is called “DC Josephson effect”.

The tunnelling current is given by 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin ∅0

Where

𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 (∅0 ) = ∅2 − ∅1

𝐼0 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Ac Josephson effect:
✓ The generation of alternative super current in presence of external field in a Josephson diode is called “AC Josephson
effect”.

𝐸𝑡
✓ Due to presence of Vo, additional phase difference is of ∆∅ = is introduced for the cooper pairs , Where 𝐸 =
ℏ
′
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 = (2𝑒)𝑉𝑜 and ℏ = 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.

∴ The tunnelling Alternating super current is given by 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin (∅0 + ∆∅)

𝐸𝑡
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin (∅0 + ∆∅) { ∵ 𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑜, ∆∅ =
ℏ

𝐸𝑡
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin (∅0 + ) { ∵ 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝐸) = (2𝑒)𝑉𝑜
ℏ

(2𝑒)𝑉𝑜𝑡
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin (∅0 + )
ℏ

(2𝑒)𝑉𝑜
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 sin (∅𝟎 + 𝝎𝒕 ) { ∵ = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦(𝜔 )
ℏ

Case I:

When Vo=0, then Dc current flows through junction

Case II:

When Vo<Vc, a constant Dc current flows through the junction

Case III:

When Vo>Vc, the junction has finite resistance and the Alternative current is flows through junction.

Applications of Josephson effect:

 Josephson effect is used to generate micro waves frequency with 𝜔 = (2𝑒𝑉0 )/ℎ

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  A.C Josephson effect is used to define standard volt.
 A.C Josephson effect is used to measure very low temperatures based on the
variation of frequency of the emitted radiation with temperature.
 A.C Josephson effect is used for switching of signals from one circuit to another.

5.What are the High Tc super conductors? And mention their properties.***

High Tc super conductors:

The super conductors which have transion temperature greater than 27 K are called “High Tc super conductors”.

Properties:
✓ Brittle in nature.
✓ High Tc super conductors are highly anisotropic when those are in normal state.
✓ Hall coefficient is positive which is an index of dominance of holes.
✓ BCS theory can’t explained the behaviour of high Tc super conductors.
✓ The isotopic effect is almost absent in these materials.
✓ Magnetic properties are highly anisotropic.
✓ Effect of pressure in these materials also anisotropic.
Examples:
Mixed metallic oxides of Lanthanum-barium-copper (La1Ba2Cu3O7) at 30k.
Mixed metallic oxides of Yattrium-barium-copper (Y1Ba2Cu3O7) at 95k.
……. etc

6.State and explain the BCS Theory of super conductors?*****

✓ A microscopic theory was developed in 1957 by J. Bardeen, L. Cooper and J.R. Schrieffer to explains the properties of super
conductors such as, Zero resistivity, Meissner effect, Isotope effect …. etc is called BCS theory.
Electron-Lattice -electron interaction:
✓ Let us consider an electron which passes through lattice and approaching the positive ions, then attractive interaction will
be takes place between them and electron should be losses its energy.
✓ Due to this attractive interaction positive ion sets into vibrational motion. This vibrational motion further causes distortion
of lattice is quantised in terms of Phonons and corresponding field is referred as “Phonon field”.
✓ If another 2nd electron approaches to phonon field (vibrated lattice) then energy of 2 nd electron also gets lowers.
✓ The lowering of energies of electrons represents existence of attractive force between them, hence two electrons are pair
to each other. These pairs are referred as “Cooper pairs”.
✓ This entire process is “Electron-lattice-electron interaction”.

Explanation in terms of wave vectors:

✓ Consider the 1st electron with wave vector K1 which distorts the lattice and causes emission of phonons of wave vectors q.
Now, the resultant wave vector of scattered electron is given by k 1-q.

✓ Now 2nd electron with wave vector K2 approaches the lattice then it absorbs the phonon of wave vector ‘q’. During this
process, resultant wave vector of scattered electron is given by K2+q as shown in figure. Now these electrons with wave
vectors k1-q & K2+q are paired and referred as “cooper pairs”.

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 ✓ Cooper pair is represented by (K1 −𝑞 ↑ , K2+𝑞 ↓).
✓ If the paired electrons have equal and opposite spins & momenta then the attraction force is more.
✓ At lower temperatures the cooper pairs don’t scattered hence resistivity becomes zero. Thus, super conductivity is arising
inside the super conductors.

7.Mention the Applications of super conductors? ***

 Super conductors are widely used in power transmissions.
 Super conducting coils are used in transformers and electrical machines.
 Eddy current losses and hysteresis losses are will not be present in super conducting devices and hence the
size of motors and generators will be drastically reduced.
 Super conductors are used to generation of high magnetic fields with low power consumption.
 Super conductors are improving the MRI technique, as the super conducting magnet can be smaller as more
efficient as compare to conventional magnet.
 Super conductors are used in very fast switching technique.
 Super conductors are used cryotron switches.
 The most spectacular application of super conductors is “Maglev Trains”. Maglev is acronym for ‘Magnetic
levitation’.
 SQUID is stands for super conducting quantum interface devices. If two or more Josephson junction mounted
the superconducting ring then it becomes SQUID. SQUID is very sensitive magnetometer, even weak magnetic
fields due to brain and heart in the order of 10 -3 wb/m2 also measurable.
 Super conducting susceptometer: It contains the super conducting magnet and SQUID. It is used to detect the
variation of the iron content in the human body.
 Magnetoencephalography: Doctors can locate the damaged portion of the brain by using SQUIDS around
patient’s head. This technique is called “Magnetoencephalography”.

5.2.Super conductors
Short type questions and answers
1.Define the Super conductivity and Super conductors.
✓ When the temperature of certain metals (or) alloys decrease, then the resistivity of those materials also goes
to decrease and reach the zero resistivity (i.e., infinite conductivity). This phenomenon is called “Super
conductivity”.
✓ The materials which are exhibits the super conductivity nature are called “Super conductors”.

2.What is Transition temperature (or) Critical Temperature (𝑻𝒄 )?***

The temperature at which the normal conductor transition from normal state to super conducting state is called
“Transition temperature” or “Critical temperature”.

3.Mention the Properties of super conductors? **

✓ It is a low temperature phenomenon.
✓ The temperature at which the normal conductor transition from normal state to super conducting state is called
“Transition temperature” or “Critical temperature”.
✓ The transition temperature is different for different substances.
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 ✓ Super conductors don’t allow the magnetics lines through in them and behaves as diamagnetic material. This
expulsion of magnetic lines by super conductor is “Meissner effect”.
✓ When the external magnetic field applied to super conductors then, they should be loss their super. The particular
magnetic field at super conductor becomes normal conductor is called “Critical Magnetic field”.
✓ Super conductors not good conductors at room temperature.
✓ Materials having high normal resistivities exhibit superconductivity.
✓ For chemically pure and structurally perfect specimen, the superconductivity is very sharp.
✓ The metallic elements which having valence electrons lies between 2 to 8 exhibit superconductivity.
✓ Superconducting elements, in general, lies in the inner columns of the periodic table.

3.Comparison between Type-I and Type-II super conductors? *****

Type I superconductor Type II superconductor

1. It follows complete Meissner effect. 1. It does not follow the complete Meissner
effect
2. It has single critical field value HC 2. It has two critical field values 𝐻𝐶1and𝐻𝐶2
3. There no mixed state. 3. There is a mixed state
4. They are soft superconductors 4. They are hard superconductors
5. Materials with pure form are type -I 5. Materials with impurities or alloys are
superconductors Type-II superconductors
6. Examples; Zn, Al, Hg and Sn 6. Examples: Zr, Nb

4.What is the Meissner effect? ****

The expulsion of magnetics lines by super conductor in presence of weak magnetic field at below critical temperature (𝑻𝒄 ) is called
“Meissner effect”. Thus, the super conducting material is act as a perfectly diamagnetic material. (For diamagnetic material 𝜒 =
−1

5.What is Critical Magnetic field (𝑯𝒄 )?***

When the magnetic field is applied on specimen which is under super conducting state then at a particular magnetic field super
conductor becomes normal conductor. The magnetic field at which super conductor becomes normal conductor is called “Critical
Magnetic field”.
𝑇
The dependence of critical field upon the temperature is given by 𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻0 (1 − )
𝑇𝐶
Where 𝐻𝐶 = 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

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6.What is the Josephson Effect?

✓ The joining of two super conductor by an insulating layer is called “Josephson diode”.
✓ The insulator which forms the junction between two super conductors is known as Josephson junction.
✓ The generation of super current due to the tunnelling of cooper pairs through insulator in a Josephson diode is
called “Josephson effect”.
Josephson effect is of two types:
 Dc Josephson effect
 Ac Josephson effect
7.What is the DC Josephson effect? ***

DC Josephson effect: The generation of small direct super current in absence of external field in a Josephson diode is called “DC
Josephson effect”.

The tunnelling current is given by 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin ∅0

Where

𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 (∅0 ) = ∅2 − ∅1

𝐼0 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

8.What is the Ac Josephson effect? ***

Ac Josephson effect:
✓ The generation of alternative super current in presence of external field in a Josephson diode is called “AC Josephson
effect”.
∴ The tunnelling Alternating super current is given by

𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 sin (∅𝟎 + 𝝎𝒕 )

9.What are the applications of Josephson effect?**

 Josephson effect is used to generate micro waves frequency with 𝜔 = (2𝑒𝑉0 )/ℎ
 A.C Josephson effect is used to define standard volt.
 A.C Josephson effect is used to measure very low temperatures based on thevariation of frequency of
the emitted radiation with temperature.
 A.C Josephson effect is used for switching of signals from one circuit to another
10.What are the High Tc super conductors?****

High Tc super conductors:

The super conductors which have critical temperature greater than 27 K are called “High Tc super conductors”.

Examples:
Mixed metallic oxides of Lanthanum-barium-copper (La1Ba2Cu3O7) at 30k.
Mixed metallic oxides of Yattrium-barium-copper (Y1Ba2Cu3O7) at 95k.
……. Etc

11.What are Maglev trains?*

The most spectacular application of super conductors is “Maglev Trains”. Maglev is acronym for ‘Magnetic
levitation’. Now days superfast trains are maintaining their speed in the order 540 km/hour mainly due to application
of super conducting materials.
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12.Mention any two medical applications of super conductors?

 Super conducting susceptometer: It contains the super conducting magnet and SQUID. It is used to detect the
variation of the iron content in the human body.
 Magnetoencephalography: Doctors can locate the damaged portion of the brain by using SQUIDS around
patient’s head. This technique is called “Magnetoencephalography”.

13.What is the squid and explain? ***

SQUID is stands for super conducting quantum interface devices. If two or more Josephson junction mounted the
superconducting ring then it becomes SQUID. SQUID is very sensitive magnetometer, even weak magnetic fields due
to brain and heart in the order of 10 -3 wb/m2 also measurable.

Important Note1:
Few graphs are asking for 2 marks questions, so practice well following graphs and diagrams.
1.Practice the intensity distribution curve for single, double and N -slits.
2.B-H curve or Hysteresis loop of ferro magnetics.
3.Representation energy band gap of diagrams of p-type and n-type semiconductors.
4.Fiber optic communication system.
5.E-K Diagram
6. Representation of Brillion zones.

Important Note2:
Few Important formulae for problems solving in examinations.

❖ 𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑚 = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 (I.M.P)

❖ Condition for dark newton ring 𝟐𝒕 = 𝒏𝝀 (V.V.I.M.P)

𝑟2
❖ Thickness of thin film in the newton rings t = 2𝑅 (V.V.I.M.P)

𝐷𝑛 2 − 𝐷𝑚 2
❖ Wavelength of given source 𝜆= (V.V.I.M.P)
4𝑅(𝑛−𝑚)

𝐷𝑛 2 − 𝐷𝑚 2
❖ Refractive index of given liquid 𝜇= (V.V.I.M.P)
𝐷′𝑛 2 − 𝐷′𝑚 2

❖ Condition for minima in single slit esinθ = ±nλ

❖ Condition for minima in double slit (𝑒 + 𝑑)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ±𝑚𝜆 (V.V.I.M.P)

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❖ Grating equation 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑁𝑛𝜆 (V.V.I.M.P)

𝜆
❖ Thick ness of quarter wave plate 𝑡= (V.V.I.M.P)
4(𝜇0 −𝜇𝑒 )

𝜆
❖ Thick ness of wave plate 𝑡= 2(𝜇0 −𝜇𝑒 )

ℎ𝑐
❖ Wave length of laser 𝜆=𝐸
𝑔

2𝜋
❖ Number of possible propagation modes in the core of step index fibre = 𝑟(𝑁𝐴) (I.M.P)
𝜆

❖ Acceptance angle ( 𝜃𝑎 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (√𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 ) (V.V.I.M.P)

❖ Numaircal Aperture (NA) = √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 (V.V.I.M.P)

❖ Numaircal Aperture (𝑵𝑨) = 𝒏𝟏 √𝟐∆(V.V.I.M.P)

❖ Polarisation (P) = ɛ𝑜 𝐸 (r −1) (I.M.P)

❖  =  r −1 (V.V.I.M.P)

𝑃
❖ χ=
ɛ𝑜 𝐸

❖ ɛ𝑟 = ɛ⁄ɛ𝑜

❖ 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝐻 + 𝑀) (V.V.I.M.P)

❖  = 𝜇r − 1 (V.V.I.M.P)

𝑀
❖ χ=
𝐻

𝑐
❖ χ=
𝑇
𝑩𝑰
❖ Expression for Hall voltage ⇒ 𝑽𝑯 = 𝒏𝒆𝒘(V.V.I.M.P)

❖ Expression for Hall electric field ⇒ 𝑬𝑯 = 𝒃𝒗

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 𝟏 𝑽𝑯 𝑾
❖ Expression for Hall coefficient ⇒ 𝑹𝑯 = 𝒏𝒆 = 𝑩𝑰
(V.V.I.M.P)

❖ Expression for conductivity due to electrons ⇒ 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒𝜇(V.V.I.M.P)

❖
❖ Mobility of electrons ⇒ 𝜇 = 𝑹𝑯 𝜎
❖ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜎 = 𝐧𝐢 𝑒(𝜇𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 ) (V.V.I.M.P)
❖
𝐷𝑛 𝜇 𝐾𝑇
❖ Einstein’s relation of semi-conductors = 𝜇𝑛 =
𝐷𝑝 𝑝 𝑒
𝑇
❖ The dependence of critical field upon the temperature is given by 𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻0 (1 − 𝑇 )
𝐶

❖ Debrongle wavelength of matter particle 𝜆 = ℎ⁄𝑝 = ℎ⁄𝑚𝑣

𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟔
❖ 𝐷𝑒𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝝀 = 𝑨𝟎 (V.V.I.M.P)
√𝑽
2 n𝜋𝑥
❖ Probability finding particle in a one dimensional box 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑎
1
❖ Fermi-Dirac distribution function 𝐹(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ) (V.V.I.M.P)
1+𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝐾𝐵 𝑇

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