Unit—1

Management science

Introduction:

Managing is the art of getting things done through people in formally organized groups.
Management can thus be defined ad the art or skill of directing human activities and physical
resources in the attainment of predetermined goals.

Management:

Management is a wide term. It carries different meanings depending on the context in

which it it used.

It is described as an “activity” , “a process”, and a group of people vested with the

authority to make decisions.

Definitions:

• According to Louis Allen “Management is what a manager does”

• According to Henry Fayola “To manage is to forecast and plan to organize to command,
to co-ordinate, and to control.

• According to Peter Ducker “Management is a multipurpose organ that manages business,

manages a manager and manage a worker and work.

• According to Koontz and O'Donnell “Management is the art of directing and inspiring
people”

Thus Management refers to all those activities which are concerned with:

• Formulation of objectives, plans and policies of the collective enterprise,

• Assembling men, money, materials, machine and methods for their accomplishment,

• Directing and motivating the men at work,

• Coordinating the physical and human resources,

• Supporting and controlling performance and

• Securing maximum satisfaction for both employer and employee and providing the
public with the best possible services.
Organizational Objectives:

Management as expected to work for the achievement of the objectives of the particular
organization in which it exists It includes:

• Reasonable profits

• Continuity or survival solvency

• Growth and expansion of the enterprise.

• Improving goodwill or reputation of the enterprise.

Personal Objectives:
 • An organization consists of several persons. Who have their own objectives.

These objectives are as follows:

• Fair remuneration for work performance.

• Reasonable working conditions.

• Opportunities for training and development.

• Reasonable security of service.

Social Objectives:

Management is not only a representative of the owners and worker but also responsible for the
various group outside the organization. It is expected to fulfill the objectives of the society which
are as follows:

• Quality of goods and services.

• Honest and prompt payment of taxes to the court.

• Fair dealings with suppliers dealers and competitors.

• Preservation of ethical values of the society.

Concept of Management:

A precise definition of management is not so simple because the term management is used in
variety of ways.

The term management is used in three alternative ways:

• Management as a discipline.

• Managements as group of people

• Managements as process

Management as a discipline:

• Discipline refers to a field of study having well-defined concepts and principles when we
refer to management as a discipline we include in it the various relevant concept and
principles, the knowledge which aids in managing.

Management as a group of people:

Sometimes we refer to management as group of people in which we include all those personnel
who perform managerial functions in organizations.

Management as a process:

In studying management discipline we generally refer to management as a process. A process

can simply be defined a systematic method of handling activities. Historically Four such
orientations have been adopted in defining management process

• Production or efficiency oriented

• Decision-oriented

• People-oriented

• Function-oriented

Nature of management:

The nature of management can be described as follows:

1. Multi disciplinary

2. Dynamic nature of principles

3. Relative, not absolute principle

4. Management as profession

5. Management is goal oriented

Importance of Management:

• Importance of Management may be traced in the following contexts.

1. Effective utilization of resources

2. Development of resources

3. To incorporate innovations.

• It facilitates the achievement of goals through limited resources.

• It ensures smooth sailing in the case of difficulties

 • It ensures continuity in the organization

• It ensures economy and efficiency

• It is the key to the economic growth

Functions of management:

The classical analysis, which is the basis for management analysis, takes various functions which
managers at all of the organization perform in order to a organizational objectives.

The list of management function varies from author to author with the number of functions
varying from three to eight.

Following table presents the management functions identified by various writers.

Writers Management function

Henry Fayola Planning, organizing, coordinating

Ralph Davis Planning, organizing, controlling

EFL Preach Planning organizing, motivating,

Knouts and O'Donnell coordinating, controlling

Luther Gluck Planning, organizing, staffing, leading (directing), controlling

POSDCORB : Planning, organizing, staffing, directing,

coordinating, reporting, budgeting

From this, it can be generalized that function of managers are

1. Planning,

2. Organizing,
3. Staffing,

4. Directing, and

5. Controlling

1. Planning:

Planning is the conscious determined of future course of action.

This involves “why an action”

“ what action”

“ How to take action” and

“ When to take action”

Planning involves essentially four stages:

identifying the goal to be achieved

Exploring the coursed of action and to reach his goal.

Evaluating each course of action merits.

Finally selecting the best course of action for implementation

In other words, planning ends with selection decision-making. Planning is also referred as the
process of determining the best course of action to achieve the given goals.

2. Organizing:

It is the process of dividing work convenient tasks or duties, grouping of such duties in the form
of positions, grouping of various positions into departments and section assigning duties to
individual positions, and delegating authority to each position so that the work is carried out as
planned.

Simply it refers to the process of grouping the related activities and assigning them to a manager
with authority to supervise it.
4.Staffing:

Ascertain how many positions are there in the organization and what level once this information
is available, the new task is to collect detailed such as what type of candidates are required for
each position, and accordingly, fill up these positions with the right people.

5.Directing:

After filling the positions in the organizations with the right kind of people, the next task is guide
and enable to achieve the common goals.

Directing is a process of issuing orders and instructions to guide and teach the subordinates the
proper methods of work and ensuring that they perform their jobs as planned

It includes leading, motivating, communicating coordinating.

In other words, the manager has to perform the above functions while directing the members of
his group.

6. Controlling : It is the process of measuring current performance of the employee and whether
the given objectives are achieve or not.

It involves

a. Measuring the actual performance employee.

b. Comparing it with the target, and

c. Taking follow up action for improving the performance if necessary.

Evolution of management thought:

The development of management thought could be traced to over 2000 years BC. However the
significant. Contributions that came up during the last three centuries could be grouped under
forbearing periods.

Period of management awakening:

During this period, certain pioneers challenge the traditional approaches to management their
new ideas and approaches.

Significant of these contributions are Robert Owen was the first person who spend out the mostly
neglected critical issues relating to personal management.

He believed that workers performance can be influenced by a number of factors such as the shop
floor working conditions, working hours, housing facilities, training of workers provision of
canteen, rest places, kid treatments and so on.

In the field of business organizations, some stray contributions have come from J watt, Charles
Babbage and Henry town. All are concentrated on developing concepts relating to effective
utilization of resources at the shop floor level.

However, their ideas created an awareness about managerial problems.

Taylor and scientific management:

The concept of scientific management was introduced by F.W.Taylor in U.S.A. in the beginning
of 20th century.

“Scientific Management is concerned with knowing exactly what you want men to do and then
see in that they do it in the best and cheapest way.”

Taylor joined Midrale steel company in U.S.A. as a worker and later on became supervisor
during this period, he continued his studies and eventually completed his M.E. subsequently he
joined Bethlehem steel company.

At both these places, he carried experiments about how to increase the efficiency of people.

On basis of his experiments he published many papers and books and all his contributions were
compiled in his book “Scientific Management”

Scientific Management

Taylors contributions can be described in two parts

1. Elements

2. Principles
Elements of scientific management:

1. Separation of planning and doing: according to F.W. Taylor, planning and doing real
work. He developed the concept of functional foremanship which eight persons are
involved, four persons, route clerk, instruction card clerk, time and cost clerk, and
disciplinarian are concerned with planning and the other four including speed boss,
inspector, maintenance foreman and gang boss are concerned with doing aspects.

2. Job analysis: Taylor opined that job to be performed should be scientifically studied to
find the best way to doing things. According to Gilbreth, job analysis

⮚ Time study: It determines appropriate time to complete the job.

 ⮚ Motion study: Motion study is concerned with the study of motion/ movement of
worker, part, materials, and machines. It eliminates unnecessary movements and
possibility of accidents.

⮚ Method study: method study is concerned with issues related to methods to complete the
job, and its helps find the best methods to perform work.

⮚ Fatigue study and rest study: fatigue study and rest study are concerned with the study
of physical exertion that job requires and the need of rest after a particular time.

3. Standardisation: all the inputs like instruments and tool period of work working
conditions methods and so forth should be standardised to improve productivity. The
standards for these aspects should be fixed in advance through proper job analysis.

4. Scientific selection and training of workers: the selection of workers should be on

scientific basis taking into account their education work experience aptitude physical
fitness etc..

5. Financial incentives: Taylor suggested that workers should be given financial incentives
to encourage them to put maximum efforts and to achieve better performance.

Principles of scientific management

1. Replacing rule of thumb with science: he advised replacing the rule of thumb with
scientific precision. Job aspects like day fair work standardisation time rate of payment
etc.

2. Harmony in group action: there should be mutual give and take situation based on
proper understanding. Harmony group action can maximise contribution.

3. Cooperation: cooperation between management and workers should be develop. Mutual

confidence cooperation and goodwill can make them friends.

4. Maximum output not restricted output: scientific management is based on continuous

increase in production and productivity he strongly recommended that workers and
management concentrate their attention on increasing production until the size of surplus
became the source of quarrel over how to divide it.

5. Development of workers: according to scientific management all workers should be

develop to fullest extent for both their benefits and company prosperity.

Fayols Administrative Management:

Perhaps the real father of modern operational management theory is the French industrialist
Henry Fayola.
His contributions are generally termed as operational management or administration
management.

Fayola looked at the problems of Manager an organization from top management point of view.

Fayola found that activities of an individual organization could be divided into six groups.

1. Technical- relating to production

2. Commercial – buying, selling and exchange

3. Financial – Search for capital and its optimum use

4. Security – Protection of property and person

5. Accounting – Maintain account books

6. Managerial – Planning, organizing, command

7. And also Fayola identified 14 principles management. They are:

1. Division of work:

Here, the work is divided among members of the group based on the
employees, skills and talents.

It also provides an opportunity should in different problem areas.

2. Authority:

It refers to the right or power gives orders. It must also be adequate supply by
responsibility.

3. Discipline:

Both the employer and employee should respect each other by observing the
rules.

4. Unity of command:

An employee should receive instructions from only one superior.

5. Unity of direction:
 Where the objectives are similar the action plans also should be similar. In
other words, similar activities should be grouped together, placed under one manager and
these should be one action plan.

6. Subordination of individual interest to group interest:

Group interests or goals of organization must prevail any time over the
individual interest or personal goals.

7.Remuneration:

The wages and salaries must be fair and bring out the best possible
commitment in the employee to achieve the organizational goals.

8. Centralization:

Authority is said to be centralized when decision- making powers are retained

at the top level.

9. Scalar chain:

It indicates how the authority flows from top to bottom.

10. Order:

It means keeping the right man or right thing in the right place.

11. Equity:

Equity is the combination of justice and kindness. This implies that the
dealing with the employees should be so fair and so open that they will reinforce their
commitment to the organization. Be kind and fair to them.

12. Stability of tenure:

No employee should be removed in short time. And avoiding frequent

transfer of the employees much before they settle in jobs.

13. Initiative:
 With in the limits of authority and discipline, managers should encourage
their for taking initiative. Initiative increases zeal energy on the part of human beings.

14.Esprit- decorps:

This means team work. Implying that there is unity in strength.

Human Relations Approach: (Hawthorne Experiment)

The Hawthorne plant of the general election company, Chicago, was manufacturing
telephone system bell. It employed about 30,000 employees at the time of experiments.

There was a great deal of among the workers and productivity was not up to the mark. After
the utter failure of an conducted by efficiency experts, in 1924, the company asked for the
assistance from the National Academy of services its investigate the problem of low
productivity.

In order to investigate the real causes behind the phenomenon, a team was constitute led by
Elton Mayo (Psychologist) and 2 other

1. They conducting various researches in four phases with each phase attempting to answer
the question raised at the previous phase. The four phase were as follows:

2. Illumination experiments

3. Relay assembly test room experiments

4. Mass interviewing program

5. Bank wiring observation room experiments

Illumination Experiments:

Illumination experiments were undertaken to find out how varying levels of illumination.
The hypothesis was that with higher illumination, productivity would increase.

In the first series of experiments, a group workers was chosen and placed in two separate
groups, namely

• Experimental group- items exposed to intensities of I

• Control group- constant intensities of

The production in the experimental group only when the illumination was decreased to the
of moonlight.
Finally it was concluded that illumination have any effect on productivity but something was
inter with the productivity. Therefore cu phase of experiments was undertaken.

• The researchers setup a relay assembly room and two girls were chosen.

These girls were asked to choose four more girls as co-workers.

The work related to the assembly of telephone relays.

Each relay consisted number of Para which girls. Assembled into finished.

Output depended on the speed and which girls worked

• An observer was associated with girls to supervise their work.

• Each change was introduced, the girls were consulted. The charges are:

• The incentive system was charged. The productivity increased compared to before.

• Break timings are increased one in morning session and other in evening session.

• The rest period was reduced to five minutes. But frequency was increased. Again the
productivity decreased due to frequent rest.

• The number of rest was reduced to two of ten minutes but in the morning coffee along
with sandwich in the evening snacks was provided. Productivity increased.

• Changes in working hours, and the girls were allowed to leave at 4:30 pm instead of
5:00pm. Productivity increased.

• An each change was introduced, absentees decreased, morale increased and less
supervision was required. The researchers decided to back to original position, that is no
rest, no benefits. Surprisingly productivity was increased.

• They developed girls attitude towards work and self discipline. The relationship between

• supervisor and worker became close and friendly.

Mass interviewing program:

During the course of experiments 20,000 interviews were conducted between 1928 to
determine employees attitudes towards compare supervision, insurance plans, promotion, and
wages. They are conducted directive and non directive

During the course of interviews, it was discovered that workers behavior was being
influenced by group behavior.
However, this conclusion was not satisfactory and therefore researchers decided conduct
another series of experiments.

Bank using observation room experiments:

This experiments were carried on between November 1931 and May 1932 with view
to the functioning of small group and its important on individual behavior. A group of four
male workers was employed in the back using room nine wise man, three solder man and two
inspectors.

The hypothesis was that in order to more, workers would produce more.

Concept of motivation:

The term motivation can be traced to the Latin word “mover”, which means “to move”

A motive is an inner state that energizes, activities, or moves (hence motivation) and that
directs behavior towards goals)

Theory of motivation:

• Maslow’s Need hierarchy

• Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory

• Theory X and Y

• Vroom’s expectancy theory

• Aldermen's ERG theory

Maslow’s need hierarchy theory:

The behaviour of an individual at a particular moment is usually determined by his strongest

need.

As the basic needs are satisfied or individual seeks to satisfy the higher needs if his
basic needs are not met, efforts to satisfy the higher needs should be postponed.

Abraham Maslow a famous social scientist has given a frame work that helps to explain the
strength of certain needs. According to him, there seems to be a hierarchy into which human
needs are arranged as follows.
Physiological needs:

Include need for food sleep, warmth, shelter, sex and others. These are basic needs and these
are not satisfied one does not need at the higher level.

Safety/security needs:

these cover security, protection, job security, safety and property, availability of food or
shelter continuing basis and soon.

organisations can influence these security needs either positively through pension insurance
plan etc. Or negativity by arousing fear of being fixed laid off or demoted.

Affiliation / acceptance needs:

man cannot live in isolation. He wants to live in society as a member of

society. He wants to love and be loved by others. He feels great when others recognise his efforts
and accept him as a member of their group. Affiliation or acceptance needs include desire to
seeks or show affection and recognition, identification with a group and so on

Esteem needs:
 Maslow states that one does not stop with affiliation or acceptance need one goes one step
beyond. One wants to respected and garlanded. To satisfy esteem needs people wants to feel
more prestigious, politically very strong and powerful or enjoy better status.

Self actualisation:

these needs indicate the strong desire to achieve something, particularly in view of the
potential one has

Herzberg's motivational or two factors theory:

A research study was conducted by Frederick Herzberg and associates of case western
reserve university. This study consists of an intensive analysis of the experiences and fee of 200
engineers and accountants in Nero different companies in Pittsburgh area U.S .A on analysis the
information from the interview Herzberg concluded that there were two categories of needs
essentially independent of each other affecting behaviour in different ways. Finally he
developed two factor theory of motivational

⮚ Hygiene factor – dissatisfactory

⮚ Motivational factory – satisfactory

Hygiene factors:

hygiene factor are the basic factor and requirements such as company policies procedures
salary security supervision working condition personal and social life and so on.’

if these are provided it may lead to happiness. But if these are not provided if may lead to
unhappiness. If these are provided people can work in the organisation in the normal way. But
if these are not provided if results in dissatisfactory.

Motivational factor:

these factors are capable of having positive effect on job satisfactory after resulting in a
increase in ones total output. Herzberg includes these are achievement recognition advancement
work it self possibility of growth and responsibility.

where these at least a few are taken care of it leads to satisfaction if not it may not result in
satisfaction

Mc Gregor theory X and Y:

Mc gregor presented two sets of assumption managers make about the nature of their
employees. These sets are named as theory X (-ve) and Y(+ve).

Under theory X it is assumed that

 ⮚ Employees are inherently lazy.

⮚ They required constant guidance and support

⮚ Sometimes they requires even coercion and control

⮚ Given an opportunity they would like to avoid responsibility

⮚ They do not slow up any ambition but always seeks security

The theory Y focuses a totally different of assumptions about the employees theory states that
some employees are consider work as natural.

❖ These employees are capable of directing and controlling performance of their own.

❖ They are much committed to the objectives of the organisation

❖ These employee are highly 9nitiative

❖ These employees are always active

❖ These employees are highly creative

❖ These employee are more responsible

Expectancy theory:

according to this theory force = valance* expectance where force is due strength of a
person’s motivation valance is the strength of an individuals desire for a particular outcome and
expectancy is the profitability that a particular action will lead to a desire result if the
profitability is zero force will be zero this theory focuses on the relationship between efforts,
performance and reward

Motivation:

Motivation is the complex process forces starting and keeping a person at work in an
organization. Motivation is something that moves the person to action and continues the course
of action already initiated.

Decision making:

Before we go through the various aspect of decision making, it is essential to go that the concept
of decision making. The word “ “ which means a cutting away or a cutting of in a practical sense.

A decision represents a judgment.

Definition:

Decision making is a conscious human process involving both individual and social based upon
factual and value which concludes with a choice of one activity from among one or more
alternatives with the intention of moving some desired state of affairs.

Decision making is involved in every walk of life. It is relevant in organization as well s non-
organizational context.
 1. Objectives specification: any activity in an organisation is goal directed. The first step in
decision making is to specify the objective of the decision. A decision maker must know
why the decision is to taken. It is advisable that manger has knowledge of organisational
objectives so that every decision can be taken in light of the objectives.

2. Problem identification: the decision process starts with identification of the problem a
problem is a felt need. Is the indication that there is something wrong with organisation it
shows the gap between the present condition and the desire condition. Every decision my
face a variety of problems such as decreasing sales reduced profits employees unrest
problem identification consist of two phases diagnosis and analysis.

diagnosis concerns with finding the problems in relation to objectives analysis is concerned
with analysis or studying every aspect of the problem identified *what is the problem? Where is
the problem? Who will take decision?

3. Search for alternatives: the third step involves finding solution for the problem every
problem can be solved in several ways. Here the decision maker searches for possible
solutions there are various sources for indentifying alternatives like past experience
practice followed by other research and analysis using creative techniques and so on.

4. Evaluation of alternatives: each alternatives is evaluated according to the chosen

criteria. The step consists of two issues. First is scrutiny of the list of alternatives to avoid
irrelevant alternatives right from the beginning to minimise unnecessary cost and time.
The second issues involves a detailed evaluation of remaining alternatives. Each
alternatives is evaluated in light of its contribution to objectives various tangible and
intangible factors are considered to evaluated alternatives. Where as intangible factors
include psychological problems arising from something new or different resistance to
change and other similar issues.

5. Choice of alternative: evaluation of alternatives provides a clear picture regarding

contribution of each towards achieving the objectives now comparison is made among
these alternatives to select the best generally selection of alternative based on * past
experience of decision maker, expert advice, this step involves a lot of calculations
personal values beliefs perception and personal interest play a vital role.

6. Action : in this stage the decision taken is put into practice implementation of decision is
an integral part of the decision making process implementation requires the follow
actions, * communication with subordinates, getting acceptance of subordinates, seeking
cooperation of other departments.

7. Result : implementation of decision leads to results based on result one can easily say
whether the objectives are being achieved if result are satisfactory there is no need to take
further action. But when result deviate signification it is a serious concern and
 appropriate follow up action need to be taken. Include measuring actual deviation
investigating causes responsible for the deviation and modifying objectives or decision or
both.

Each and every organization has to follow these several steps when they required take a decision.

Organizing:

Organizing is a process of

Determining, grouping, and structuring the action.

Creating roles for effective performance at work.

Allotting necessary authority and responsibility results

Determining detailed procedures and systems different problem areas such as coordination,
communication, decision-making, motivation and

Organization:

Organization may be formal, informal both

It is said to be formal when it is (for achieving a common purpose)

Certain rules and regulations always govern it.

( A chief executive calls his staff for a meeting at a given time and when the staff meets, it is
called a formal organization)

A formal organization comes into being when persons in official capacity

• are able to communicate with one another

• are willing to act in an atmosphere of co-operation

• share a common explicit purpose

on the other hand after meeting is called off when some staff stay back to discuss their personal
problems with the chief executive, it is said to be informal organization.
Basic concepts related to organization:

Organizational hierarchy:

The hierarchy in a business refers to the layers of management from the top management down
to managers.

Authority and responsibility:

The authority and responsibility should always be commensurate and co-existence with each
other.

Delegation of authority:

The process of transferring from the top to the lower levels in the organization is called
delegation of authority.

Line organization:

It is also called military organization. It is said to be the oldest and traditional type of
organization, which is widely even today. This is called line organization.

In this organization managers directly responsible for the results.

Based on authority relationships line organization are as follows:

Line and staff organization:

In this organization we have both the line and staff managers. Staff mangers support the
functions of the line mangers.

The word staff means a stick support.

The staff managers are specially appointed to give advise, suggest, or assist the live managers in
their day to day matters.

Such advise is provided to lie manger by staff personal who are generally specialist in their
fields.
Taylor’s functional organization

The foremen involved in the planning task were:

• Route clerk: identifies the route for the materials

• Instruction clerk: gives instructions to the workers about to do

• Time & cost clerk: identifies the time and cost for

• Shop disciplinary: maintains the discipline on the shop

Those involved in implementation were:

 • Gang boss: assemble the machinery needed for the

• Speed boss: standardizes and set speed up the

• Repair boss: repairs the machinery in case of

• Quality inspector: responsible for the matters relating

The functional structure is characterized by the following:

• Specialization by functions

• Emphasis on sub- goals

• growth of the organization

• line and staff division

• functional authority relationships and various departments

Committee organizations:

A committee is formed when two or more persons are appointed to work as a team to arrive at a
decision on the matters referred to it.

It is intended to utilize the knowledge, skills and experiences of all the concerned parties,
particular in large organizations, problem are two big to be handled by one single expert.

Vice chancellor

Following diagram presents a typical committee organization in a university.

The committee studies the nature of the problem by carefully scrutinizing the office records rule
position analysis of precedence, and so on.

Matrix organization:

This is also called project organization combination of all relationships in the organization
vertical, horizontal, diagonal.

It mostly used in complex project it provides high degree operational freedom line and staff
mangers in performing the respective roles. The main objective of matrix organization is to
secure a higher degree of coordinating them what is possible from the organizational structure
such as line and
Principles of organization:

Principles of organization refers to the well-established and accepted general statement which
provides guidance to thinking and action in the organizing process.

Management principle are meant to guide managers in making decisions on matter of

organization. They help the managers in performing their managerial functions of planning,
Organizing, directing, and controlling in more effective manner.

Some of the important principles are:

 1. Principle of division of labor

2. Principle of functional definition

3. Principle of scalar chain of command

4. Principle of span of control

5. Principle of unity of command

Principle of division of labor:

The activities of an organization shall be divided into several small parts or jobs. Thereby
tasks are likely to be reported frequently so as to improve the efficiency of employees
through job specialization.

An individual worker repeatedly performing a specific job becomes an expert in that job.
Division of labor is thus considered necessary to increase the output of workers and
machines.

For example in a furniture manufacturing unit some workers shape the wooden pieces, some
smoothen the same, some fit together and some polish them. Hence division of work
increases the overall efficiency of the whole group.

Principle of functional definition:

According to this principle, the function to be prepared and performed by an individual

employee or by a department have to be well-defined.

Principle of scalar chain of command:

This is also known as scalar . The principle states that in every organization there is an
unknown chain of superior-subordinate relations, which starts at the top management and
ends at the supervisory levels.

The chain of command links all the managerial positions from top to bottom.

Scalar chain means a stepwise chain.

4. Principle of span of control:

The term “span of control” is also called as span of management.

It refers to the number of subordinate placed under a managers direct supervise and control.

The principle of span of control states that there is limit to the number of subordinates which a
manager can supervise and control. Early writers on management used to set a line of fie or six
subordinates as the ideal span of control. In practice the span of control varies with.
In general, the span is wider at higher level of management, and narrow at lower levels

Wide span:

• It reveals that the manager has under him 16 subordinate employees. Thus there is only
one level of management. The span of control is wide and results in only one level of
management.

Narrow span:

• It reveals that the manager, instead off directing supervising it subordinate employees,
has four positions assistant many under him.

Principle of unity of command:

• The principle of unity of command suggests that an employee should have one and only
one boss. Sue a relationship between a superior and his subordinate promotes loyalty,
discipline and a sense of personal responsibility in the subordinate.