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174 Chapter 2 / The Derivative

✔QUICK CHECK ANSWERS 2.5

1. (a) cos x (b) − sin x (c) sec2 x (d) sec x tan x 2. f  (x) = cos2 x − sin2 x, f  (π/3) = − 21
d  d
3. (a) [sin x] = 0 (b) [csc x] = − csc x cot x
dx /
x=π 2 dx

2.6 THE CHAIN RULE

In this section we will derive a formula that expresses the derivative of a composition
f ◦ g in terms of the derivatives of f and g. This formula will enable us to differentiate
complicated functions using known derivatives of simpler functions.

DERIVATIVES OF COMPOSITIONS
Suppose you are traveling to school in your car, which gets 20 miles per gallon of gasoline.
The number of miles you can travel in your car without refueling is a function of the number
of gallons of gas you have in the gas tank. In symbols, if y is the number of miles you can
travel and u is the number of gallons of gas you have initially, then y is a function of u, or
y = f(u). As you continue your travels, you note that your local service station is selling
gasoline for $4 per gallon. The number of gallons of gas you have initially is a function
of the amount of money you spend for that gas. If x is the number of dollars you spend
on gas, then u = g(x). Now 20 miles per gallon is the rate at which your mileage changes
with respect to the amount of gasoline you use, so
dy
f (u) = = 20 miles per gallon
du
Similarly, since gasoline costs $4 per gallon, each dollar you spend will give you 1/4 of a
Mike Brinson/Getty Images
The cost of a car trip is a combination of
gallon of gas, and du 1
fuel efficiency and the cost of gasoline. g  (x) = = gallons per dollar
dx 4
Notice that the number of miles you can travel is also a function of the number of dollars
dy du = 1 you spend on gasoline. This fact is expressible as the composition of functions
= 20
du dx 4
y = f(u) = f(g(x))
y u x
dy
You might be interested in how many miles you can travel per dollar, which is dy/dx.
= 20 ⋅ 1 = 5 Intuition suggests that rates of change multiply in this case (see Figure 2.6.1), so
dx 4
dy dy du 20 miles 1 gallon 20 miles
Rates of change multiply:
= · = · = = 5 miles per dollar
dy dy du dx du dx 1 gallon 4 dollars 4 dollars
= ⋅
dx du dx

Figure 2.6.1 The following theorem, the proof of which is given in Appendix D, formalizes the
preceding ideas.

2.6.1 theorem (The Chain Rule) If g is differentiable at x and f is differentiable at

g(x), then the composition f ◦ g is differentiable at x. Moreover, if
The name “chain rule” is appropriate
because the desired derivative is ob-
y = f(g(x)) and u = g(x)
tained by a two-link “chain” of simpler
then y = f(u) and
derivatives.
dy dy du
= · (1)
dx du dx
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2.6 The Chain Rule 175

Example 1 Find dy/dx if y = cos(x 3 ).

Formula (1) is easy to remember be-
cause the left side is exactly what re-
sults if we “cancel” the du’s on the right
Solution. Let u = x 3 and express y as y = cos u. Applying Formula (1) yields
side. This “canceling” device provides a
dy dy du
good way of deducing the correct form = ·
of the chain rule when different vari- dx du dx
ables are used. For example, if w is a
d d 3
function of x and x is a function of t ,
= [cos u] · [x ]
then the chain rule takes the form du dx
dw dw dx
= · = (− sin u) · (3x 2 )
dt dx dt
= (− sin(x 3 )) · (3x 2 ) = −3x 2 sin(x 3 )

Example 2 Find dw/dt if w = tan x and x = 4t 3 + t.

Solution. In this case the chain rule computations take the form
dw dw dx
= ·
dt dx dt
d d
= [tan x] · [4t 3 + t]
dx dt
= (sec2 x) · (12t 2 + 1)

= [sec2 (4t 3 + t)] · (12t 2 + 1) = (12t 2 + 1) sec2 (4t 3 + t)

AN ALTERNATIVE VERSION OF THE CHAIN RULE

Formula (1) for the chain rule can be unwieldy in some problems because it involves so
many variables. As you become more comfortable with the chain rule, you may want to
dispense with writing out the dependent variables by expressing (1) in the form

d
Confirm that (2) is an alternative ver- [f(g(x))] = (f ◦ g) (x) = f  (g(x))g  (x) (2)
sion of (1) by letting y = f(g(x)) and dx
u = g(x).
A convenient way to remember this formula is to call f the “outside function” and g the
“inside function” in the composition f(g(x)) and then express (2) in words as:

The derivative of f(g(x)) is the derivative of the outside function evaluated at the inside
function times the derivative of the inside function.

d
[f(g(x))] = f  (g(x)) · g  (x)
dx      
Derivative of the outside
Derivative of the
function evaluated at the
inside function
inside function
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176 Chapter 2 / The Derivative

Example 3 (Example 1 revisited) Find h (x) if h(x) = cos(x 3 ).

Solution. We can think of h as a composition f(g(x)) in which g(x) = x 3 is the inside

function and f(x) = cos x is the outside function. Thus, Formula (2) yields

h (x) = f  (g(x)) · g  (x)

     
Derivative of the outside
Derivative of the
function evaluated at the
inside function
inside function
= f  (x 3 ) · 3x 2
= − sin(x 3 ) · 3x 2 = −3x 2 sin(x 3 )
which agrees with the result obtained in Example 1.

Example 4
d d
[tan2 x] = [(tan x)2 ] = (2 tan x) · (sec2 x) = 2 tan x sec2 x
dx dx      
Derivative of the outside
Derivative of the
function evaluated at the
inside function
inside function

d  2 1 x
[ x + 1] =  · 2x = √ See Formula (6)
dx 2 x2 + 1 x +1
2 of Section 2.3.
   
Derivative of the outside
Derivative of the
function evaluated at the
inside function
inside function

GENERALIZED DERIVATIVE FORMULAS

There is a useful third variation of the chain rule that strikes a middle ground between
Formulas (1) and (2). If we let u = g(x) in (2), then we can rewrite that formula as

d du
[f(u)] = f  (u) (3)
dx dx

This result, called the generalized derivative formula for f , provides a way of using the
derivative of f(x) to produce the derivative of f(u), where u is a function of x. Table 2.6.1
gives some examples of this formula.

Table 2.6.1
generalized derivative formulas
d [ur ] = ru r −1 du
dx dx
d [sin u] = cos u du d [cos u] = −sin u du
dx dx dx dx
d [tan u] = sec2 u du d [cot u] = −csc2 u du
dx dx dx dx
d [sec u] = sec u tan u du d
[csc u] = −csc u cot u du
dx dx dx dx
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2.6 The Chain Rule 177

Example 5 Find
d d d  3
(a) [sin(2x)] (b) [tan(x 2 + 1)] (c) x + csc x
dx dx dx
d 2 d  
(d) [x − x + 2]3/4 (e) (1 + x 5 cot x)−8
dx dx
Solution (a). Taking u = 2x in the generalized derivative formula for sin u yields
d d du d
[sin(2x)] = [sin u] = cos u = cos 2x · [2x] = cos 2x · 2 = 2 cos 2x
dx dx dx dx

Solution (b). Taking u = x 2 + 1 in the generalized derivative formula for tan u yields
d d du
[tan(x 2 + 1)] = [tan u] = sec2 u
dx dx dx
d 2
= sec2 (x 2 + 1) · [x + 1] = sec2 (x 2 + 1) · 2x
dx
= 2x sec2 (x 2 + 1)
√
Solution (c). Taking u = x 3 + csc x in the generalized derivative formula for u yields
d  3 d √ 1 du 1 d 3
x + csc x = [ u] = √ = √ · [x + csc x]
dx dx 2 u dx 2 x + csc x dx
3

1 3x 2 − csc x cot x
= √ · (3x 2 − csc x cot x) = √
2 x 3 + csc x 2 x 3 + csc x

Solution (d). Taking u = x 2 − x + 2 in the generalized derivative formula for u3/4 yields
d 2 d 3/4 3 du
[x − x + 2]3/4 = [u ] = u−1/4
dx dx 4 dx
3 2 d 2
= (x − x + 2)−1/4 · [x − x + 2]
4 dx
3 2
= (x − x + 2)−1/4 (2x − 1)
4
Solution (e). Taking u = 1 + x 5 cot x in the generalized derivative formula for u−8
yields
d   d −8 du
(1 + x 5 cot x)−8 = [u ] = −8u−9
dx dx dx
d
= −8(1 + x 5 cot x)−9 · [1 + x 5 cot x]
dx
 
= −8(1 + x 5 cot x)−9 · x 5 (− csc2 x) + 5x 4 cot x
= (8x 5 csc2 x − 40x 4 cot x)(1 + x 5 cot x)−9

Sometimes you will have to make adjustments in notation or apply the chain rule more
than once to calculate a derivative.

Example 6 Find
d √ dμ √
(a) sin( 1 + cos x ) (b) if μ = sec ωt (ω constant)
dx dt
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178 Chapter 2 / The Derivative

√
Solution (a). Taking u = 1 + cos x in the generalized derivative formula for sin u
yields
d √ d du
sin( 1 + cos x ) = [sin u] = cos u
dx dx dx
√ d √
= cos( 1 + cos x) · 1 + cos x
dx
√ − sin x We used the generalized derivative
= cos( 1 + cos x) · √ √
formula for u with u = 1 + cos x.
2 1 + cos x
√
sin x cos( 1 + cos x)
=− √
2 1 + cos x

Solution (b).
dμ d √ √ √ d √
= [sec ωt] = sec ωt tan ωt [ ωt] We used the generalized derivative
√
formula for sec u with u = ωt.
dt dt dt
√ √ ω We used the generalized derivative
= sec ωt tan ωt √ √
formula for u with u = ωt.
2 ωt

DIFFERENTIATING USING COMPUTER ALGEBRA SYSTEMS

Even with the chain rule and other differentiation rules, some derivative computations can
be tedious to perform. For complicated derivatives, engineers and scientists often use
computer algebra systems such as Mathematica, Maple, or Sage. For example, although
we have all the mathematical tools to compute
 √ 
T E C H N O LO GY M A ST E R Y d (x 2 + 1)10 sin3 ( x )
√ (4)
If you have a CAS, use it to perform the
dx 1 + csc x
differentiation in (4). by hand, the computation is sufficiently involved that it may be more efficient (and less
error-prone) to use a computer algebra system.

✔QUICK CHECK EXERCISES 2.6 (See page 181 for answers.)

1. The chain rule states that the derivative of the composition 3. Find dy/dx. √
of two functions is the derivative of the function (a) y = (x 2 + 5)10 (b) y = 1 + 6x
evaluated at the function times the derivative of 4. Find dy/dx.
the function. (a) y = sin(3x + 2) (b) y = (x 2 tan x)4
2. If y is a differentiable function of u, and u is a differentiable 5. Suppose that f(2) = 3, f  (2) = 4, g(3) = 6, and
function of x, then g  (3) = −5. Evaluate
dy (a) h (2), where h(x) = g(f(x))
 
= · (b) k  (3), where k(x) = f 13 g(x) .
dx

EXERCISE SET 2.6 Graphing Utility C CAS

1. Given that 3. Let f(x) = x 5 and g(x) = 2x − 3.


f (0) = 2, g(0) = 0 and 
g (0) = 3 (a) Find (f ◦ g)(x) and (f ◦ g) (x).
 (b) Find (g ◦ f )(x) and (g ◦ f ) (x).
find (f ◦ g) (0).
2. Given that √
4. Let f(x) = 5 x and g(x) = 4 + cos x.
 
f (9) = 5, g(2) = 9 and g (2) = −3 (a) Find (f ◦ g)(x) and (f ◦ g) (x).
find (f ◦ g) (2). (b) Find (g ◦ f )(x) and (g ◦ f ) (x).