Flight Dynamics :

1
Longitudinal Dynamics
Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007
 2 Response to controls
• The dynamic properties determined by the stability characteristics of the aeroplane, are said to be implicit
in the response .
• Under the assumption that the motion is assumed to be subjected only to small disturbances in trim, the
transfer functions and the response variables described are linear.
• In large flight envelopes, aeroplanes that are considerably subjected to aerodynamic non-linearity, or
depend on sophisticated flight control systems, linearised equations of motion for analysis of reponse
can justifiably be described as being of small magnitude.
• Given that the logitudinal response to elevator about trim state and that the thrust is held constant, the
longitudinal state equation is given as follows,

Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007
 3 Response Control
• The four response transfer functions are given as follows,

• Roots, mostly quoted in the style of equations are formed from real and complex pairs, and are interpreted
as time constants, damping ratios and natural frequencies.
• The common denominator of the transfer functions describes the characteristic polynomial which describes
the stability characterestics of the aeroplane.
• The response shapes of the individual variables are determined by the common denominator and “coloured’’
Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007

by their respective numerators.

 4
The characterestic equation

• For a classical aeroplane the longitudinal characteristic polynomial is fourth order, it determines the
common denominator in the longitudinal response transfer functions, that when equated to zero, defines the
characteristic equation is written as follows;

• The characteristic equation can be factorized into two pairs of complex roots as the following;

• It describes the phugoid and short period stability modes respectively. The stability modes in the previous
equation, provide a complete description of the longitudinal stability properties of the aeroplane subjected to
the constraint of small perturbation motion.

Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007
 5 The dynamic stability modes- the short period pitching
oscillation
• Both longitudinal dynamic stability modes are excited when the
aeroplane is disturbed (distrurbance might be initiated by pilot control
inputs, a change in power setting, airframe configuration changes)
from its equilibrium trim state.
• The short period mode is typically a damped oscillation in pitch
about the oy axis. When the aircraft is disturbed from its pitch
equilibrium state the mode is excited and manifests itself as a classical
second order oscillation in which the principal variables are incidence,
pitch rate and pitch attitude.
• Typically, the undamped natural frequency of the mode is in the
range 1 rad/s to 10 rad/s and the damping is usually stabilizing
although the damping ratio is often lower than desired.
• The speed remains nearly constant during a disturbance.
• As the period of the mode
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systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007

ensure that speed response in the time scale of the mode is negligible.
 6 The dynamic stability modes- the short period pitching
oscillation
• The damping arises from the motion of the
tailplane during the oscillation.
• The total observed mode dynamics depend not
only on the tailplane contribution, but also on
the magnitudes of the additional contributions
from other parts of the airframe.
• When the overall stability is marginal it is
implied that the additional contributions are
also significant and it becomes much more
difficult to identify and quantify the principal
aerodynamic mode driver.
Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007
 7 The dynamic stability modes- the phugoid
• The phugoid mode is most commonly a lightly damped low frequency oscillation in speed u which couples
into pitch attitude 𝜽 and height h. In this mode the incidence 𝛼(𝑤) remains substantially constant during a
disturbance.
• The phugoid appears to a greater or lesser extent, in all longitudinal motion variables but the relative
magnitudes of the phugoid components in incidence 𝛼(𝑤) and in pitch rate q are very small.
• However, the apparent damping characteristics of the mode may be substantially influenced by power effects
in some aeroplanes.

• As large inertia and momentum effects are involved the motion is necessarily relatively slow such that the
angular accelerations 𝑞ሶ and 𝛼(
ሶ 𝑤)
ሶ are insignificantly small. The natural frequency of the mode is low and since
drag is designed to be low, so the damping is also low.
Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007
 8 Reduced order models
• There exist two disadvantages in the flight dynamics:
1. First more computational resource are required if a very tedious manual solution is to be
avoided.
2. Second it is difficult to establish the relationships between the stability characteristics and their
aerodynamic drivers.

• Both disadvantages can be avoided by finding approximate solutions that can provide considerable
insight into the physical phenomena governing the dynamic behavior.

• Generally, A, B, C, D and E have relative values that do not change very much for conventional
aeroplanes, such that A, B and C are significantly larger than D and E, where the quartic has the following
approximate factors:

Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007
 9 Reduced order models- the short period mode approximation
• The short-term response characteristics of an aircraft are of particular importance in flying and handling
qualities considerations.
• It is better to use the reduced-order equations of motion in which the phugoid is omitted for short term
behavior.
• The short period pitching oscillation, also called the rapid incidence adjustment, it is better to simplify the
longitudinal equations of motion in order to describe short term dynamics only.
• It has already been established that the short period pitching oscillation is almost exclusively an oscillation
in which the principal variables are pitch rate q and incidence α,the speed remaining essentially constant.
Therefore, the final equations are given as follows,

• Assuming the equations of motion are referred to aircraft wind axes and that the aircraft is in steady level,
then Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007
 10 Reduced order models- the short period mode approximation
• Using the previous simplifications, we result in the following;

• The transfer function is given as the following;

• The transfer functions are simplified to the following,

Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007
 11 Reduced order models- the short period mode approximation
• Therefore, the two short term transfer functions showing the response to elevator may be written as follows,

• The reduced order characteristic equation can be written as follows;

• The damping and natural frequency of the short period mode are given as the following;

Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007
 12 The phugoid mode approximation
• It is rare that phugoid dynamics is used in flight
dynamics studies, however it is required to identify
those aerodynamic properties of the airframe
governing the characteristics of the mode.
• The Lanchester model (1908), who devloped a
mathematical model to describe phugoid motion.
The assumptions of the Lanchester model are given
as;

(i) The aircraft is initially in steady level flight.

(ii) The total energy of the aircraft remains
constant.
(iii) The incidence remains constant at its initial
trim value.
(iv) The thrust balances the drag D.
(v) The motion isMichael
sufficiently
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Dynamics pitch
Principles, rate
Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007

q effects may be ignored.

 13 The Lanchester model

• Whence

• Which describes the exchange of kinetic and potential energy as

the aeroplane flies the sinusoidal flight path.
• In the initial staedy trim state the lift and weight are in balance
• The frequency of the phugoid mode
is given as the following;

• The lift is given as;

• Assuming a simple undamped oscillatory motion, the dof of the

equation of motion is height and is given as the following;
Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007
 14 A reduced order model
• Given a disturbance the variables 𝑤 𝛼 and q respond in the time scale associated with the short period mode,
therefore we assume that 𝑤 𝛼 and q are quasi-steady in the longer time scale associated with the phugoid.
Thus,

• It is assumed that the equations of motion are referred to aircraft wind axes and since the disturbance takes place
about steady level flight, then

• Refering to the previous relationships we get the following relations,

Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007
 15 A reduced order model
• It is assumed that the aerodynamic derivative 𝑥ሶ 𝑞 is significantly small, therefore the equation of motion reduces
to the following,

• The second and third rows of equation can be written as follows,

• Therefore the equations to obtain expressions w and q in terms of u and 𝜂, as the following;

Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007
 16 A reduced order model
• The following reduced order state equation is given as the following,

• Or equivalently,

• The characteristic equation describing the reduced order phugoid dynamics is considerably more useful and is
given as;

Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007
 17 A reduced order model-Cont
• For conventional aeroplanes in subsonic flight:

• The corresponding expressions for the damping and natural frequency is then,

• Assuming that the prevailing flight condition is subsonic such that the aerodynamic properties of the airframe
are not influenced by compressibility effects:

Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007
 18 Frequency response
• For a lot of flight dynamics applications analysis done in time domain are adequate. The principal
graphical tool used in time domain analysis is, time history plot showing the response of the aeroplane to
controls or to some external disturbance.
• Flight dynamics analysis in the frequency domain can provide additional valuable insight into its
behaviour, when the aeroplane is an advanced modern aeroplane fitted with a flight control system.
Frequency domain analysis helped understanding handling qualities of aeroplanes whose flying qualities
are largely shaped by a flight control system.
• For a hypothetical situation, the elevator of a trimmed aeroplane is sinusoidal with a constant amplitude k
and variable frequency 𝜔, the longitudinal input to the aeroplane is given as;

• The output variables describing the output variables describing aircraft motion will respond sinusoidally
to the input (note that the amplitudes of the output variables will not be the same and will not necessarily
be in phase with one another or with the input). The general output response variable is written as,
Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007
 19 Frequency response

• As the exciting frequency is increased, the sinusoidal response starts diminishing in magnitude and
will eventually become imperceptible in the outputs.
• The phase shift φ will indicate an increasingly large lag between the input and output. The reason
for these observations is that at sufficiently high frequencies the mass and inertia properties of the
aeroplane simply prevent it from responding quickly enough to follow the input.
• The limiting frequency at which the response starts decreasing rapidly is referred to as the
bandwidth of the aeroplane with respect to the output variable of interest.
• For aeroplanes that only respond to frequencies below the bandwidth frequency they have the
frequency response properties of a low pass system.
• At exciting frequencies corresponding to the damped natural frequencies of the phugoid and the
short period mode, peaks in output magnitude K will be seen together with significant changes in
phase shift φ. The mode frequencies are described as resonant frequencies and the magnitudes of
the output parameters K and φ at resonance are determined by the damping ratios of the modes.

Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007
20

THE END

Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007