SUBJECT CODE/NAME:191CSC501T/COMPUTER NETWORKS

UNIT II DATA-LINK LAYER & MEDIA ACCESS

Introduction – Link-Layer Addressing – DLC Services – Data-Link Layer Protocols – HDLC –
PPP - Media Access Control - Wired LANs: Ethernet - Wireless LANs – Introduction – IEEE
802.11, Bluetooth – Connecting Devices.

2.1 Introduction
What is DLL (Data Link Layer)?
The Data Link Layer is the second layer in the OSI model, above the Physical Layer, which
ensures that the error free data is transferred between the adjacent nodes in the network. It breaks
the datagram passed down by above layers and converts them into frames ready for transfer. This
is called Framing.
It provides two main functionalities
Reliable data transfer service between two peer network layers
Flow Control mechanism which regulates the flow of frames such that data congestion is not
there at slow receivers due to fast senders.

2.2 LINK-LAYER ADDRESSING

In a connectionless internetwork such as the Internet we cannot make a datagram reach its
destination using only IP addresses. The reason is that each datagram in the Internet, from the
same source host to the same destination host, may take a different path. The source and
destination IP addresses define the two ends but cannot define which links the datagram should
pass through.
Three Types of addresses
Some link-layer protocols define three types of addresses: unicast, multicast, and broadcast.
Unicast Address
Each host or each interface of a router is assigned a unicast address. Unicasting means
one-to-one communication. A frame with a unicast address destination is destined only
for one entity in the link.
A3:34:45:11:92:F1 Multicast Address
Some link-layer protocols define multicast addresses. Multicasting means one-to-many
communication. However, the jurisdiction is local (inside the link).
A2:34:45:11:92:F1
Broadcast Address
Some link-layer protocols define a broadcast address. Broadcasting means one-to-all
communication. A frame with a destination broadcast address is sent to all entities in
the link. FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF Address Resolution Protocols:
Most of the computer programs/applications use logical address (IP address) to send/receive
messages, however the actual communication happens over the physical address (MAC address)
i.e from layer 2 of OSI model. So our mission is to get the destination MAC address which helps
in communicating with other devices. This is where ARP comes into the picture, its functionality
is to translate IP address to physical address.
Most of the computer programs/applications use logical address (IP address) to send/receive
messages, however the actual communication happens over the physical address (MAC
address) i.e from layer 2 of OSI model. So our mission is to get the destination MAC address
which helps in communicating with other devices. This is where ARP comes into the picture, its
functionality is to translate IP address to physical address.

The acronym ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol which is one of the most important
protocols of the Network layer in the OSI model.
Note: ARP finds the hardware address, also known as Media Access Control (MAC) address, of
a host from its known IP address.
Let’s look at how ARP works.
Imagine a device wants to communicate with the other over the internet. What ARP does? Is it
broadcast a packet to all the devices of the source network?
The devices of the network peel the header of the data link layer from the protocol data unit
(PDU) called frame and transfers the packet to the network layer (layer 3 of OSI) where the
network ID of the packet is validated with the destination IP’s network ID of the packet and if
it’s equal then it responds to the source with the MAC address of the destination, else the packet
reaches the gateway of the network and broadcasts packet to the devices it is connected with and
validates their network ID.

Anytime a host or a router needs to find the link-layer address of another host or router in its
network, it sends an ARP request packet. The packet includes the link-layer and IP addresses of
the sender and the IP address of the receiver. Because the sender does not know the link-layer
address of the receiver, the query is broadcast over the link using the link-layer broadcast
address, which we discuss for each protocol later.
Caching
A question that is often asked is this: If system A can broadcast a frame to find the linklayer
address of system B, why can’t system A send the datagram for system B using a broadcast
frame? In other words, instead of sending one broadcast frame (ARP request), one unicast frame
(ARP response), and another unicast frame (for sending the datagram), system A can encapsulate
the datagram and send it to the network. System B receives it and keep it; other systems discard
it.
2.3 DLC Services.
The data link control (DLC) deals with procedures for communication between two adjacent
nodes—node-to-node communication—no matter whether the link is dedicated or broadcast.
Data link control functions include framing and flow and error control. In this section, we first
discuss framing, or how to organize the bits that are carried by the physical layer. We then
discuss flow and error control.
Data link control functions includes (1)
Framing.

(2) Error Control.

(3) Flow Control.

Framing
Data transmission in the physical layer means moving bits in the form of a signal from the source to
the destination. The physical layer provides bit synchronization to ensure that the sender and receiver
use the same bit durations and timing. The data-link layer, on the other hand, needs to pack bits into
frames, so that each frame is distinguishable from another. Our postal system practices a type of
framing. The simple act of inserting a letter into an envelope separates one piece of information from
another; the envelope serves as the delimiter. In addition, each envelope defines the sender and
receiver addresses, which is necessary since the postal system is a manyto- many carrier facility.
Framing in the data-link layer separates a message from one source to a destination by adding a
sender address and a destination address. The destination address defines where the packet is to go;
the sender address helps the recipient acknowledge the receipt.
Although the whole message could be packed in one frame, that is not normally done. One reason is
that a frame can be very large, making flow and error control very inefficient. When a message is
carried in one very large frame, even a single-bit error would require the retransmission of the whole
frame. When a message is divided into smaller frames, a single-bit error affects only that small frame.
Frame Size:
Frames can be of fixed or variable size. In fixed-size framing, there is no need for defining the
boundaries of the frames; the size itself can be used as a delimiter. An example of this type of
framing is the ATM WAN, which uses frames of fixed size called cells. Our main discussion in this
chapter concerns variable-size framing, prevalent in local-area networks. In variable-size framing, we
need a way to define the end of one frame and the beginning of the next. Historically, two
approaches were used for this purpose: a character-oriented approach and a bit-oriented approach.
Character-Oriented Framing:
In character-oriented (or byte-oriented) framing, data to be carried are 8-bit characters from a coding
system such as ASCII. The header, which normally carries the source and destination addresses and
other control information, and the trailer, which carries error detection redundant bits, are also
multiples of 8 bits. To separate one frame from the next, an 8-bit (1-byte) flag is added at the
beginning and the end of a frame. The flag, composed of protocol-dependent special characters,
signals the start or end of a frame.
Bit-Oriented Framing:
In bit-oriented framing, the data section of a frame is a sequence of bits to be interpreted by the
upper layer as text, graphic, audio, video, and so on. However, in addition to headers (and
possible trailers), we still need a delimiter to separate one frame from the other. Most protocols
use a special 8-bit pattern flag, 01111110, as the delimiter to define the beginning and the end of
the frame.

Flow and Error Control

We briefly defined flow and error control in Chapter 9; we elaborate on these two issues here.
One of the responsibilities of the data-link control sublayer is flow and error control at the data-
link layer.
Flow Control
Whenever an entity produces items and another entity consumes them, there should be a balance
between production and consumption rates. If the items are produced faster than they can be
consumed, the consumer can be overwhelmed and may need to discard some items. If the items
are produced more slowly than they can be consumed, the consumer must wait, and the system
becomes less efficient. Flow control is related to the first issue. We need to prevent losing the
data items at the consumer site. In communication at the data-link layer, we are dealing with four
entities: network and data-link layers at the sending node and network and data-link layers at the
receiving node. Although we can have a complex relationship with more than one producer and
consumer , we ignore the relationships between networks and data-link layers and concentrate on
the relationship between two data-link layers.

Buffers
Although flow control can be implemented in several ways, one of the solutions is normally to
use two buffers; one at the sending data-link layer and the other at the receiving data-link layer.
A buffer is a set of memory locations that can hold packets at the sender and receiver. The flow
control communication can occur by sending signals from the consumer to the producer. When
the buffer of the receiving data-link layer is full, it informs the sending data-link layer to stop
pushing frames. Error Control:
Since the underlying technology at the physical layer is not fully reliable, we need to implement
error control at the data-link layer to prevent the receiving node from delivering corrupted
packets to its network layer. Error control at the data-link layer is normally very simple and
implemented using one of the following two methods. In both methods, a CRC is added to the
frame header by the sender and checked by the receiver.
❑ In the first method, if the frame is corrupted, it is silently discarded; if it is not corrupted, the
packet is delivered to the network layer. This method is used mostly in wired LANs such as
Ethernet.
❑ In the second method, if the frame is corrupted, it is silently discarded; if it is not corrupted,
an acknowledgment is sent (for the purpose of both flow and error control) to the sender.
Combination of Flow and Error Control
Flow and error control can be combined. In a simple situation, the acknowledgment that is sent
for flow control can also be used for error control to tell the sender the packet has arrived
uncorrupted. The lack of acknowledgment means that there is a problem in the sent frame. We
show this situation when we discuss some simple protocols in the next section. A frame that
carries an acknowledgment is normally called an ACK to distinguish it from the data frame.
Connectionless and Connection-Oriented
A DLC protocol can be either connectionless or connection-oriented.
Connectionless Protocol
In a connectionless protocol, frames are sent from one node to the next without any relationship
between the frames; each frame is independent. Note that the term connectionless here does not
mean that there is no physical connection (transmission medium) between the nodes; it means
that there is no connection between frames. The frames are not numbered and there is no sense of
ordering. Most of the data-link protocols for LANs are connectionless protocols.
Connection-Oriented Protocol
In a connection-oriented protocol, a logical connection should first be established between the
two nodes (setup phase). After all frames that are somehow related to each other are transmitted
(transfer phase), the logical connection is terminated (teardown phase). In this type of
communication, the frames are numbered and sent in order. If they are not received in order, the
receiver needs to wait until all frames belonging to the same set are received and then deliver
them in order to the network layer. Connection oriented protocols are rare in wired LANs, but we
can see them in some point-to-point protocols, some wireless LANs, and some WANs.

2.4 Data-Link Layer Protocols

Traditionally four protocols have been defined for the data-link layer to deal with flow and error
control: Simple, Stop-and-Wait, Go-Back-N, and Selective-Repeat. Although the first two
protocols still are used at the data-link layer, the last two have disappeared.
Simple Protocol
Our first protocol is a simple protocol with neither flow nor error control. We assume that the
receiver can immediately handle any frame it receives. In other words, the receiver can never be
overwhelmed with incoming frames.
The data-link layer at the sender gets a packet from its network layer, makes a frame out of it,
and sends the frame. The data-link layer at the receiver receives a frame from the link, extracts
the packet from the frame, and delivers the packet to its network layer. The data-link layers of
the sender and receiver provide transmission services for their network layers.
FSMs
The sender site should not send a frame until its network layer has a message to send. The
receiver site cannot deliver a message to its network layer until a frame arrives. We can show
these requirements using two FSMs. Each FSM has only one state, the ready state. The sending
machine remains in the ready state until a request comes from the process in the network layer.
When this event occurs, the sending machine encapsulates the message in a frame and sends it to
the receiving machine. The receiving machine remains in the ready state until a frame arrives
from the sending machine. When this event occurs, the receiving machine decapsulates the
message out of the frame and delivers it to the process at the network layer.

Stop-and-Wait Protocol
Our second protocol is called the Stop-and-Wait protocol, which uses both flow and error
control. We show a primitive version of this protocol here, but we discuss the more sophisticated
version in Chapter 23 when we have learned about sliding windows. In this protocol, the sender
sends one frame at a time and waits for an acknowledgment before sending the next one. To
detect corrupted frames, we need to add a CRC (see Chapter 10) to each data frame. When a
frame arrives at the receiver site, it is checked. If its CRC is incorrect, the frame is corrupted and
silently discarded. The silence of the receiver is a signal for the sender that a frame was either
corrupted or lost. Every time the sender sends a frame, it starts a timer. If an acknowledgment
arrives before the timer expires, the timer is stopped and the sender sends the next frame (if it
has one to send). If the timer expires, the sender resends the previous frame, assuming that the
frame was either lost or corrupted. This means that the sender needs to keep a copy of the frame
until its acknowledgment arrives. When the corresponding acknowledgment arrives, the sender
discards the copy and sends the next frame if it is ready.

Sender States
The sender is initially in the ready state, but it can move between the ready and blocking state.
❑ Ready State. When the sender is in this state, it is only waiting for a packet from the network
layer. If a packet comes from the network layer, the sender creates a frame, saves a copy of the
frame, starts the only timer and sends the frame. The sender then moves to the blocking state.
❑ Blocking State. When the sender is in this state,three events can occur:
a. If a time-out occurs, the sender resends the saved copy of the frame and restarts the timer.
b. If a corrupted ACK arrives, it is discarded.
c. If an error-free ACK arrives, the sender stops the timer and discards the saved copy of the
frame. It then moves to the ready state.
Receiver
The receiver is always in the ready state. Two events may occur:
a. If an error-free frame arrives, the message in the frame is delivered to the network layer and an
ACK is sent.
b. If a corrupted frame arrives, the frame is discarded.
Sequence and Acknowledgment Numbers
We saw a problem in Example 11.3 that needs to be addressed and corrected. Duplicate packets,
as much as corrupted packets, need to be avoided. As an example, assume we are ordering some
item online. If each packet defines the specification of an item to be ordered, duplicate packets
mean ordering an item more than once. To correct the problem in Example 11.3, we need to add
sequence numbers to the data frames and acknowledgment numbers to the ACK frames.
However, numbering in this case is very simple. Sequence numbers are 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, . . . ; the
acknowledgment numbers can also be 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, … In other words, the sequence numbers
start with 0, the acknowledgment numbers start with 1. An acknowledgment number always
defines the sequence number of the next frame to receive.
Piggybacking
The two protocols we discussed in this section are designed for unidirectional communication, in
which data is flowing only in one direction although the acknowledgment may travel in the other
direction. Protocols have been designed in the past to allow data to flow in both directions.
However, to make the communication more efficient, the data in one direction is piggybacked
with the acknowledgment in the other direction. In other words, when node A is sending data to
node B, Node A also acknowledges the data received from node B. Because piggybacking makes

communication at the datalink layer more complicated, it is not a common practice.

2.5 HDLC
HDLC - Short for High-level Data Link Control, a transmission protocol used at the data link
layer (layer 2) of the OSI seven layer model for data communications. The HDLC protocol
embeds information in a data frame that allows devices to control data flow and correct errors.
HDLC is an ISO standard developed from the Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) standard
proposed by IBM in the 1970's. HDLC NRM (also known as SDLC).
Types of Frames in HDLC
HDLC defines three types of frames:
1. Information frames (I-frame)
2. Supervisory frame (S-frame)
3. Unnumbered frame (U-frame)
1. Information frames
• I-frames carry user's data and control information about user's data.
• I-frame carries user data in the information field.
• The I-frame format is shown in diagram.
• The first bit of control field is always zero, i.e. the presence of zero at this place indicates that it
is I-frame.
• Bit number 2, 3 & 4 in control field is called N(S) that specifies the sequence number of the
frame. Thus it specifies the number of the frame that is currently being sent. Since it is a 3.bit
field, only eight sequence numbers are possible 0, 1,2,3,4,5,6, 7 (000 to 111).
• Bit number 5 in control field is P/F i.e. Poll/Final and is used for these two purposes. It has,
meaning only when it is set i.e. when P/F=1. It can represent the following two cases.
(i) It means poll when frame is sent by a primary station to secondary (when address field
contains the address of receiver).
(ii) It means final when frame is sent by secondary to a primary (when the address field
contains the address of the sender).
• Bit number 6, 7, and 8 in control field specifies N(R) i.e. the sequence number of the frame
expected in return in two-way communication.
If last frame received was error-free then N(R) number will be that of the next frame is sequence.
If the last frame was not received correctly, the N(R) number will be the number of the damaged
frame, asking for its retransmission.
2. Supervisory frame
• S-frame carries control information, primarily data link layer flow and error controls.
• It does not contain information field.
• The format of S-frame is shown in diagram.
• The first two bits in the control field of S-frame are always 10.
• Then there is a bit code field that specifies four types of S-frame with combination 00,01, 10,
11 as shown in table :-

1. RR, Receive Ready-used to acknowledge frames when no I-frames are availab1e to piggyback
the acknowledgement.
2. REJ Reject-used by the receiver to send a NAK when error has occurred.
3. RNR Receive Not Ready-used for flow control.
4. SREJ Selective Reject-indicates to the transmitter that it should retransmit the frame indicated
in the N(R) subfield.
• There is no N(S) field in control field of S-frame as S-frames do not transmit data.
• P/F bit is the fifth bit and serves the same purpose as discussed earlier.
• Last three bits in control field indicates N(R) i.e. they correspond to the ACK or NAK value.
3. Unnumbered frame
• U-frames are reserved for system management and information carried by them is used for
managing the link
• U-frames are used to exchange session management and control information between the two
connected devices.
• Information field in U-frame does not carry user information rather, it carries system
management information.
• The frame format of U-frame is shown in diagram.
• U-frame is identified by the presence of 11 in the first and second bit position in control field.
• These frames do not contain N(S) or N(R) in control field.

• U-frame contains two code fields, one two hit and other three bit.
• These five bits can create upto 32 different U-frames.
• .P/F bit in control field has same purpose in V-frame as discussed earlier.

Protocol Structure - HDLC: High Level Data Link Control Flag

- The value of the flag is always (0x7E).
Address field - Defines the address of the secondary station which is sending the frame or the
destination of the frame sent by the primary station. It contains Service Access Point (6bits), a
Command/Response bit to indicate whether the frame relates to information frames (I-frames)
being sent from the node or received by the node, and an address extension bit which is usually
set to true to indicate that the address is of length one byte. When set to false it indicates an
additional byte follows.
Extended address - HDLC provides another type of extension to the basic format. The address
field may be extended to more than one byte by agreement between the involved parties.
Control field - Serves to identify the type of the frame. In addition, it includes sequence
numbers, control features and error tracking according to the frame type.
FCS - The Frame Check Sequence (FCS) enables a high level of physical error control by
allowing the integrity of the transmitted frame data to be checked.
Related Protocols : LAPB , ISDN , X.25 , Frame Relay , SDLC

2.6 POINT-TO-POINT PROTOCOL (PPP)

One of the most common protocols for point-to-point access is the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP).
Today, millions of Internet users who need to connect their home computers to the server of an
Internet service provider use PPP. The majority of these users have a traditional modem; they are
connected to the Internet through a telephone line, which provides the services of the physical
layer. But to control and manage the transfer of data, there is a need for a point-to-point protocol
at the data-link layer. PPP is by far the most common.
Services
The designers of PPP have included several services to make it suitable for a point-to point
protocol, but have ignored some traditional services to make it simple.
Services Provided by PPP
PPP defines the format of the frame to be exchanged between devices. It also defines how two
devices can negotiate the establishment of the link and the exchange of data. PPP is designed to
accept payloads from several network layers (not only IP). Authentication is also provided in the
protocol, but it is optional. The new version of PPP, called Multilink PPP, provides connections
over multiple links. One interesting feature of PPP is that it provides network address
configuration. This is particularly useful when a home user needs a temporary network address
to connect to the Internet.
Framing
PPP uses a character-oriented (or byte-oriented) frame. Figure shows the format of a PPP frame.
The description of each field follows:
❑ Flag. A PPP frame starts and ends with a 1-byte flag with the bit pattern 01111110.
❑ Address. The address field in this protocol is a constant value and set to 11111111 (broadcast
address).
❑ Control. This field is set to the constant value 00000011 (imitating unnumbered frames in
HDLC). As we will discuss later, PPP does not provide any flow control. Error control is also
limited to error detection.
❑ Protocol. The protocol field defines what is being carried in the data field: either user data or
other information. This field is by default 2 bytes long, but the two parties can agree to use only
1 byte.
❑ Payload field. This field carries either the user data or other information that we will discuss
shortly. The data field is a sequence of bytes with the default of a maximum of 1500 bytes; but
this can be changed during negotiation. The data field is byte-stuffed if the flag byte pattern
appears in this field. Because there is no field defining the size of the data field, padding is
needed if the size is less than the maximum default value or the maximum negotiated value.
❑ FCS. The frame check sequence (FCS) is simply a 2-byte or 4-byte standard CRC.
Byte Stuffing
Since PPP is a byte-oriented protocol, the flag in PPP is a byte that needs to be escaped whenever
it appears in the data section of the frame. The escape byte is 01111101, which means that every
time the flaglike pattern appears in the data, this extra byte is stuffed to tell the receiver that the
next byte is not a flag. Obviously, the escape byte itself should be stuffed with another escape
byte.
Transition Phases
A PPP connection goes through phases which can be shown in a transition phase diagram. The
transition diagram, which is an FSM, starts with the dead state. In this state, there is no active
carrier (at the physical layer) and the line is quiet. When one of the two nodes starts the
communication, the connection goes into the establish state. In this state, options are negotiated
between the two parties. If the two parties agree that they need authentication (for example, if
they do not know each other), then the system needs to do authentication (an extra step);
otherwise, the parties can simply start communication. The link-control protocol packets,
discussed shortly, are used for this purpose. Several packets may be exchanged here. Data
transfer takes place in the open state. When a connection reaches this state, the exchange of data
packets can be started. The connection remains in this state until one of the endpoints wants to
terminate the connection. In this case, the system goes to the terminate state. The system remains
in this state until the carrier (physical-layer signal) is dropped, which moves the system to the
dead state again.

Multiplexing
Although PPP is a link-layer protocol, it uses another set of protocols to establish the link,
authenticate the parties involved, and carry the network-layer data. Three sets of protocols are
defined to make PPP powerful: the Link Control Protocol (LCP), two Authentication Protocols
(APs), and several Network Control Protocols (NCPs). At any moment, a PPP packet can carry
data from one of these protocols in its data field. Note that there are one LCP, two APs, and
several NCPs. Data may also come from several different network layers.

2.7 Media Access Control

In order to communicate or transfer the data from one computer to another computer we need
some address. In Computer Network various types of address are introduced; each works at
different layer. Media Access Control Address is a physical address which works at Data Link
Layer. In this article, we will discuss about addressing in DLL, which is MAC Address.
Media Access Control (MAC) Address –
MAC Addresses are unique 48-bits hardware number of a computer, which is embedded into
network card (known as Network Interface Card) during the time of manufacturing. MAC
Address is also known as Physical Address of a network device. In IEEE 802 standard, Data
Link Layer is divided into two sublayers – 1. Logical Link Control(LLC) Sublayer
2. Media Access Control(MAC) Sublayer
MAC address is used by Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer of Data-Link Layer. MAC
Address is word wide unique, since millions of network devices exists and we need to uniquely
identify each.

Format of MAC Address –

MAC Address is a 12-digit hexadecimal number (6-Byte binary number), which is mostly
represented by Colon-Hexadecimal notation. First 6-digits (say 00:40:96) of MAC Address
identifies the manufacturer, called as OUI (Organizational Unique Identifier). IEEE Registration
Authority Committee assign these MAC prefixes to its registered vendors.
Here are some OUI of well known manufacturers :
CC:46:D6 - Cisco 3C:5A:B4 - Google, Inc. 3C:D9:2B - Hewlett
Packard 00:9A:CD - HUAWEI TECHNOLOGIES CO.,LTD

The rightmost six digits represents Network Interface Controller, which is assigned by
manufacturer.
As discussed above, MAC address is represented by Colon-Hexadecimal notation. But this is just
a conversion, not mandatory. MAC address can be represented using any of the following
formats –

Note: Colon-Hexadecimal notation is used by Linux OS and Period-separated Hexadecimal

notation is used by Cisco Systems.
How to find MAC address –
Command for UNIX/Linux - ifconfig -a
ip link list
ip address show
Command forWindows OS - ipconfig /all
MacOS - TCP/IP Control Panel
Note – LAN technologies like Token Ring, Ethernet use MAC Address as their Physical address
but there are some networks (AppleTalk) which does not use MAC address. Types of MAC
Address –
1. Unicast – A Unicast addressed frame is only sent out to the interface leading to specific
NIC. If the LSB (least significant bit) of first octet of an address is set to zero, the frame
is meant to reach only one receiving NIC. MAC Address of source machine is always
Unicast.
2. Multicast – Multicast address allow the source to send a frame to group of devices. In
Layer-2 (Ethernet) Multicast address, LSB (least significant bit) of first octet of an
address is set to one. IEEE has allocated the address block 01-80-C2-xx-xx-xx (01-80-
C2-00-00-00 to 01-80-C2-FF-FF-FF) for group addresses for use by standard protocols.

3. Broadcast – Similar to Network Layer, Broadcast is also possible on underlying layer(

Data Link Layer). Ethernet frames with ones in all bits of the destination address (FF-FF- FF-FF-
FF-FF) are referred as broadcast address. Frames which are destined with MAC address FF-FF-
FF-FF-FF-FF will reach to every computer belong to that LAN segment.

What is MAC Cloning –

Some ISPs use MAC address inorder to assign IP address to gateway device. When device
connects to the ISP, DHCP server records the MAC address and then assign IP address. Now the
system will be identified through MAC address. When the device get disconnected, it looses the
IP address. If user wants to reconnect, DHCP server checks if the device is connected before. If
so, then server tries to assign same IP address (in case lease period not expired). In case user
changed the router, user has to inform the ISP about new MAC address because new MAC
address is unknown to ISP, so connection cannot be established.
Or the other option is Cloning, user can simply clone the registered MAC address with ISP. Now
router keeps reporting old MAC address to ISP and there will be no connection issue.

2.8 Wired LANs: Ethernet

Local Area Network (LAN) is a data communication network connecting various terminals or
computers within a building or limited geographical area. The connection among the devices
could be wired or wireless. Ethernet, Token Ring and Wireless LAN using IEEE 802.11 are
examples of standard LAN technologies.
Ethernet :-
Ethernet is most widely used LAN Technology, which is defined under IEEE standards 802.3.
The reason behind its wide usability is Ethernet is easy to understand, implement, maintain and
allows low-cost network implementation. Also, Ethernet offers flexibility in terms of topologies
which are allowed. Ethernet operates in two layers of the OSI model, Physical Layer, and Data
Link Layer. For Ethernet, the protocol data unit is Frame since we mainly deal with DLL. In
order to handle collision, the Access control mechanism used in Ethernet is CSMA/CD.
Manchester Encoding Technique is used in Ethernet.

Since we are talking about IEEE 802.3 standard Ethernet therefore, 0 is expressed by a high-to-
low transition, a 1 by the low-to-high transition. In both Manchester Encoding and Differential
Manchester, Encoding Baud rate is double of bit rate.
Baud rate = 2* Bit rate
Ethernet LANs consist of network nodes and interconnecting media or link. The network nodes
can be of two types:
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE):- Generally, DTEs are the end devices that convert the user
information into signals or reconvert the received signals. DTEs devices are: personal computers,
workstations, file servers or print servers also referred to as end stations. These devices are either
the source or the destination of data frames. The data terminal equipment may be a single piece
of equipment or multiple pieces of equipment that are interconnected and perform all the
required functions to allow the user to communicate. A user can interact to DTE or DTE may be
a user.
Data Communication Equipment (DCE):- DCEs are the intermediate network devices that
receive and forward frames across the network. They may be either standalone devices such as
repeaters, network switches, routers or maybe communications interface units such as interface
cards and modems. The DCE performs functions such as signal conversion, coding and may be a
part of the DTE or intermediate equipment.
Currently, these data rates are defined for operation over optical fibers and twisted-pair cables: i)
Fast Ethernet
Fast Ethernet refers to an Ethernet network that can transfer data at a rate of 100 Mbit/s. ii)
Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet delivers a data rate of 1,000 Mbit/s (1 Gbit/s).
iii) 10 Gigabit Ethernet
10 Gigabit Ethernet is the recent generation and delivers a data rate of 10 Gbit/s (10,000 Mbit/s).
It is generally used for backbones in high-end applications requiring high data rates.
ALOHA
The Aloha protocol was designed as part of a project at the University of Hawaii. It provided
data transmission between computers on several of the Hawaiian Islands involving packet radio
networks. Aloha is a multiple access protocol at the data link layer and proposes how multiple
terminals access the medium without interference or collision.
There are two different versions of ALOHA:
1. Pure Aloha
Pure Aloha is an un-slotted, decentralized, and simple to implement a protocol. In pure ALOHA,
the stations simply transmit frames whenever they want data to send. It does not check whether
the channel is busy or not before transmitting. In case, two or more stations transmit
simultaneously, the collision occurs and frames are destroyed. Whenever any station transmits a
frame, it expects the acknowledgment from the receiver. If it is not received within a specified
time, the station assumes that the frame or acknowledgment has been destroyed. Then, the station
waits for a random amount of time and sends the frame again. This randomness helps in avoiding
more collisions. This scheme works well in small networks where the load is not much. But in
largely loaded networks, this scheme fails poorly. This led to the development of Slotted Aloha.
To assure pure aloha: Its throughput and rate of transmission of the frame to be predicted.
For that to make some assumption:
i) All the frames should be the same length.
ii) Stations can not generate frame while transmitting or trying to transmit frame.
iii) The population of stations attempts to transmit (both new frames and old frames that
collided) according to a Poisson distribution.

Vulnerable Time = 2 * Tt
Efficiency of Pure ALOHA: Spure= G * e^-2G where G
is number of stations wants to transmit in Tt slot.
Maximum Efficiency:
Maximum Efficiency will be obtained when G=1/2 (Spure)max
= 1/2 * e^-1
= 0.184
Which means, in Pure ALOHA, only about 18.4% of the time is used for
successful transmissions. 2. Slotted Aloha
This is quite similar to Pure Aloha, differing only in the way transmissions take place. Instead of
transmitting right at demand time, the sender waits for some time. In slotted ALOHA, the time of
the shared channel is divided into discrete intervals called Slots. The stations are eligible to send
a frame only at the beginning of the slot and only one frame per slot is sent. If any station is not
able to place the frame onto the channel at the beginning of the slot, it has to wait until the
beginning of the next time slot. There is still a possibility of collision if two stations try to send at
the beginning of the same time slot. But still the number of collisions that can possibly take place
is reduced by a large margin and the performance becomes much well compared to Pure Aloha.

Collision is possible for only the current slot. Therefore, Vulnerable Time is Tt.
Efficiency of Slotted ALOHA:
Sslotted = G * e^-G

Maximum Efficiency:
(Sslotted)max = 1 * e^-1
= 1/e = 0.368
Maximum Efficiency, in Slotted ALOHA, is 36.8%.

2.9 Wireless LANs- Introduction

Wireless communication is one of the fastest-growing technologies. The demand for connecting
devices without the use of cables is increasing everywhere. Wireless LANs can be found on
college campuses, in office buildings, and in many public areas. Before we discuss a specific
protocol related to wireless LANs, let us talk about them in general.
Architectural Comparison
Let us first compare the architecture of wired and wireless LANs to give some idea of what we
need to look for when we study wireless LANs.
Medium
The first difference we can see between a wired and a wireless LAN is the medium. In a wired
LAN, we use wires to connect hosts. In Chapter 7, we saw that we moved from multiple access
to point-to-point access through the generation of the Ethernet. In a switched LAN, with a link-
layer switch, the communication between the hosts is point to- point and full-duplex
(bidirectional). In a wireless LAN, the medium is air, the signal is generally broadcast. When
hosts in a wireless LAN communicate with each other, they are sharing the same medium
(multiple access). In a very rare situation, we may be able to create a point-to-point
communication between two wireless hosts by using a very limited bandwidth and two-
directional antennas. Our discussion in this chapter, however, is about the multiple-access
medium, which means we need to use MAC protocols.
Hosts
In a wired LAN, a host is always connected to its network at a point with a fixed link layer
address related to its network interface card (NIC). Of course, a host can move from one point in
the Internet to another point. In this case, its link-layer address remains the same, but its
networklayer address will change (Mobile IP section). However, before the host can use the
services of the Internet, it needs to be physically connected to the Internet. In a wireless LAN, a
host is not physically connected to the network; it can move freely (as we’ll see) and can use the
services provided by the network.
Isolated LANs
The concept of a wired isolated LAN also differs from that of a wireless isolated LAN. A wired
isolated LAN is a set of hosts connected via a link-layer switch (in the recent generation of
Ethernet). A wireless isolated LAN, called an ad hoc network in wireless LAN terminology, is a
set of hosts that communicate freely with each other. The concept of a link-layer switch does not
exist in wireless LANs. Figure 15.1 shows two isolated LANs, one wired and one wireless.
Connection to Other Networks
A wired LAN can be connected to another network or an internetwork such as the Internet using
a router. A wireless LAN may be connected to a wired infrastructure network, to a wireless
infrastructure network, or to another wireless LAN. The first situation is the one that we discuss
in this section: connection of a wireless LAN to a wired infrastructure network.

2.10 IEEE 802.11

IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN, called IEEE 802.11, which covers the
physical and data-link layers. It is sometimes called wireless Ethernet. In some countries,
including the United States, the public uses the term WiFi (short for wireless fidelity) as a
synonym for wireless LAN. WiFi, however, is a wireless LAN that is certified by the WiFi
Alliance, a global, nonprofit industry association of more than 300 member companies devoted
to promoting the growth of wireless LANs.
Architecture
The standard defines two kinds of services: the basic service set (BSS) and the extended service
set (ESS). Basic Service Set
IEEE 802.11 defines the basic service set (BSS) as the building blocks of a wireless LAN. A
basic service set is made of stationary or mobile wireless stations and an optional central base
station, known as the access point (AP). Figure 15.4 shows two sets in this standard.
The BSS without an AP is a stand-alone network and cannot send data to other BSSs. It is called
an ad hoc architecture. In this architecture, stations can form a network without the need of an
AP; they can locate one another and agree to be part of a BSS. A BSS with an AP is sometimes
referred to as an infrastructure BSS.

Extended Service Set

An extended service set (ESS) is made up of two or more BSSs with APs. In this case, the BSSs
are connected through a distribution system, which is a wired or a wireless network. The
distribution system connects the APs in the BSSs. IEEE 802.11 does not restrict the distribution
system; it can be any IEEE LAN such as an Ethernet. Note that the extended service set uses two
types of stations: mobile and stationary. The mobile stations are normal stations inside a BSS.
The stationary stations are AP stations that are part of a wired LAN.
When BSSs are connected, the stations within reach of one another can communicate without the
use of an AP. However, communication between a station in a BSS and the outside BSS occurs
via the AP. The idea is similar to communication in a cellular network if we consider each BSS
to be a cell and each AP to be a base station.
Station Types
IEEE 802.11 defines three types of stations based on their mobility in a wireless LAN: no-
transition, BSS-transition, and ESS-transition mobility. A station with no-transition mobility is
either stationary (not moving) or moving only inside a BSS. A station with BSS-transition
mobility can move from one BSS to another, but the movement is confined inside one ESS. A
station with ESS-transition mobility can move from one ESS to another. However, IEEE
802.11 does not guarantee that communication is continuous during the move.
MAC Sublayer
IEEE 802.11 defines two MAC sublayers: the distributed coordination function (DCF) and point
coordination function (PCF). Figure shows the relationship between the two MAC sublayers, the
LLC sublayer, and the physical layer.
Distributed Coordination Function
One of the two protocols defined by IEEE at the MAC sublayer is called the distributed
coordination function (DCF). DCF uses CSMA/CA as the access method
Frame Exchange Time Line
Figure shows the exchange of data and control frames in time.
1. Before sending a frame, the source station senses the medium by checking the energy level at
the carrier frequency.
a. The channel uses a persistence strategy with backoff until the channel is idle.
b. After the station is found to be idle, the station waits for a period of time called the distributed
interframe space (DIFS); then the station sends a control frame called the request to send
(RTS).
2. After receiving the RTS and waiting a period of time called the short interframe space
(SIFS), the destination station sends a control frame, called the clear to send (CTS), to the
source station. This control frame indicates that the destination station is ready to receive data.
3. The source station sends data after waiting an amount of time equal to SIFS.
4. The destination station, after waiting an amount of time equal to SIFS, sends an
acknowledgment to show that the frame has been received. Acknowledgment is needed in this
protocol because the station does not have any means to check for the successful arrival of its
data at the destination. On the other hand, the lack of collision in CSMA/CD is a kind of
indication to the source that data have arrived.

Network Allocation Vector

How do other stations defer sending their data if one station acquires access? In other words, how
is the collision avoidance aspect of this protocol accomplished? The key is a feature called
NAV.
When a station sends an RTS frame, it includes the duration of time that it needs to occupy the
channel. The stations that are affected by this transmission create a timer called a network
allocation vector (NAV) that shows how much time must pass before these stations are allowed
to check the channel for idleness. Each time a station accesses the system and sends an RTS
frame, other stations start their NAV. In other words, each station, before sensing the physical
medium to see if it is idle, first checks its NAV to see if it has expired. Collision During
Handshaking
What happens if there is a collision during the time when RTS or CTS control frames are in
transition, often called the handshaking period? Two or more stations may try to send RTS
frames at the same time. These control frames may collide. However, because there is no
mechanism for collision detection, the sender assumes there has been a collision if it has not
received a CTS frame from the receiver. The backoff strategy is employed, and the sender tries
again.
Hidden-Station Problem
The solution to the hidden station problem is the use of the handshake frames (RTS and CTS).
Figure also shows that the RTS message from B reaches A, but not C. However, because both B
and C are within the range of A, the CTS message, which contains the duration of data
ransmission from B to A, reaches C. Station C knows that some hidden station is using the
channel and refrains from transmitting until that duration is over.

2.11 Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of different functions such
as telephones, notebooks, computers (desktop and laptop), cameras, printers, and even coffee
makers when they are at a short distance from each other. A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc
network, which means that the network is formed spontaneously; the devices, sometimes called
gadgets, find each other and make a network called a piconet. A Bluetooth LAN can even be
connected to the Internet if one of the gadgets has this capability. A Bluetooth LAN, by nature,
cannot be large. If there are many gadgets that try to connect, there is chaos.
Bluetooth technology has several applications. Peripheral devices such as a wireless mouse or
keyboard can communicate with the computer through this technology. Monitoring devices can
communicate with sensor devices in a small health care center. Home security devices can use
this technology to connect different sensors to the main security controller. Conference attendees
can synchronize their laptop computers at a conference.
Bluetooth was originally started as a project by the Ericsson Company. It is namedfor Harald
Blaatand, the king of Denmark (940-981) who united Denmark and Norway. Blaatand translates
to Bluetooth in English. Today, Bluetooth technology is the implementation of a protocol defined
by the IEEE 802.15 standard. The standard defines a wireless personal-area network (PAN)
operable in an area the size of a room or a hall.
Architecture
Bluetooth defines two types of networks: piconet and scatternet.
Piconets
A Bluetooth network is called a piconet, or a small net. A piconet can have up to eight stations,
one of which is called the primary; the rest are called secondaries. All the secondary stations
synchronize their clocks and hopping sequence with the primary. Note that a piconet can have
only one primary station. The communication between the primary and secondary stations can be
one-to-one or one-to-many. Although a piconet can have a maximum of seven secondaries,
additional secondaries can be in the parked state. A secondary in a parked state is synchronized
with the primary, but cannot take part in communication until it is moved from the parked state
to the active state. Because only eight stations can be active in a piconet, activating a station
from the parked state means that an active station must go to the parked state.

Scatternet
Piconets can be combined to form what is called a scatternet. A secondary station in one piconet
can be the primary in another piconet. This station can receive messages from the primary in the
first piconet (as a secondary) and, acting as a primary, deliver them to secondaries in the second
piconet. A station can be a member of two piconets.
Bluetooth Devices
A Bluetooth device has a built-in short-range radio transmitter. The current data rate is 1 Mbps
with a 2.4-GHz bandwidth. This means that there is a possibility of interference between the
IEEE 802.11b wireless LANs and Bluetooth LANs.
Bluetooth Layers
Bluetooth uses several layers that do not exactly match those of the Internet model.

L2CAP
The Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol, or L2CAP (L2 here means LL), is
roughly equivalent to the LLC sublayer in LANs. It is used for data exchange on an The 16-bit
length field defines the size of the data, in bytes, coming from the upper layers. Data can be up to
65,535 bytes. The channel ID (CID) defines a unique identifier for the virtual channel created at
this level.

The L2CAP has specific duties: multiplexing, segmentation and reassembly, quality of service
(QoS), and group management.
Multiplexing
The L2CAP can do multiplexing. At the sender site, it accepts data from one of the upper-layer
protocols, frames them, and delivers them to the baseband layer. At the receiver site, it accepts a
frame from the baseband layer, extracts the data, and delivers them to the appropriate protocol
layer.
Segmentation and Reassembly
The maximum size of the payload field in the baseband layer is 2774 bits, or 343 bytes. This
includes 4 bytes to define the packet and packet length. Therefore, the size of the packet that can
arrive from an upper layer can only be 339 bytes. However, application layers sometimes need to
send a data packet that can be up to 65,535 bytes (an Internet packet, for example). The L2CAP
divides these large packets into segments and adds extra information to define the location of the
segments in the original packet. The L2CAP segments the packets at the source and reassembles
them at the destination.
QoS
Bluetooth allows the stations to define a quality-of-service level. For the moment, it is sufficient
to know that if no quality-of-service level is defined, Bluetooth defaults to what is called best-
effort service; it will do its best under the circumstances.

2.12 Connecting Devices (Hub, Repeater, Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateways and Brouter) 1.
Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over the
same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to
which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An important point to be noted about
repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the
signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength. It is a 2 port device.
2. Hub – A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from
ifferent branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations.
Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words,
collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have
intelligence to find out best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
Types of Hub
 • Active Hub :- These are the hubs which have their own power supply and can clean ,
boost and relay the signal along the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as wiring
center. These are used to extend maximum distance between nodes.
• Passive Hub :- These are the hubs which collect wiring from nodes and power supply
from active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting
them and can’t be used to extend distance between nodes.
3. Bridge – A bridge operates at data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on
functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of source and destination. It is
also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input and
single output port, thus making it a 2 port device. Types of Bridges
• Transparent Bridges :- These are the bridge in which the stations are completely
naware of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the
network , reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges makes use of two

processes i.e. bridge forwarding and bridge learning.

• Source Routing Bridges :- In these bridges, routing operation is performed by source
station and the frame specifies which route to follow. The hot can discover frame by
sending a specical frame called discovery frame, which spreads through the entire

network using all possible paths to destination.

4. Switch – A switch is a multi port bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency(large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. Switch is data link layer
device. Switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, that makes it very efficient as
it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to correct port
only. In other words, switch divides collision domain of hosts, but broadcast domain remains
same.
5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. Router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and
WANs together and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make
decisions on routing the data packets. Router divide broadcast domains of hosts connected
through it.
6. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks
together that may work upon different networking models. They basically works as the
messenger agents that take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system.
Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer. Gateways are
generally more complex than switch or router.
7. Brouter – It is also known as bridging router is a device which combines features of both
bridge and router. It can work either at data link layer or at network layer. Working as router, it is
capable of routing packets across networks and working as bridge, it is capable of filtering local
area network traffic.