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in

MODULE-1
Introduction: History, Power Electronic Systems, Power Electronic Converters and
Applications. Thyristors: Static Anode-Cathode characteristics and Gate characteristics of
SCR, Turn-On methods, Turn-Off mechanisms, Turn-Off Methods: Natural and Forced
Commutation – Class A and Class B types, Gate Trigger Circuit: Resistance Firing Circuit,
Resistance capacitance firing circuit, Unijunction Transistor: Basic operation and UJT Firing
Circuit.

1.1 INTRODUCTION:
Electrical engineering field may be divided into three areas of specialization:

*Electronics *Power *Control

Electronics with the study of solid state semiconductor devices and circuits for the
processing of information at low power levels. Power area deals with both static and rotating
power equipment for the generation, transmission distribution and utilization of electrical
power. The control area deals with the stability and response characteristics of closed loop
systems using feedback on a continuous or sampled-data basis.
Power electronics deals with the use of electronics for the control and conversion of
large amounts of electrical power. The design of power electronics involves interactions
between the source and the load, and utilizes small-signal electronic control circuits as well
as power semiconductor devices.

1.2 POWER ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS: The block diagram of a generalized power electronic
system is shown in figure 1.1. Power source may be an ac supply system or dc supply system.
(In India, 1-phase and 3-phase 50Hz ac supplies are readily available).

Power modulator performs one or more of the following functions:

 Converts electrical energy of the source as per the requirement of the load.
 Selects mode of operation of the motor, i.e. motoring or breaking.
 Modulates flow of power from the source to the motor in such a manner that motor is
imparted speed-torque characteristics required by the load.
 During transient operations, such as starting, breaking and speed reversal, it restricts
source and motor currents within permissible values.

Motors commonly used in power electronic systems are: DC Motors, Induction Motors,
Synchronous Motors, Stepper Motors, Brushless Motors and Switched Reluctance Motors.

Power modulators are controlled by a control unit. Control unit operates at much lower
voltage and power levels. Sensing unit measures the load parameters, say speed in case of a
rotating machine and compares it with the command. The difference of two parameters
processed by the control unit now controls the turn-on of power semiconductor devices which
are used in power modulators.

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Fig. 1.1: Block diagram of power electronic system

1.3 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES: Power Semiconductor Devices can be classified

into 3 categories based on degree of controllability:

1. Uncontrolled turn-on and turn-off devices: The on & off states are controlled by power
circuit. Ex: Diode.

2. Controlled turn-on and uncontrolled turn-off devices: Turned on by a control signal &
turned off by power circuit. Ex: Thyristors (SCR).

3. Controlled turn-on and turn-off devices: Turned on & turned off by controlled signals.
Ex: BJT, MOSFET, GTO, SITH, SIT, IGBT.

BJT, MOSFET, MCT & IGBT can withstand unipolar voltage whereas thyristors and GTOs
can withstand bipolar voltages. BJT, MOSFET, SIT & IGBT requires continuous signal for
keeping them in turn on state but SCR, GTO & SITH requires pulse-gate signal for turning
them ON and once these devices are turned ON, gate-pulse is removed.

TRIAC & RCT possess bidirectional current capability whereas all other devices are
unidirectional current devices.

Thyristors are used for high power low frequency applications and are available with
8000V and 4000A ratings. GTOs are used for large voltage-fed inverter applications and are
available with 6000V and 6000A ratings.

Insulated Gate Bipolar Junction Transistor (IGBT) are available with 3500V and 1200A
ratings. Integrated Gate Commutated thyristor (IGCT) are available with 6000V and 6000A
ratings.
1.4 POWER ELECTRONIC CONVERTERS: Power electronic circuits are also called as power
converters. A converter uses matrix of power semiconductor switches to convert electrical
power at high efficiency. The converter system is comprised of switches, relative components
L, C, and transformers. The converters are generally classified into following five broad
categories:

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1. Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC to DC converters): These controllers converts fixed ac

voltage to a variable dc output voltage. These converters takes power from voltage / current
sources of single or multiple phases and delivers to a load. The output is low-ripple DC voltage
or DC current. These controller circuits use line voltage for their commutation. Hence they
are also called as line commuted or naturally commuted ac to dc converters. These circuits
include diode rectifiers and single /three phase controlled circuits.

Applications: DC motor drives, High voltage dc transmission system, Battery Charger

circuits, Regulated DC power supplies, Wind generator converters.

2. Choppers (DC to DC converters): A chopper converts fixed dc input voltage and to a

variable dc output voltage. The dc output voltage may be different in amplitude than the
input source voltage. Choppers are designed using semiconductor devices such as power
transistors, IGBTs, GTOs, Power MOSFETs and thyristors. Output voltage can be varied
steplessly by controlling duty ratio of the device from a control circuit. Chopper has either a
battery, a solar powered dc voltage source or line frequency derived from dc voltage source.

Applications: DC drives, Subway cars, Switch mode power supplies, Battery driven
vehicles, Electric traction.

3. Inverters (DC to AC converters): An inverter Converts fixed dc input voltage into an ac

output voltage of variable frequency and fixed or variable output AC voltage. An inverter has
either a battery, a solar powered dc voltage source or line frequency derived from dc voltage
source. Inverters are designed using semiconductor devices: Power transistors, IGBTs, GTOs,
MOSFETs and thyristors. Inverters are widely used from very low-power portable electronic
systems such as digital camera to a high power industrial systems.

Applications: Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS), Aircraft and space power supplies,
HVDC system, Induction and synchronous motor drives, Induction heating supplies.
4. Cycloconverters (AC to AC converters): These circuits convert power at one frequency
to output power at a different frequency through one stage conversion. These are designed
using thyristors and are controlled by triggering signals derived from a control circuit. The
output frequency is lower than the source frequency. Output frequency is a simple fraction
such as 1/3, 1/5 and so on of source frequency. These are mainly used for slow speed, very
high power industrial drives.

Applications: AC Drives like rotary kilns multi-MW ac motor drives, Traction vehicles.

5. AC Voltage Controllers (AC Regulators): These converters converts fixed ac voltage

directly to a variable ac voltage at the same frequency using line commutation. These
converters employs thyristorised voltage controller. Stepless control of output voltage can be
obtained by controlling firing angle of converter thyristors by low power signals from a control
circuit.

Applications: Speed control of fans & pumps, Lighting control, Electronic tap changers.

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1.5 POWER ELECTRONIC APPLICATIONS: The applications of power electronics in various

sectors are listed below:

 DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS (Home Appliances): Cooking Appliances, Air

Conditioners, Refrigerators & Freezers, Vacuum Cleaners, Grinders & Mixers,
Sewing machines etc.
 COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS: Battery chargers, Computers, Electric fans,
photocopiers, light dimmers, hand power tools, vending machines etc.
 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS: Pumps, compressors, blowers and fans, machine
tools, arc furnaces, induction furnaces, lighting control circuits, industrial lasers,
induction heating, welding equipment, UPS, conveyors, cranes, dryers, paper mill
machinery etc.
 GAMES & ENTERTAINMENT: Toys, TV’s, Movie projectors etc.
 AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS: Space vehicle power systems, satellite power
systems, aircraft power systems.
 AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONS: Alarms & Security systems, electric vehicles, audio
and RF amplifiers, regulators.
 MEDICAL APPLICATIONS: Fitness Machines, Medical Instrumentation, Laser
power supplies.
 SECURITY SYSTEMS: Alarms & Security systems, RADAR / SONAR.
 TELECOMMUNICATIONS: UPS, Solar power supplies, Wireless communication
power supplies.
 TRANSPORTATION: Magnetic levitation, trains & locomotives, trolley buses,
subways, traction control of electric vehicles, battery chargers for electric vehicles.
 UTILITY SYSTEMS: VAR Compensators, Supplementary energy systems (solar,
wind).

1.6 THYRISTORS: A thyristor is the most important type of power semiconductor devices.
They are extensively used in power electronic circuits. They are operated as bi-stable switches
from non-conducting to conducting state. The thyristors has four or more layers and three
or more junctions. The SCR is universally referred to as the thyristor.
1.6.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF SCR: The structure and symbol of SCR is shown in
figure 1.2. It is a four layered, PNPN switching device structure with three junctions J1, J2,
J3. It has three terminals, namely, the anode (A), cathode (K) and the gate (G).
When the anode is made positive with respect to the cathode, junctions J1, & J3 are
forward biased and junction J 2 is reverse biased. Thus the junction J 2 because of the presence
of depletion layer, will not allow any current to flow through the device. Only leakage current
of small magnitude flows through the device. This current is insufficient to make the device
conduct. The SCR is then said to be in the forward blocking state or off state.
When the anode is made negative with respect to the cathode, junctions J1, & J3 are
reverse biased and junction J 2 is forward biased. Thus the junctions J1, & J3 will not allow

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any current to flow through the device. Only leakage current of small magnitude flows
through the device. This current is insufficient to make the device conduct. The SCR is then
said to be in the reverse blocking state or off state.

Fig. 1.2: (a) Structure (b) Symbol

The width of depletion layer at J2 decreases with increase in anode to cathode voltage.
As this voltage is increased to a large value, the reverse biased J 2 will breakdown and this
phenomenon is known as due to avalanche breakdown. Since junctions J1, & J3 are already
forward biased, there will be a large amount of current f l o w i n g through the device from
anode to cathode. The device starts conducting and is said to be in conducting state or on
state.

1.6.2 STATIC ANODE CATHODE CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR:

An Elementary circuit for obtaining static V-I characteristics of SCR is shown in fig 1.3. Here
anode & cathode are connected to main source through a load. The gate and cathode are fed
from source Eg.
The Static V-I characteristics is shown in 1.4. Here, Va is the anode-cathode voltage and
Ia is the anode current. The V-I characteristics is divided into 3 regions of operations.

Fig. 1.3: Elementary circuit

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1. Reverse blocking region: When the cathode is made positive with respect to the anode
with switch S open, the SCR becomes reverse biased. In fig. 1.4, OP is the reverse blocking
region. In this reverse biased condition, outer junctions J1, & J3 are reverse biased and middle
junction J 2 is forward biased. Therefore, only a small leakage current (mA) flows. If the reverse
voltage is increased, then at a critical breakdown level called reverse breakdown voltage VBR,
an avalanche will occur at J1, & J3increasing the current sharply. If this current is not limited
to a safe value, the device may destroy. The region PQ is the reverse avalanche region.
2. Forward blocking region: In this region, anode is made positive with respect to the
cathode and therefore, junctions J1, & J3 are forward biased while junction J 2 remains reverse
biased. Hence the anode current is small forward leakage current. The region OM is known
as the forward blocking region when the device does not conduct.
3. Forward conduction region: When the anode to cathode voltage is increased with gate
open, avalanche breakdown occurs at junction J2 at a critical forward break-over voltage (VBO)
and the SCR switches into a high conduction mode. In fig 1.4, the VBO is point M, when the
device latches on to the conducting state. The region MN shows that as soon as device latches
to ON state, voltage across the device drops and suddenly very large amount of current starts
flowing the device. The region NK is called as forward conduction state.
When a gate-signal is applied, the SCR turns-on before VBO is reached. The forward
voltage at which the device switches to ON state depends upon the magnitude of gate current;
higher the gate current, lower is the forward breakover voltage. In fig 1.4, for IG=0, the forward
breakover voltage is VBO. For IG1, forward breakover voltage is less than VBO and for IG2 > IG1,
it is still further reduced.
Once the SCR is conducting, a forward current that is greater than the minimum value,
called the latching current (IL), the gate signal is no longer required to maintain the device in
its ON state. Removal of gate current does not affect the conduction of the anode current.
The SCR will return to its original forward blocking state if the anode current falls
below a low level, called the holding current (IH).

Fig. 1.4: V-I Characteristics

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1.7 TWO TRANSISTOR MODEL OF SCR: The operation of an SCR can also be explained in
a very simple way by considering it in terms of two transistors. This is known as the two
transistor analogy of the SCR. The SCR can be considered as an npn and a pnp transistor,
where the collector of one transistor is attached to the base of the other and vice versa, as
shown in Fig.1.5. This model is obtained by splitting the two middle layers of the SCR into
two separate parts.

Fig. 1.5: Two transistor analogy of SCR

It is observed from the figure that the collector current of transistor T1 becomes the base
current of transistor T2 and vice versa.

∴Ic1 = Ib2 and Ib1 = Ic2

Also, Ik = Ia + Ig (1.1)

Now, we have the relation from transistor analysis,

Ib1=Ie1−Ic1 (1.2)

Also, Ic1 = α 1Ie1 + Ico1 (1.3)

where Ico1 is the reverse leakage current of the reverse biased junction J2.

Substituting Eq. (1.3) in Eq. (1.2) we get

Ib1 = Ie1 – α 1Ie1 − Ico1

Ib1 = (1−α1 )Ie1 − Icol

From figure it is evident that the anode current of the device becomes the emitter
current of transistor T1 that is Ia = Ie1

∴ Ib1 = (1 − α1)Ia − Icol (1.4)

Also, Ic2 = α2 Ie2 + Ico2

From figure, it is also observed that the cathode current of the SCR becomes the
emitter-current of transistor T2. ∴Ik=Ie2
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∴Ic2=α2 Ik + Ico2 (1.5)

But

Ib1 = Ic2 (1.6)

Substituting Eqs, (1.4) and (1.5) in Eq. (1.6)), we get

(1−α1) Ia − Icol = α2 Ik+Ico2 (1.7)

Substituting Eq. (1.1) in Eq. (1.7), we get

1−α1) Ia − Ico1 = α2 (Ia + Ig) + Ico2

(1 − α1 − α2) Ia = α2 Ig + Ico2 + Ico1

[1 − (α1 + α2)] Ia = α2 Ig + Ico1 + Ico2

Ia = [α2 Ig + Ico1 + Ico2] / [1−(α1+α2)] (1.8)

Assuming the leakage current of transistor T1 and T2 to be negligible small, we have

Ia = α2 Ig / [1 − (α1+α2)] (1.9)

From Eq. (1.9), it can be analyzed that if (α1+α2) = 1, the value of anode current Ia becomes
infinite, that is, the anode current suddenly attains a very high value, approaching infinity.
In other words, we can say that the device suddenly latches into conduction (ON) state from
the non-conduction (OFF) state. This characteristic of the device is known as its regenerative
action. This can also be stated as the gate current Ig is of such a value that
(α1+α2) approaches unity value, the device will trigger. This turn-on condition {(α1+α2) ≥ 1} of
the SCR can be satisfied in the following ways:
(a) If the temperature of the device is very high, the leakage current through it increase, which
may then satisfy the required condition to turn it on.

(b) When the current through the device is extremely small, the alphas will be very small and
the condition for breakover can be satisfied only by large values of hole multiplication
factor Mp and electron multiplication factor the Mn. Near the breakdown voltage of
junction J2, the multiplication factors are very high and the required condition for breakover
can be obtained by increasing the voltage across the device to VBO, which will close the
breakdown voltage of junction J2.

(c) The required condition for breakover can also be realized by increasing α1 and α2. In
Fig.1.5, if a current Ig is injected into the base P in the same direction as the
current Ia across J2, the current gain of the NPN transistor can now be increased
independently of the anode to cathode voltage Va and current Ia because α2 depends on (Ia +
Ig) and α1 would still, depend on Ia. The total current gain will now depend on Ig and
independent means of breakover is obtained.

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1.8 GATE CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR: The circuit which supplies firing signals to the gate
must be designed:
(1) to accommodate these variations
(2) not to exceed the maximum voltage, and power capabilities of the gate
(3) to prevent triggering from false signals or noise
(4) to assure desired triggering

Fig. 1.6 shows the gate characteristics of a typical SCR. Here, positive gate to cathode
voltage Vg and positive gate to cathode current Ig represent dc values.

All possible safe operating points for the gate are bounded by the low and high current
limits for the V-I characteristics, maximum gate voltage, and the hyperbola representing
maximum gate power.

Within these boundaries there are three region of importance:

(1) The first region OA lies near the origin (shown hatched) and is defined by the maximum
gate voltage that will not trigger any device. This value is obtained at the maximum rated
junction temperature. The gate must be operated in this region whenever forward bias is
applied across the thyristor and triggering is not necessary.

(2) The second region is further defined by the minimum value of gate-voltage and current
required to trigger all devices at the minimum rated junction temperature. This region
contains the actual minimum firing points of all devices. In a sense, it is a forbidden region
for the firing circuit because a signal in this region may not always fire all devices or never
fire any at all. In Fig.1.6, OL and OV are the minimum gate-voltage and gate current limits
respectively.

(3) The third region is the largest and shows the limits on the gate-signal for reliable
firing. Ordinarily, a signal in the lower left part of this region is adequate for firing. For
applications, where fast turn-on is required, a 'hard' firing signal in the upper right part of
the region may be needed.

In Fig. 1.6 curves ON and OM corresponds to the possible spread of the characteristic
for SCRs of the same rating. For best results, the operating point S, which may change
from S1 to S2, must be as close as possible to the permissible Pg curve and must be contained
within the maximum and minimum limits of gate voltage and gate current.

For selecting the operating point, usually a load line of the gate voltage Es = OH is
drawn as HD. The gradient of the load line HD (=OH/OD) will give the required gate source
resistance Rg . The maximum value of this series resistance is given by the line HE,
where E is the point of intersection of lines indicating the minimum gate voltage and gate
current. The minimum value of gate source series resistance is obtained by drawing a
line HC tangential to Pg curve.

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Fig. 1.6: Gate characteristics of SCR

The SCR turn-on time can be reduced by using gate current of higher magnitude. It
should be ensured that pulse width is sufficient to allow the anode current to exceed the
latching current. In practice, the gate pulse width is usually taken as equal to or greater than
SCR turn-on time, ton. If T is the pulse width as shown in Fig.1.7 then, T ≥ ton
With pulse firing, if the frequency of firing f is known, the peak instantaneous gate power
dissipation Pgmax can be obtained as

Pgmax = VgIg = Pgav / f T (1.10)

where f = 1 / T1 = frequency of firing or pulse repetition rate in Hz and

T= pulse width in second

Fig. 1.7: Pulse gating

A duty cycle is defined as the ratio of pulse-on period to the periodic time of pulse. In the
Fig.1.7 pulse-on period is T and the periodic time is T1. Therefore, duty-cycle is given by
δ = T / T1 = f T (1.11)

From Eq. (1.10), Pgav / δ ≤ Pgmax (1.12)

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1.9 TURN–ON METHODS OF A THYRISTOR: A thyristor can be switched from a non-

conducting state to a conducting state in several ways described as follows:

1. Forward voltage triggering: When anode to cathode forward voltage is increased with
gate circuit open, the reverse biased junction J2 will have an avalanche breakdown at a
voltage called forward breakover voltage VBO .At this voltage , a thyristor changes from OFF
state to ON state characterized by a low voltage across it with large forward current.

2. Thermal Triggering (Temperature Triggering): In a thyristor, when the voltage applied

between the anode and cathode is very near to its breakdown voltage, the device can be
triggered by increasing its junction temperature. By increasing the temperature to a certain
value, a situation comes when the reverse biased junction collapses making the device
conduct. This method of triggering the device by heating is known as thermal triggering
process.
3. Radiation Triggering (Light Triggering): In this method, the energy is imparted by
radiation. Thyristor is bombarded by energy particles such as neutrons or photons. With the
help of this external energy, electron-hole pairs are generated in the device, thus increasing
the number of charge carriers. This leads to instantaneous flow of current within the device
and the triggering of the device. Light activated silicon controlled rectifier (LASCR) and light
activated silicon controlled switch (LASCS) are the examples of this type of triggering.

4. dv/dt Triggering: With forward voltage across the anode and cathode of a device, the
junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased, whereas the junction J2 becomes reverse biased .This
reverse biased junction J2 has the characteristics of a capacitor due to charges existing across
the junction. If a forward voltage is suddenly applied, a charging current will flow tending to
turn the device ON. If the voltage is impressed across the device is denoted by V, the charge
by Qb and the capacitance by Cj, then
𝒅𝑸 𝒅(𝑪𝒋𝑽) 𝒅𝑽 𝒅𝑪𝒋
ic= = =Cj +V (1.13)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
The rate of change of junction capacitance may be negligible as the junction capacitance is
almost constant. The contribution to charging current by the later term is negligible. Hence
the above equation reduces to

ic = Cj dv/ dt (1.14)

Therefore, if the rate of change of voltage across the device is large, the device may turn on
even though the voltage appearing across the device is small.

5. Gate Triggering: This is most common and efficient method to turn ON the SCR. In
laboratories, almost all the SCR devices are triggered by this process. By applying a positive
signal at the gate terminal of the device, it can be triggered much before the specified
breakover voltage. The conduction period of the SCR can be controlled by varying the gate
signal within the specified values of the maximum and minimum gate currents.

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For gate triggering, a signal is applied between the gate and the cathode terminals.
Three types of signals can be used for this purpose. They are either DC signal, AC signal or
pulse signals.

i) DC Gate Triggering: In this type of triggering, a dc voltage is applied between the gate and
the cathode of the device in such a way that the gate becomes positive with respect to the
cathode. When the applied voltage is sufficient to produce the required gate current, the
device starts conducting.

One drawback of this scheme is that both the power and control circuits are dc and
there is no isolation between the two.

Another disadvantage of this process is that a continuous dc signal has to be applied,

at the gate causing more gate power loss.

ii) AC Triggering: AC source is most commonly used for the gate signal in all application of
thyristor control adopted for ac applications. This scheme provides the proper isolation
between the power and the control circuits. The firing angle control is obtained very
conveniently by changing the phase angle of the control signal.

However, the gate drive is maintained for one half cycle after the device is turned ON,
and a reverse voltage is applied between the gate and the cathode during the negative half
cycle. The drawback of this scheme is that a separate transformer is required to step down
the ac supply, which adds to the cost.

iii) Pulse Triggering: This is the most popular method for triggering the device. In this method,
the gate drive consists of a single pulse appearing periodically or a sequence of high frequency
pulses. This is known as carrier frequency gating. A pulse transformer is used for isolation.

The main advantage of this method is that there is no need of applying continuous
signals and hence, the gate losses are very much reduced. Electrical isolation is also provided
between the main device supply and its gating signals.

1.10 TURN OFF METHODS: The term commutation basically means the transfer of current
from one path to another. In thyristor circuits, this term is used to describe process of
transferring current from one thyristor to another. It is not possible for a thyristor to turn
itself OFF; the circuit in which it is connected must reduce the thyristor current to zero to
enable it to turn-off. ‘Commutation’ is the term to describe the methods of achieving this.

Commutation is one of the fundamental principles the use of thyristors for control
purposes. A thyristor can operate in two modes: in OFF state i.e. open circuit, or in ON state
i.e. short circuit. By itself it cannot control the level of current or voltage in a circuit. Control
can only be achieved by variation in the time thyristors when switched ON and OFF, and
commutation is central to this switching process. All thyristor circuits, therefore, involve the
cyclic or sequential switching of thyristors. The two methods by which a thyristor can be
commutated are as follows:

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1. Natural Commutation: The simplest and most widely used method of commutation
makes use of the alternating, reversing nature of ac voltages to effect the current transfer. In
ac circuits, the current always passes through zero in every half cycle. As the current passes
through natural zero, a reverse voltage will simultaneously appear across the device. This
immediately turns-off the device. This process is called as natural commutation since no
external circuit is required for this purpose. This method may use ac mains supply voltages
or the ac voltages generated by local rotating machines or resonant circuits. The line
commutated converters and inverters comes under this category.

2. Forced Commutation: Once thyristors are operating in the ON state, carrying forward
current, they can only be turned OFF by reducing the current flowing through them to zero
for sufficient time to allow the removal of charged carriers.

In case of dc circuits, for switching off the thyristors, the forward current should be
forced to be zero by means of some external circuits. The process is called forced
commutation and the external circuits required for it are known as commutation circuits.
The components (inductance and capacitance) which constitute the commutating circuits
are called as commutating components. A reverse voltage is developed across the device by
means of a commutating circuit that immediately brings the forward current in the device to
zero, thus turning off the device.

The six basic methods of commutation by which thyristors may be turned OFF are:

i) Class A- Self commutation by resonating the load

ii) Class B- Self commutation by an LC circuit
iii) Class C- Complementary commutation
iv) Class D- Impulse or auxiliary commutation
v) Class E- External pulse commutation
vi) Class F- AC line commutation

1. 10.1 CLASS A- SELF COMMUTATION BY RESONATING THE LOAD: This is also known
as resonant commutation. This type of commutation circuit using L-C components in-series-
with the load are shown in Fig. 1.8.

Fig. 1.8: Class A commutation circuit

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In Fig.1.8 (a), load RL is in parallel with the capacitor and in Fig.1.8 (b) load RL is in
series with the L-C circuit. In this process of commutation, the forward current passing
through the device is reduced to less than the level of holding current of the device. Hence,
this method is also known as the current commutation method. The waveforms of the
thyristor voltage, current and capacitor voltages are shown in Fig. 1.9.

Fig. 1.9: Voltages and currents in class A (Load in parallel with capacitor)

The load resistance RL and the commutating components are so selected that their
combination forms an underdamped resonant circuit. When such a circuit is excited by a dc
source, a current of the nature shown in Fig.1.10 will be obtained across the device.

Fig. 1.10

This current, has zero value at the point K where the device is automatically turned
OFF. Beyond point K, the current is reversed in nature which assures definite commutation
of the device. The thyristor when ON carries only the charging current of capacitor C which
will soon decay to a value less than the holding current of the device, when capacitor C is
charged up to the supply voltage Edc. This simultaneously switches off the thyristor.

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The time for switching off the device is determined by the resonant frequency which
in turn depends on the values of the commutating components L and C, and the total load
resistance.
This type of commutation circuits are most suitable for high frequency operation, i.e.,
above 1000 Hz. This commutation circuit is used in series inverter.

1.10.2. CLASS B-SELF COMMUTATION BY AN LC CIRCUIT: In this method, the LC

resonating circuit is across the SCR and not in series with the load. The commutating circuit
is shown in Fig.1.11 and the associated waveforms are shown in Fig.1.12.

Fig. 1.11: Class B commutation circuit Fig. 1.12: Associated waveforms

Initially as soon as supply voltage Edc is applied, the capacitor C starts getting charged
and it charges up to the voltage Edc.

When thyristor is T is triggered, the circuit current flows in two directions:

1. The load current IL flows through Edc+ -- T -- RL -- Edc- -- , and

2. Commutating current Ic.

The moment thyristor is T is turned ON, capacitor C starts getting discharged through the
path C+ -- L – T – C- . When the capacitor C becomes completely discharged, it starts getting
charged with reverse polarity. Due to the reverse voltage, a commutating current Ic starts
flowing which opposes the load current IL. When commutating current Ic is greater than the
load current IL, thyristor T becomes turned off. When the thyristor is T is turned OFF, the
capacitor C starts getting charged to its original polarity through L and the load. Thus, when
it is fully charged, the thyristor will be ON again.

Hence, thyristor after getting ON for some time automatically gets OFF and after
remaining in OFF state for some time, it again gets turned ON. The desired frequency of ON
and OFF states can be obtained by designing the commutating components as per the
requirement. The main application of this process is in dc chopper circuits.

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1.11 GATE TRIGGER CIRCUITS:

1.11.1 Resistance firing circuit: The circuit in Fig.1 shows a simple method for varying the
trigger angle and therefore, the power in the load. Instead of using a gate pulse to trigger the
SCR, the gate current is supplied by an ac source of voltage eS through Rmin, Rv, and the
series diode D. The circuit operates as follows:

(a) As eS goes positive, the SCR becomes forward-biased from anode to cathode; however, it
will not conduct (eL=0) until its gate current exceeds Ig(min).

(b) The positive eS also forward biases the diode and the SCRs gate-cathode junction; this
causes flow of a gate current ig.

(c) The gate current will increase as eS increases towards its peak value. When ig reaches a
value equal to Ig(min), the SCR turns "on" and eL will approximately equal es.

(d) The SCR remains "on" and eL ≈ eS until eS decreases to the point where the load current
is below the SCR holding-current. This usually occurs very close to the point until eS = 0 and
begins to go negative.
(e) The SCR now turns off and remains off while eS goes negative since its anode-cathode is
reverse biased, and since the SCR is now an open switch, the load voltage is zero during this
period.

(f) The purpose of the diode in the gate-circuit is to prevent the gate-cathode reverse bias
from exceeding peak reverse gate voltage during the negative half-cycle of eS. The diode is
chosen to have peak reverse- voltage rating greater than the input voltage Emax.

(g) The same sequence is repeated when eS again goes positive.

Fig. 1.13: R firing circuit & associated waveforms

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The load-voltage waveform in Fig.1.13 can be controlled by varying RV which varies the
resistance in the gate circuit. If RV is increased, the gate current will reach its trigger
value Ig(min) at a greater value of eS making the SCR to trigger at a latter point in the eS positive
half-cycle. Thus, the trigger angle α will increase.

The opposite will occur if RV is decreased. Of course, if RV is made large enough the SCR gate
current will never reach Ig(min) and the SCR will remain off. The minimum trigger angle is
obtained with RV equal to zero.
As shown in Fig.1 the limiting resistor R(min) is placed between anode and gate so that the
peak gate current of the thyristor Igm is not exceeded. In the worst case, that is when the
supply voltage has reached its peak, Emax,
Rmin ≥ Emax / Igm (1.15)

The stabilizing resistor Rb should have such a value that the maximum voltage drop across
it does not exceed maximum possible gate voltage Vg(max) . From the voltage distribution,

Rb ≤ [(Rv+Rmin)⋅Vg(max)] / [Emax − Vg(max)] (1.16)

The thyristor will trigger when the instantaneous anode voltage, eS, is

eS = Ig(min) (Rv + Rmin) + Vd + Vg(min) (1.17)

where Ig(min) = minimum gate current to trigger the thyristor,
Vd = voltage drop across the diode,
Vg(min) = gate-voltage to trigger, corresponding to Ig(min).

The resistance trigger shown in Fig.1.13 is the simplest and most economical circuit.
However, it suffers from several disadvantages. First, the trigger angle α is greatly dependent
on the SCR's Ig(min), which, as we known, can vary widely even among SCRs of a given type
and is also highly temperature dependent. In addition, the trigger angle can be varied only
up to an approximate value of 90∘ with this circuit. This is because eS is maximum at
its 90∘ point and the gate current has to reach Ig(min) somewhere between 0−90∘, if it will if at
all. This limitation is that the load voltage waveform can only be varied from α = 0∘ to α = 90∘.

1.11.2. Resistance-Capacitance (RC) Firing Circuit of SCR (Half Wave): Figure 1 shows
the RC half wave trigger circuit. By the RC network, a larger variation in the value of the
firing angle can be obtained by changing the phase and amplitude of the gate current. By
varying the resistor Rv, the firing angle can be controlled from 0 to 180∘. In the negative half-
cycle, capacitor C charges through diode D2 with lower plate positive to the peak supply
voltage Emax. This capacitor voltage remains constant at Emax until supply voltage zero value.
Now, as the SCR anode voltage passes through zero and becomes positive, capacitor C begins
to charge through Rv from the initial voltage − Emax. When the capacitor charges to positive
voltage equal to gate trigger voltage, Vgt (= Vg(min) + VD1), SCR is triggered and after this, the
capacitor holds to a small positive voltage, as shown in Fig.1.14.

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Fig. 1.14: (a) RC firing circuit (b) Voltage waveform

During negative half-cycle, the diode D1 prevents the breakdown of the gate to cathode
junction. In the range of power-frequencies, the RC for zero output voltage is given by

RvC ≥ 1.3T / 2= 4 / w (1.18)

Where T = 1 / f = period of ac line frequency in seconds.

The thyristor will turn ON when the capacitor voltage equals (Vg(min) + VD1), provided
the gate current Ig(min) is available. Therefore, the maximum value of Rv is given by

eS ≥ Ig(min) Rv + eC (1.19)

=Ig(min) Rv + Vg(min) + VD1 (1.20)

OR Rv ≤ [eS − Vg(min) − VD1 ] / Ig(min) (1.21)

where eS is the instantaneous supply voltage at which the thyristor will turn ON. From
equations 1.18 and 1.21 the suitable values of Rv and C can be obtained.

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1.12 UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR (UJT): UJT is a three terminal, single junction device.
The three terminals are Emitter (E), Base 1 (B1) and Base 2 (B2). The UJT is always operated
as a switch and finds most frequent applications in oscillators, timing circuits and SCR /
TRIAC trigger circuits.

1.12.1 Basic operation: The basic structure of a unijunction transistor is shown in figure
1.15. It essentially consists of a lightly-doped N-type silicon bar with a small piece of heavily
doped P-type material alloyed to its one side to produce single P-N junction. The silicon bar,
at its ends, has two ohmic contacts designated as Base-1 (B1) and Base-2 (B2), as shown and
the P-type region is termed the emitter (E). The emitter junction is usually located closer to
terminal Base 2 than Base 1.

Fig. 1.15: Basic UJT structure

An interbase resistance RBB, exists between B1 and B2. RBB is essentially the resistance
of N-type bar. This interbase resistance is broken into two resistances, the resistance from
B1 to emitter, called RB1 and resistance from B2 to emitter, called RB2. Since emitter is closer
to B2, the value of RB1 is greater than RB2.

The operation of the UJT can better be explained with the aid of an equivalent circuit.
The UJT’s circuit symbol and its equivalent circuit are shown in figure 1.16. The diode
represents the P-N junction between the emitter and the base-bar (point x). The arrow
through RB1, indicates that it is variable.

The essence of UJT operation can be stated as follows:

(a) When the emitter diode is reverse biased, only a very small emitter current flows. Under
this condition, RB1 is at its normal high-value (typically 4 kΩ). This is the UJT’s “off” state.

(b) When the emitter diode becomes forward biased, RB1 drops to a very low value (reason to
be explained later) so that the total resistance between E and B1 becomes very low, allowing
emitter current to flow readily. This is the “on” state.
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Fig. 1.16: UJT Symbol and Equivalent circuit

1.12.2 Circuit Operation: The UJT is normally operated with both B2 and E biased positive
relative to B1 as shown in below figure. B1 is always the UJT reference terminal and all
voltages are measured relative to B1. The VBB source is generally fixed and provides a constant
voltage from B2 to B1. The VEE source is generally a variable voltage and is considered the
input to the circuit. Very often, VEE is not a source but a voltage across a capacitor.

Fig. 1.17: Normal UJT biasing

We will analyze the UJT circuit operation UJT equivalent circuit, shown in Fig. 1.18(a). and
utilize the UJT emitter-base-1 VE-IE curve shown in Fig. b. The curve represents the variation
of emitter current IE, with emitter-base-1 voltage, VE, at a constant B2-B1 voltage.

The “Off” state: If we neglect the diode for a moment, then RB1 and RB2 form a voltage divider
that produces a voltage Vx, from point x relative to the ground.

(1.22)

Where η is the internal UJT voltage divider ratio RB1/RBB called as the intrinsic standoff ratio.
Values of η typically range from 0.5 to 0.8 but are relatively constant for a given UJT.
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The voltage at point x is the voltage on the N-side of the P-N junction. The VEE source
is applied to the emitter which is the P-side. Thus, the emitter diode will be reverse-biased
as long as VEE is less than Vx. This is the “off” state and is shown on the VE-IE curve as being
a very low current region. In the “off” state, then, we can say that the UJT has a very high
resistance between E and B1, and IE is usually a negligible reverse leakage current. With no
IE, the drop across RE is zero and the emitter voltage, VE, equals the source voltage.

The UJT “off” state, as shown on the VE-IE curve, actually extends to the point where the
emitter voltage exceeds Vx by the diode threshold voltage, VD, which is needed to produce the
forward current through the diode. The emitter voltage and this point, P, is called the peak-
point voltage, VP, and is given by

VP = Vx + VD = ηVBB + VD (1.23)

where VD is typically 0.5 V.

The “On” state: As VEE increases, the UJT stays “off” until VE approaches the peak-point value
VP, then things begin to happen. As VE approaches Vp, the P-N junction becomes forward
biased and begins to conduct in the opposite direction.

Fig. 1.18 (a): Equivalent circuit for UJT analysis

Note on the VE-IE curve that IE becomes positive near the peak point P. When VE exactly
equals VP, the emitter current equals IP, the peak-point current. At this point, holes from the
heavily doped emitter are injected into the N-type bar, especially into the B1 region. The bar,
which is lightly doped, offers very little chance for these holes to recombine. As such, the
lower half of the bar becomes replete with additional current carriers (holes) and its resistance
RB1, is drastically reduced. The decrease in RB1 causes Vx to drop. This drop, in turn causes
the diode to become more forward biased, and IE increases even further. The larger IE injects

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more holes into B1further reducing RB1, and so on. When this regenerative or snowballing
process ends, RB1 has dropped to a very small value (2-25 Ω) and IE can become very large,
limited mainly by external resistance RE.

Fig. 1.18 (b): Typical UJT V-I characteristic curve

The UJT operation has switched to the low-voltage, high-current region of its VE-IE curve. The
slope of this “on” region is very steep, indicating a low resistance. In this region, the emitter
voltage VE, will be relatively small, typically 2V, and remains fairly constant as IE is increased
up to its maximum rated value, IE(sat). Thus, once the UJT is “on,” increasing V EE will serve
to increase IE while VE remains around 2V.
Turning “Off” the UJT Once it is “on,” the UJT‘s emitter current depends mainly on VEE and
RE. As VEE decreases, IE will decrease along the “on” portion of the VE-IE curve. When
IE decreases to point V, the valley point, the emitter current is equal to IV, the valley current,
which is essentially the holding current needed to keep the UJT “on”. When IE is decreased
below IV, the UJT turns “off” and its operation rapidly switches back to the “off” region of its
VE-IE curve, where IE = 0 and VE – VEE. The valley current is the counterpart of the holding
current in PNPN devices and generally ranges between 1 and 10 mA.

Applications of UJT:

Unijunction transistors are used extensively in oscillator, pulse and voltage sensing circuits.
Some of the important applications of UJT are discussed below:

(i) UJT relaxation oscillator.

(ii) Overvoltage detector.

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1.13 SYNCHRONIZED UJT-TRIGGERING (RAMP TRIGGERING):

Synchronized UJT triggering circuit is shown in Fig. 1.19. The diode bridge D1−D4 rectifies
ac to dc Resistor Rs lowers Edc to a suitable value for the zener diode and UJT. The zener
diode Dz is used to clip the rectified-voltage to a fixed voltage Vz. This voltage Vz is applied to
the charging circuit RC.

Capacitor C charges through R until it reaches the UJT trigger voltage Vp. The UJT
then turns "on" and C discharges through the UJT emitter and primary of the pulse-
transformer. The windings of the pulse transformer have pulse voltages at their secondary
terminals. Pulses at the two secondary windings feed the same in-phase pulse to two SCRs
of a full wave circuit. SCR with positive anode voltage would turn ON. Rate of rise of capacitor
voltage can be controlled by varying R. The firing angle can be controlled up to
about 150∘. This method of controlling the output power by varying charging resistor R is
called as ramp control, open loop control or manual control.

Fig. 1.19: Synchronized UJT triggering circuit

As the zener diode voltage Vz goes to zero at the end of each half cycle, the synchronization
of the trigger circuit with the supply voltage across SCRs is achieved. Thus the time t, equal
to α/ω, when the pulse is applied to SCR for the first time, will remain constant for the same
value of R. The various voltage waveforms are shown in Fig.1.20.

Fig. 1.20: Generation of output pulses

MOHAMMED SALEEM | Asst. Prof., Dept. of E & C, PACE 23