1.

(a) Define the following terms:

i) Current
ii) Voltage
iii) Conduction band

1. (b) Briefly explain semiconductor, conductor, and insulator with necessary energy band
diagrams.

1. (c) What is doping? How can you convert pure Si into P-type and N-type semiconductor?
Explain briefly.

2. (a) What is a semiconductor diode? Explain the forward biased and reverse biased
semiconductor with necessary figures.

2. (b) Determine the currents I₁, I₂, and I₃ for the given circuit (shown in the image).

2. (c) Write short notes on:

i) Photodiode
ii) LED
iii) Varactor diode

3. (a) Draw a full-wave rectifier, explain its operation, and also calculate its rectification
efficiency.

3. (b) Differentiate between a full-wave and full-wave bridge rectifier.

3. (c) What is the ripple factor, and why is pulsating DC called so?

4. (a) Draw inverting amplifier and non-inverting amplifier with necessary input and output.

4. (b) Draw and explain the operation of a summer circuit using op-amp with necessary
diagrams.

4. (c) Why is an operational amplifier called so? Explain.

1 (a). Definitions:

● Current: The flow of electric charge (usually electrons) through a conductor. Measured
in amperes (A).
● Voltage: The potential difference between two points in a circuit that drives the flow of
current. Measured in volts (V).
 ● Conduction Band: In solid-state physics, it’s the range of electron energies higher than
the valence band where electrons are free to move within the material, making electrical
conduction possible.

1 (b). Semiconductor, Conductor, and Insulator (with Energy Band Diagrams):

● Conductor: In conductors (like metals), the valence and conduction bands overlap,
allowing electrons to flow freely, leading to high conductivity.
● Insulator: In insulators, there is a large energy gap between the valence and conduction
bands, making it difficult for electrons to jump to the conduction band, thus exhibiting low
conductivity.
● Semiconductor: In semiconductors (like silicon), the energy gap between the valence
and conduction bands is small. At room temperature, some electrons can jump to the
conduction band, allowing moderate conductivity.

1 (c). Doping and P-type/N-type Semiconductors:

● Doping: The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor to change its electrical

properties.
● P-type Semiconductor: Created by adding a trivalent impurity (like Boron) to silicon. It
introduces "holes" (positive charge carriers).
● N-type Semiconductor: Created by adding a pentavalent impurity (like Phosphorus) to
silicon, which adds extra electrons (negative charge carriers).
2 (a). Semiconductor Diode (Forward and Reverse Bias):

● Semiconductor Diode: A diode is made from semiconductor material (like silicon) that
allows current to flow in one direction (forward bias) but blocks it in the opposite direction
(reverse bias).

2 (b). Determine Currents (I₁, I₂, I₃):

● Use Kirchhoff's Laws (KVL and KCL) and Ohm's law to calculate the currents. This
involves applying the voltage across the resistors and diodes to find the values of I₁, I₂,
and I₃. Since the exact values of diode forward voltage drop and resistor values are not
given, solving this requires assumptions or given data.

2 (c). Short Notes:

● Photodiode:

● LED (Light Emitting Diode): A diode that emits light when current flows through it in the
forward direction.
 ● Varactor Diode: A type of diode that acts as a variable capacitor when reverse biased.
Used in tuning circuits (like radios).

3 (a). Full-Wave Rectifier:

● Efficiency: The rectification efficiency (η) is calculated as the ratio of the DC power
output to the AC power input. For a full-wave rectifier, the efficiency is about 81.2%.
3 (b). Difference Between Full-Wave and Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier:

3 (c). Ripple Factor and Pulsating DC:

Pulsed DC (PDC) or pulsating direct current is a periodic current which changes in value but
never changes direction.
4 (a). Inverting and Non-Inverting Amplifier:

● Inverting Amplifier: The input is applied to the inverting terminal of the op-amp, and the
output is 180° out of phase with the input.

● Non-Inverting Amplifier: The input is applied to the non-inverting terminal, and the
output is in phase with the input.

4 (b). Summer Circuit Using Op-Amp:

● A summer circuit is a configuration where multiple input voltages are summed up at the
inverting or non-inverting input of an op-amp. The output is proportional to the sum of the
inputs. This is achieved using resistors with appropriate values at the inputs.

In this simple summing amplifier circuit, the output voltage, ( Vout ) now
becomes proportional to the sum of the input voltages, V1, V2, V3, etc. Then
 we can modify the original equation for the inverting amplifier to take account
of these new inputs thus:

However, if all the input impedances, ( RIN ) are equal in value, we can
simplify the above equation to give an output voltage of:

4 (c). Why Op-Amp is Called an Operational Amplifier:

1. Operational: The term "operational" refers to the various mathematical operations that
the amplifier can perform. These operations include:
○ Addition: Summing multiple input voltages (summing amplifier).
○ Subtraction: Differencing two input voltages (differential amplifier).
○ Integration: Calculating the integral of an input signal (integrator).
○ Differentiation: Calculating the derivative of an input signal (differentiator).
2. Amplifier: As an "amplifier," it enhances the amplitude of electrical signals. Op-amps
can take a small input voltage and produce a larger output voltage, making them
essential in signal processing.

Characteristics

● High Gain: Op-amps typically have a very high open-loop gain (often greater than
100,000), allowing them to amplify small signals effectively.
● Versatility: They can be configured in various ways (inverting, non-inverting, summing,
etc.) to perform numerous functions in electronic circuits.
 ● Differential Inputs: Op-amps have two input terminals (inverting and non-inverting) and
output one single-ended output, which allows them to process signals relative to each
other.

5(a) What do you mean by biased clipping? Draw a biased clipper circuit
and explain its operation in brief.

5(b) Differentiate between BJT and FET in terms of their functionalities and
usage.

● BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor):

○ Current-controlled device (base current controls the collector current).
○ High gain but lower input impedance.
○ Used in amplification where high current gain is needed.
● FET (Field Effect Transistor):
○ Voltage-controlled device (gate voltage controls the drain current).
○ High input impedance and low noise.
○ Used in applications where low power consumption and high input impedance
are important (e.g., RF amplifiers).

5(c) Draw the common emitter (CE) configuration of BJT. Establish the
relationship between current amplification factor of CE and CB.
6(a) What is rectifier and oscillator? Mention their importance in
electronics.

Rectifier

A rectifier is a circuit that changes alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). It only lets
current flow in one direction, "rectifying" the AC signal.

Types:

● Half-Wave Rectifier:
○ Uses 1 diode.
○ Allows only one half of the AC signal through (positive or negative).
○ Output is a pulsating DC with a lot of ripple (fluctuation).
● Full-Wave Rectifier:
○ Uses 2 or 4 diodes.
○ Allows both halves of the AC signal to be used.
○ Output is smoother than half-wave, producing better DC voltage.

Importance:

● Power Supplies: Converts AC from the grid to DC for electronics.

● Signal Processing: Used in communication to extract signals.
● Battery Charging: Converts AC to DC to charge batteries.

Oscillator

An oscillator is a circuit that generates a continuous, repeating signal, like a sine wave or
square wave.

Types:

● Relaxation Oscillator: Produces sharp, non-sinusoidal signals (like square waves).

Example: Multivibrator.
● Linear Oscillator: Produces smooth, sinusoidal signals (like sine waves). Example: LC
or crystal oscillator.

Importance:

● Clock Generation: Provides timing for computers and digital circuits.

● Signal Generation: Used to create sounds or test signals.
● Communication: Essential for generating carrier signals in radio transmissions.
●
6(b) Classify Oscillators in brief. Briefly explain the operation of an
oscillator with necessary block diagrams.

Classification of Oscillators

● By Output Waveform:
○ Sine Wave Oscillators: Smooth sinusoidal waves.
■ Examples: LC Oscillator, Crystal Oscillator.
○ Square Wave Oscillators: Rectangular waves.
■ Examples: Astable Multivibrator, Schmitt Trigger.
○ Triangle/Sawtooth Oscillators: Produce triangular or sawtooth waves.
● By Feedback Mechanism:
○ Linear Oscillators: Sinusoidal outputs using inductors/capacitors.
■ Examples: Colpitts, Hartley.
○ Relaxation Oscillators: Non-sinusoidal outputs.
■ Examples: Astable, Monostable Multivibrator.
● By Circuit Configuration:
○ RC Oscillators: Use resistors and capacitors (e.g., Phase Shift Oscillator).
○ LC Oscillators: Use inductors and capacitors (e.g., Tank Circuit).
○ Crystal Oscillators: Use quartz crystals for stable frequency.
6(c) Find the α\alphaα rating of the transistor and collector current from the
given configuration.
7(a) What do you mean by a load line? Briefly explain DC and AC load lines
with necessary diagrams.

● Load Line: The load line represents the possible operating points of a circuit on the
output characteristics of a transistor.
○ DC Load Line: It is drawn based on the DC supply voltage and resistance,
showing the maximum and minimum values of the transistor's collector current
and voltage.
○ AC Load Line: It considers both the AC signal and the DC operating point,
showing the dynamic operation of the transistor when an AC signal is applied.

7(b) What is cut-off, saturation, and Q point of a load line? Explain.

 ● Cut-off: The region where the transistor is fully off, with no current flowing from collector
to emitter.
● Saturation: The region where the transistor is fully on, and the current is at its
maximum.
● Q Point (Quiescent Point): The operating point where the transistor functions optimally
for amplification, usually in the middle of the load line.

7(c) How a transistor can be used as a switch, explain.

● A transistor switch operates in two regions:

○ Cut-off region: The transistor is off, acting as an open switch.
○ Saturation region: The transistor is on, acting as a closed switch. It can be used
in digital circuits to control current flow (on/off states).

8(a) What is α and β ? Find out their relation.

● α is the current gain in a common base configuration.

● β is the current gain in a common emitter configuration
8(b) How a transistor can be used as an amplifier? Briefly explain it.

8(c) Determine the output voltage of an integrator and differentiator for an

input of Vin=10sin4t.

● For an integrator: The output voltage will be the integral of the input signal.

● For a differentiator: The output voltage will be the derivative of the input signal.