Computer Fundamentals

Introduction
The term computer is derived from the word compute. A Computer is an electronic device that
takes data and instructions as an input from the user, processes data, and provides useful
information known as output. This cycle of operation of a computer is known as the input-
process-output cycle in fig 1.1. The electronic device is known as hardware and the set of
instructions is known as software.

Input Process Output

Data Information

Instructions
They have strengthened man’s powers in numerical computations and information processing.
Modern computers possess certain characteristics and abilities peculiar to them. They can :

I. Perform complex and repetitive calculations rapidly and accurately.

II. Store large amounts of data and information for subsequent manipulations.
III. Hold a program of a model which can be explored in many different ways.
IV. Compare items and make decisions.

History of Computers
The use of computing techniques is over 5000 years old. The Babylonians, Chinese, and Egyptians
had used numerical methods for the survey of lands and the collection of taxes as early as 3000 BC.
Computing history starts with the development of a device called the abacus by the Chinese
around this period. This was used for the systematic calculation of arithmetic operations. The first
accounting machine known as Pascaline was built by Blaise Pascal (a French Mathematician and
thinker) in 1642. Then came the Leibnitz Calculator developed by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz,
 a German philosopher and mathematician in 1671.

Abacus
.

During the beginning of the 19th century, Joseph Marie Jacquard a French textile manufacture
invented an automated loom operated by a mechanism controlled by punched cards. The Origin
of the modern computer can be traced back to 1834, when an English mathematician Charles
Babbage designed an analytical engine. This was considered the first programmable digital
mechanical computer.
Generations of Computers
 First generation (1940-1956)
 Second generation (1946-1963)
 Third generation (1964-1971)
 Fourth generation (1971-till date)
 Fifth generation (1980-Present)

First-Generation Computers
In this generation of Computers, vacuum tubes were used to build the circuitry for the
computers and magnetic drum was used for the memory of the computer. A vacuum tube was a
device made up of glass and used filaments to generate electrons. It was used to amplify the
electronic signals.
 Vacuum Tube
The first-generation computers used to perform calculation in milliseconds. They were the fastest
known computers of their time. The size of these computers was very large, and a single computer
was used to cover the space of an entire room. Since the size of the computers was very large, they
used to consume a great deal of electricity and generated a large amount of heat.

These computers were used to take inputs from punch cards and paper tapes and displayed the
results on paper as printouts. The Computers that fall under the first generation of computers are
ENIAC, EDVAC and UNIVAC. These computers were used for scientific calculations.

Second-Generation Computers
In the second generation of computers, transistors were used instead of vacuum tubes.
Transistors were invented in 1947 by John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Brattain. The
transistors were faster and more reliable than vacuum tubes. In addition, the size of the transistors
was smaller than vacuum tubes and they generated less heat as compared to vacuum tubes.

Transistors
The second generation computers used assembly language instead of machine
language. The use of assembly language helped the programmer to specify instructions in the
form of words. The task of the programmer thus become easier with the development of high-level
language like COBOL and FORTRAN. These computers use magnetic tapes and magnetic disks
as external storage devices. IBM 1620, PDP8 and CDC1604 are example of second generation
computers.

Third-Generation Computers
The third generation of computers were characterized by the development of the Integrated
Circuit (IC), which was developed by Jack Kilby, in 1958. An IC is a silicon chip that embeds an
electronic circuit, which comprises several components, such as transistors, diodes and
resistors. The use of ICs had increased the speed and efficiency of the computers to a significant
extent.

An IC

These computers used a keyboard, which is an input device, for accepting data from users and
displayed the output on the monitor, which is an output device. Examples of third generation
computers include IBM 370, PDP11 and CDC 7600.

Fourth-Generation Computers
The fourth generation of computers is characterized by the use of Large Scale Integration
(LSI) circuits and Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) circuits in the construction of
computing components. In fourth generation computers, LSI and VLSI circuits were further
integrated on a single silicon chip, termed as microprocessor, containing control logic and
memory. The fourth generation of computers had also seen the inceptions of several new operating
systems including MS DOS and MS Windows. Example of fourth generation computers is the
Personal Computer (PC).

A special characteristic of the fourth generation computers is the Graphical User

Interface (GUI), which is user-friendly interface that provides icons and menus. Various other
characteristics of the fourth generation computers are :

 These computers were smaller and cheaper than the computers of the previous generation.
 They were more reliable than the third generation computers.
  The fourth-generation of computers used high-level programming languages.

Fifth-Generation Computers
The fifth generation computers is characterized by the Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI)
technology, which is more powerful as well as faster than the microprocessors used by the
computers of the fourth generation.

Intel Microprocessor Chip

This generation of computers has also seen the introduction of optical disks, which have soon
emerged as a popular portable mass storage medium. These optical disks are popularly known as
Compact Disk-Read Only Memory (CD-ROM), as they are primarily used for storing data, which is
only readable.

Classifications of Computers
Computers can be classified into several categories :
 Microcomputer
 Minicomputer
 Mainframe Computers
 Supercomputers

Microcomputers
A microcomputer is defined as a computer that has a microprocessor as its CPU. The microcomputer
system can perform the following basic operations :

 Inputting --- It is the process of Entering data and instructions into the microcomputer
system.
 Storing --- It is the process of saving data and instructions in the memory of the
microcomputer system, so that they can be use whenever required.
 Processing --- It is the process of performing arithmetic or logical operations on data,
where data can be converted into useful information.
 Outputting --- It provides the results to the user, which could be in the form of visual
display and/or printed reports.
 Controlling --- It helps in directing the sequence and manner in which all the above
operations are performed.

Minicomputers
A minicomputer is a medium-sized computer that is more powerful than a microcomputer. An
important distinction b/w a microcomputer and a minicomputer is that a minicomputer is
usually designed to serve multiple users simultaneously. They are more expensive than
microcomputers.

Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers are those computers, which help in handling the information processing
of various organizations like banks, insurance companies, etc. Mainframe computers are placed
on a central location and are connected to several user terminals. Mainframe computers are
larger and expensive in comparison to workstations.

Supercomputers
Supercomputers are the most Powerful and expensive computers available at present. They are
also the fastest computers available. Supercomputers are primarily used for complex scientific
applications, which need a higher level of processing. Presently, some of the popular
manufactures of supercomputers are IBM, silicon Graphics, Fujitsu and Intel.

BASIC ANATOMY OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

A computer system comprises of hardware and software components. Hardware refers to the
physical parts of the computer system and Software is the set of instructions or programs that
are necessary for the functioning of a computer to perform certain tasks. Hardware includes the
following components :

 Input Devices --- They are used for accepting data on which the operations are to be
performed. Examples are keyboard, mouse, etc.
 Processor --- Also known as CPU, it is used to perform the calculations and
informations processing on the data that is entered through the input device.
 Output Devices --- They are used for providing the output of a program that is
obtained after performing the operations specified in a program. Examples are Monitor,
etc.
 Memory --- It is used for storing the input data as well as the output of a program that
is obtained after performing the operations specified in a program. Examples are RAM
(Random Access Memory), HD (Hard Disk), etc.

Software supports the functioning of a computer system internally and cannot be seen. It is
stored on secondary memory and can be an application software as well as system
software. The application software is used to perform a specific task according to
requirements and the system software is mandatory for running application software.
Examples of application software include Excel and MS Word and Examples of system
software include Operating System and Networking system.

INPUT DEVICES
Input Devices can be connected to the computer system using cables. The most commonly
used input device among others are :

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Scanner

Keyboard
A standard keyboard includes alphanumeric keys, function keys, modifier keys, numeric
keys, cursor movement keys, spacebar key, escape key, and some special keys, such as Page
Up, Page Down, Home, Insert, Delete and End.

Mouse
The mouse allows the user to select elements on the screen, such as tools, icons, and
buttons, by pointing and clicking them. We can also use a mouse to draw and paint on the
screen of the computer system. The mouse is also known as pointing device.

The mouse consists of two buttons, a wheel at the top and a ball at the bottom of
the mouse. When the ball moves, the cursor on the screen moves in the direction in which
the ball rotates. The left button of the mouse is used to select an element and the right
button, when clicked, displays the special options.

Scanner
A scanner is an input device that converts documents and images as the digitized images
understandable by the computer system. The digitized images can be produced as black and
white images, gray images, or colored images.

Scanner
In case of colored images, an image is considered as a collection of dots with each dot
representing a combination of red, green, and blue colors, varying in proportions. The
proportions of red, green. And blue colors assigned to a dot are together called as color
description.

There are following types of scanners that can be used to produce digitized images :
 Flatbed Scanner --- It contains a scanner head that moves across a page from top
to bottom to read the page and converts the image or text available on the page in
digital form. The flatbed scanner is used to scan graphics, oversized documents, etc.
 Drum Scanner --- In this type of scanner, a fixed scanner head is used and the
image to be scanned is moved across the head. The drum scanner are used for
scanning prepress materials.
 Slide Scanner --- It is a scanner that can scan photographic slides directly to
produce files understandable by the computer.
 Handheld Scanner --- It is a scanner that is moved by the end user across the page
to be scanned. This type of scanner is inexpensive and small in size.