Unit I: Introduction to Textile Fibres

1. Definition of Textile Fibres

A textile fibre is a material that is primarily long and thin, capable of being spun into yarn and
then woven, knitted, or otherwise made into fabric. Fibres are characterized by their length being
significantly greater than their diameter, allowing for flexibility and manipulation into various
forms. The definition and understanding of fibre are central to many industries, including
fashion, medicine, and technology.

Forms of Textile Fibres:

 Staple Fibre:
o Staple fibres are short in length, typically a few millimeters to several inches long,
depending on their origin (natural or man-made). The shorter the fibre, the more
difficult it is to spin into yarn. However, these fibres usually produce soft and
breathable fabrics, such as cotton or wool.
o Example: Cotton fibres range from 10-60 mm, while wool fibres can vary from 35
mm to 150 mm.
 Filament Fibre:
o Unlike staple fibres, filament fibres are continuous and long, often produced in
lengths of kilometers. These fibres can be natural, like silk, or man-made, such as
polyester or nylon. Filament fibres often result in smoother, shinier fabrics.
o Example: Silk filaments can extend to several hundred meters in length.
 Bicomponent Fibre:
o Bicomponent fibres are composed of two different polymers extruded together.
These fibres offer unique characteristics, such as enhanced strength, stretch, or
improved dyeability. They are used to develop fabrics that need special
performance properties, such as thermal bonding or self-crimping.
o Example: Some bicomponent fibres combine a polyester core with a nylon sheath,
enhancing the fabric's durability and elasticity.

2. Classification of Fibres

Fibres are broadly classified based on their origin and manufacturing process:

1. Natural Fibres: These fibres are derived from natural sources and do not require
extensive chemical processing. They are biodegradable and eco-friendly, but they come
with limitations such as susceptibility to pests and environmental factors like moisture.
Natural fibres are categorized into:
o Plant-based fibres:
 These fibres are primarily composed of cellulose, a natural polymer found
in plants. The most common plant-based fibres include:
 Cotton: Cotton fibres are obtained from the cotton plant's seed
hairs. They are highly absorbent and breathable, making them
suitable for clothing and home textiles.
  Jute: Jute fibres come from the stalk of the jute plant and are used
to make burlap, ropes, and sacks.
 Flax (Linen): Flax is derived from the stalk of the flax plant. It is
one of the oldest known fibres, valued for its strength and
durability.
o Animal-based fibres:
 Animal fibres are composed of proteins like keratin or fibroin. They tend
to be strong, elastic, and warm. Some common examples are:
 Wool: Derived from the fleece of sheep, wool fibres have natural
crimp, providing insulation and elasticity. Other examples include
mohair from goats and alpaca fibres.
 Silk: The most luxurious natural fibre, silk is produced by
silkworms and is prized for its smoothness, luster, and strength.
o Mineral-based fibres:
 Historically, fibres like asbestos were used for their natural fire-resistant
properties, though health concerns have limited their use today.
2. Man-made Fibres: These fibres are created through chemical processes. They can be
further divided into:
o Regenerated Fibres: Derived from naturally occurring polymers (e.g., cellulose)
but chemically processed into fibres. Examples include rayon and acetate.
o Synthetic Fibres: Made from petrochemical products, these fibres are fully
synthetic and offer excellent durability, chemical resistance, and versatility.
Examples include nylon, polyester, and acrylic.

3. Essential and Desirable Properties of Fibres

Understanding the properties of fibres is critical to choosing the right material for a specific
application. Fibre properties can significantly impact the comfort, durability, and functionality of
textiles. These properties are broadly classified into essential and desirable characteristics:

 Essential Properties:
o Length: Fibre length is crucial for spinning and processing. While staple fibres
require twisting for strength, filament fibres can be woven or knitted directly. For
example, cotton's short staple requires tight twisting to form strong yarn.
o Strength (Tensile Strength): This is the ability of a fibre to withstand pulling
forces without breaking. Strong fibres like nylon or silk are crucial for
applications requiring durability, such as industrial fabrics or parachutes.
o Flexibility: Fibres must be flexible enough to be twisted and woven without
breaking. More flexible fibres create softer and more drapable fabrics.
o Cohesiveness: The ability of fibres to cling together during spinning. Fibres with
surface roughness, such as wool, tend to have better cohesion compared to smooth
fibres like silk.
 Desirable Properties:
o Elasticity: Fibres like spandex or wool can stretch and return to their original
shape, a key property for materials used in activewear or stretch fabrics.
 o Moisture Absorbency (Hygroscopicity): Fibres like cotton are hydrophilic,
meaning they absorb moisture well, making them ideal for towels and summer
clothing. Synthetic fibres like polyester are hydrophobic and do not absorb
moisture, making them useful for outdoor and performance wear.
o Thermal Conductivity and Heat Resistance: Wool and other animal fibres tend
to have lower thermal conductivity, making them better insulators in cold
climates. High heat resistance is important in fibres used for industrial or high-
temperature applications (e.g., aramid fibres).
o Chemical Resistance: Some fibres, especially synthetics like polyester or
polypropylene, resist chemical degradation. This makes them suitable for
environments where exposure to chemicals, such as bleach or strong detergents, is
common.

4. Production and Cultivation of Natural Fibres

 Cotton:
o Production Process: Cotton is a seed fibre cultivated in regions with warm
climates. The cotton plant produces a fluffy white substance around its seeds
called the cotton boll. After harvesting, the cotton undergoes ginning to remove
seeds, and the fibres are processed into yarn.
o Physical Structure: Cotton fibres are flat, twisted ribbons under a microscope.
This natural twist contributes to cotton's spinnability and its soft, breathable
texture.
o Chemical Structure: Cotton is composed of 90% cellulose, making it highly
absorbent. However, cellulose is vulnerable to mildew and degradation when
exposed to moisture for prolonged periods.
 Silk:
o Production Process: Silk production, also known as sericulture, involves rearing
silkworms that feed on mulberry leaves. The silkworms spin cocoons, which are
then boiled to extract long, continuous silk fibres.
o Physical Structure: Silk fibres have a smooth, triangular cross-section, which
allows light to reflect at various angles, giving the fibre its characteristic sheen.
o Chemical Structure: Silk is a protein fibre composed mainly of fibroin. The
presence of amino acids in its structure imparts high strength, flexibility, and a
soft feel.
 Wool:
o Production Process: Wool is sheared from sheep, cleaned (scoured), and
processed into yarn. Different breeds of sheep produce wool with varying
characteristics, from fine merino wool to coarse wool used for carpets.
o Physical Structure: Wool fibres are crimped, which creates air pockets and
provides insulation. The crimp also helps in felting, where wool fibres lock
together under heat and pressure.
o Chemical Structure: Wool is made of keratin, a protein that also constitutes
human hair. Wool has natural flame retardant properties and can absorb moisture
without feeling damp due to its hygroscopic nature.
Unit II: Regenerated Fibres

1. Introduction to Regenerated Fibres

Regenerated fibres occupy a significant niche between natural and synthetic fibres. While
derived from natural polymers, primarily cellulose, they undergo extensive chemical processing
to achieve desired properties. The appeal of these fibres lies in their ability to combine the
favorable qualities of natural fibres with the versatility of synthetics, making them useful in
diverse applications.

Advantages of Regenerated Fibres:

 Sustainability: Most regenerated fibres, particularly cellulosic ones, are made from renewable
raw materials like wood pulp or cotton linters. In the case of Lyocell, the closed-loop production
process significantly reduces environmental impact.
 Versatility: These fibres can be engineered for specific properties, such as increased strength,
better moisture absorption, or improved drape.
 Cost Efficiency: Compared to natural fibres like silk or cotton, regenerated fibres can often be
produced more economically while offering similar properties.

Challenges in Regenerated Fibre Production:

 Chemical Use: The production of traditional viscose involves hazardous chemicals such as
carbon disulfide, which can harm both the environment and human health if not properly
managed.
 Processing Complexity: Regenerated fibres require sophisticated production techniques,
including precise control of chemical reactions and fibre extrusion conditions.

2. Production Sequence of Regenerated Cellulosic Fibres

2.1 Viscose Rayon

Viscose rayon, sometimes simply called rayon, is one of the most commonly used regenerated
fibres, primarily because of its silk-like feel and versatility.

Detailed Production Process:

1. Alkali Treatment:
o Cellulose, obtained from wood pulp or cotton linters, is steeped in a caustic soda
(sodium hydroxide) solution. This treatment swells the cellulose fibres and converts
them into alkali cellulose. This process increases the fibre’s reactivity and prepares it for
the next chemical steps.
2. Aging:
 o The alkali cellulose is aged under controlled conditions to reduce its degree of
polymerization, which affects the solubility and spinning characteristics of the viscose
solution.
3. Xanthation:
o Carbon disulfide is added to the alkali cellulose to form cellulose xanthate. This step
converts the cellulose into a more soluble derivative. Xanthation is a key stage in the
process, as it prepares the cellulose for dissolution.
4. Dissolution:
o The cellulose xanthate is dissolved in dilute sodium hydroxide, forming a viscous
solution called "viscose." The viscosity of this solution must be carefully controlled to
ensure smooth extrusion.
5. Maturation:
o The viscose solution is allowed to age or mature, which further adjusts the polymer
chain length and the solution’s viscosity. This stage is crucial for achieving the desired
properties in the final fibre.
6. Spinning:
o The viscose solution is forced through fine spinneret nozzles into an acidic coagulation
bath (usually containing sulfuric acid). In this bath, the xanthate is converted back into
cellulose, and solid fibres are formed. The shape and size of the spinneret holes can be
controlled to produce fibres of different cross-sectional shapes (e.g., round, flat, or
trilobal), affecting the fibre's texture and luster.
7. Stretching:
o The fibres are stretched while still in the bath, increasing their strength and aligning the
molecular chains. This stretching helps develop better mechanical properties, including
tensile strength and elasticity.
8. Washing and Bleaching:
o The fibres are washed to remove residual chemicals and impurities. Bleaching agents
may be used to whiten the fibres and improve their appearance.
9. Finishing:
o Various finishing treatments are applied to improve the performance of the viscose
fibres, such as softening agents to enhance hand feel or anti-wrinkling treatments.

Additional Properties:

 Moisture Management: Viscose has high moisture absorbency (up to 13% of its weight), making
it ideal for clothing in warm climates or activewear.
 Biodegradability: Since viscose is made from natural cellulose, it is biodegradable under
appropriate conditions.
 Weakness in Wet Conditions: Viscose rayon loses around 30-50% of its strength when wet,
which limits its use in applications requiring high wet strength.

Additional Applications:

 Viscose rayon is widely used in fashion fabrics, medical bandages, wipes, and other hygiene
products. Its softness makes it particularly well-suited for clothing like blouses, dresses, and
linings.
2.2 Acetate Rayon

Acetate rayon (also known as cellulose acetate) is produced by chemically modifying cellulose
using acetic acid. Unlike viscose rayon, acetate is thermoplastic, which means it can be softened
with heat and reshaped.

Detailed Production Process:

1. Purification of Cellulose:
o Highly purified cellulose is obtained, typically from cotton linters. The quality and purity
of the cellulose directly affect the final properties of the acetate fibre.
2. Acetylation:
o The cellulose is mixed with acetic anhydride in the presence of sulfuric acid, which acts
as a catalyst. This reaction replaces the hydroxyl groups (-OH) in the cellulose with
acetyl groups (-OCOCH3), forming cellulose acetate. This step is critical because it
determines the degree of substitution and influences the properties of the final fibre.
3. Hydrolysis:
o Partial hydrolysis of the cellulose acetate is performed to adjust the degree of
acetylation. The resulting cellulose triacetate or diacetate has varying degrees of
solubility and fibre properties.
4. Dissolution:
o The cellulose acetate is dissolved in acetone, creating a spinning solution that can be
extruded into fibres. Unlike viscose, the use of organic solvents means that acetate
production does not involve strong alkalis or carbon disulfide.
5. Spinning and Solvent Recovery:
o The solution is extruded through spinnerets into warm air or a water bath, where the
acetone evaporates, and solid cellulose acetate fibres are formed. Acetate production
often includes solvent recovery systems to reduce environmental impact.
6. Stretching and Drawing:
o The fibres are stretched to improve their molecular alignment and increase strength. As
with other fibres, the drawing process significantly affects the mechanical properties of
the final product.
7. Post-Treatments:
o Additional treatments can be applied, such as dyeing, to enhance the aesthetic qualities
of the fibre.

Additional Properties:

 Thermoplasticity: Acetate can be heat-set into permanent shapes, making it ideal for pleated
fabrics or garments requiring a polished look.
 Low Moisture Absorption: Acetate is less absorbent than viscose rayon, which makes it suitable
for applications where moisture resistance is necessary (e.g., linings, umbrellas).
 Sheen and Luster: Acetate's natural sheen and luster closely mimic silk, making it popular for
formal wear and lingerie.
Additional Applications:

 Besides apparel, acetate is used in specialty products like cigarette filters, photographic films,
and upholstery fabrics.

2.3 High Wet Modulus (HWM) Fibres: Modal and Lyocell

High Wet Modulus fibres are designed to retain strength and performance even in wet
conditions, an improvement over traditional viscose.

Modal:

 Modal is a form of viscose but with enhanced properties, particularly its strength and elasticity.
Produced primarily from beech wood, Modal fibres undergo an additional step in their
processing that makes them stronger when wet, reduces shrinkage, and improves softness.

Advanced Production Process:

 The process is similar to viscose production but includes mechanical stretching and enhanced
chemical treatment during spinning, leading to a fibre that has better alignment of its cellulose
molecules.

Additional Properties:

 Wet Strength: Modal is much stronger when wet than traditional viscose, making it more
suitable for towels and bed linens.
 Shrinkage Resistance: Modal fabrics are resistant to shrinking and can maintain their shape
after washing, unlike conventional viscose.
 Softness: The smooth surface of Modal fibres makes them exceptionally soft, even after
repeated washing.

Industrial Uses:

 Modal is commonly used in luxury bed linens, towels, undergarments, and activewear.

Lyocell (Tencel):

 Lyocell is a newer, more environmentally friendly form of regenerated cellulose fibre. Its
production process is distinguished by the use of non-toxic solvents and a closed-loop system,
meaning the solvent is recycled with minimal emissions.
Advanced Production Process:

1. Dissolution: Unlike viscose and acetate, Lyocell uses a non-toxic solvent (N-methylmorpholine-
N-oxide) to dissolve the cellulose without the need for harsh chemicals.
2. Extrusion: The cellulose solution is extruded through spinnerets into an air gap, where the
solvent evaporates, and the fibres solidify.
3. Solvent Recovery: Over 99% of the solvent used in Lyocell production is recovered and reused,
making it one of the most eco-friendly fibre production processes.

Additional Properties:

 Sustainability: Lyocell is considered one of the most sustainable fibres, made from wood pulp
and produced in a closed-loop process.
 Strength: Lyocell is known for its exceptional strength, both wet and dry. It is stronger
Unit III: Synthetic Fibres

1. Introduction to Synthetic Fibres

Synthetic fibres are man-made fibres produced from petrochemicals through polymerization
processes. Unlike regenerated fibres, which are derived from natural polymers like cellulose,
synthetic fibres are entirely man-made, with their polymer chains built from monomers through
chemical reactions. These fibres dominate the textile industry due to their strength, durability,
and versatility in both textile and non-textile applications.

Characteristics of Synthetic Fibres:

 Durability: Synthetic fibres are generally stronger and more resistant to wear and tear than
natural fibres.
 Moisture Resistance: They typically exhibit low absorbency, making them water-resistant and
quick-drying.
 Thermoplasticity: Many synthetic fibres can be heat-set, meaning they retain shapes like pleats
or textures when exposed to heat.

2. Production Sequence of Synthetic Fibres

Synthetic fibres are produced from petroleum-based chemicals, which undergo polymerization to
form long chains of repeating molecular units. These polymers are then melted or dissolved and
extruded through spinnerets to create fibres. Let’s break down the production processes of key
synthetic fibres: Polyester, Nylon, Acrylic, and Polypropylene.

2.1 Polyester

Introduction:

 Polyester is one of the most widely used synthetic fibres in the textile industry. It is produced
from petrochemical derivatives through the polymerization of esters. Polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) is the most common form of polyester.

Detailed Production Process:

1. Polymerization:
o The production of polyester begins with the polymerization of terephthalic acid (PTA)
and ethylene glycol (EG), which are derived from petroleum. The two compounds
undergo a condensation polymerization reaction, forming long chains of polyethylene
 terephthalate (PET). Water is a by-product of this reaction, which must be removed to
prevent it from reversing the polymerization.
2. Melt Spinning:
o The polymer is heated until it melts and then extruded through spinnerets to form
continuous filaments. The holes in the spinneret determine the diameter and cross-
sectional shape of the fibres. Polyester fibres can have various shapes, such as round,
trilobal, or hollow, depending on the end-use requirements.
3. Drawing and Stretching:
o After extrusion, the fibres are drawn or stretched to align the polymer molecules,
improving strength, durability, and elasticity. Drawing enhances the crystalline structure
of the fibres, giving them high tensile strength.
4. Crimping:
o To make the fibres suitable for use in fabrics, crimping is often applied. This process
gives the fibres a wavy structure, improving their texture and making them more
suitable for blending with natural fibres like cotton.
5. Post-Treatment:
o The fibres can undergo various post-treatments, such as dyeing or finishing, to improve
color retention, stain resistance, and other performance characteristics.

Chemical Structure:

 Polyester is a polymer of the ester functional group (-COO-) and has the repeating molecular
structure [-C6H4-CO-O-CH2-CH2-O-]n.

Additional Properties:

 Strength and Durability: Polyester is strong, resistant to stretching and shrinking, and maintains
its shape well.
 Moisture-Wicking: Due to its low moisture absorbency, polyester is often used in activewear.
 Wrinkle Resistance: Polyester fabrics resist wrinkling and do not require ironing, making them
ideal for everyday garments.
 Pilling: Polyester tends to pill over time, particularly in garments that experience friction.

Industrial Applications:

 Polyester is widely used in clothing, home textiles (e.g., curtains, beddings), and industrial
applications (e.g., ropes, conveyor belts, seat belts). Its low absorbency and strength make it
ideal for outdoor and sportswear fabrics.

2.2 Nylon

Introduction:
  Nylon was the first synthetic fibre developed and is known for its strength, elasticity, and
abrasion resistance. It is a polyamide, meaning its polymer chains consist of repeating amide
groups (-CONH-). Nylon is used in textiles, engineering plastics, and industrial applications.

Detailed Production Process:

1. Polymerization:
o Nylon is produced through condensation polymerization. Nylon 6,6, the most common
form, is synthesized from two monomers: adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine.
When combined, these monomers undergo a polycondensation reaction, forming long
chains of nylon polymer and releasing water as a by-product.
2. Melt Spinning:
o Similar to polyester, nylon is melted and extruded through spinnerets to form
continuous filaments. The spinning process is essential for creating fibres with a high
degree of uniformity.
3. Drawing:
o After spinning, nylon fibres are drawn to orient the polymer molecules. This increases
the strength and elasticity of the fibres.
4. Post-Treatment:
o Nylon can be crimped, textured, and finished to enhance its properties for various end
uses. Heat treatments are also applied to give nylon its thermoplastic characteristics,
making it suitable for use in products like molded parts or textured yarns.

Chemical Structure:

 Nylon has the repeating molecular structure [-NH-(CH2)6-NH-CO-(CH2)4-CO-]n for Nylon 6,6. It
is a polyamide polymer, where amide groups (-CONH-) are the key structural elements.

Additional Properties:

 High Tensile Strength: Nylon is strong and has excellent wear resistance, making it suitable for
products subjected to high stress or friction.
 Elasticity: Nylon exhibits good stretch and recovery properties, making it a preferred material
for hosiery, swimsuits, and sportswear.
 Moisture Resistance: Like polyester, nylon absorbs very little moisture, making it ideal for
outdoor clothing and gear.
 Abrasion Resistance: Nylon is highly resistant to wear and abrasion, which is why it is used in
industrial applications such as conveyor belts and parachutes.

Industrial Applications:

 Nylon is used in a wide range of products, including hosiery, ropes, parachutes, fishing lines,
carpets, and various engineering applications (e.g., gears, bearings, bushings).
2.3 Acrylic

Introduction:

 Acrylic fibres are derived from polyacrylonitrile (PAN), a polymer produced through the
polymerization of acrylonitrile. Acrylic is often used as a wool substitute due to its softness and
warmth.

Detailed Production Process:

1. Polymerization:
o Acrylic is made by polymerizing acrylonitrile, either through suspension or solution
polymerization. Additional monomers, such as vinyl acetate or methyl acrylate, may be
added to improve the dyeability and flexibility of the final fibre.
2. Wet Spinning:
o Acrylic fibres are typically produced using wet spinning. The polymer solution is
extruded through spinnerets into a coagulation bath, where the solvent is removed, and
the polymer solidifies into fibres. The fibres are stretched to orient the molecular chains,
increasing strength and elasticity.
3. Crimping:
o Acrylic fibres are often crimped to give them bulk and texture similar to wool. This
process makes the fibres more suitable for knitwear and upholstery.
4. Post-Treatment:
o Various post-processing treatments are applied to acrylic fibres to improve dye
absorption, fire resistance, and texture.

Chemical Structure:

 Acrylic is composed primarily of acrylonitrile repeating units [-CH2-CH(CN)-]n, though

copolymers with other monomers are often used to modify its properties.

Additional Properties:

 Softness and Warmth: Acrylic is often used as a substitute for wool due to its soft feel and
excellent thermal insulation properties.
 Lightweight: Acrylic fibres are lightweight, making them ideal for outdoor clothing and blankets.
 Pilling: Acrylic tends to pill, especially in garments that experience a lot of friction (e.g.,
sweaters).
 Flame Resistance: Acrylic is inherently flame-resistant, making it suitable for certain industrial
and protective applications.

Industrial Applications:

 Acrylic is used in knitwear, sweaters, blankets, upholstery fabrics, and outdoor gear. Its wool-like
texture makes it a popular choice for winter clothing.
2.4 Polypropylene

Introduction:

 Polypropylene (PP) is a thermoplastic polymer that has gained popularity due to its lightweight,
high strength, and resistance to moisture and chemicals. It is commonly used in textiles,
packaging, and industrial applications.

Detailed Production Process:

1. Polymerization:
o Polypropylene is produced through the polymerization of propylene, a by-product of
petroleum refining. This process involves the use of a catalyst (usually Ziegler-Natta or
metallocene) to convert propylene monomers into long polymer chains.
2. Melt Spinning:
o The molten polypropylene is extruded through spinnerets to form continuous filaments.
Polypropylene fibres are typically spun using melt-spinning techniques, which are cost-
effective and allow for large-scale production.
3. Drawing and Stretching:
o The extruded fibres are drawn and stretched to align the polymer chains, improving
their strength, elasticity, and durability.
4. Post-Treatment:
o Polypropylene fibres can be treated for specific properties, such as enhanced UV
resistance or flame retardancy. They can also be textured or crimped, depending on the
intended application.

Chemical Structure:

 Polypropylene is a polymer made up of repeating units of propylene, with the chemical

structure [-CH2-CH(CH3)-]n.

Additional Properties:

 Moisture Resistance: Polypropylene has excellent moisture resistance and does not absorb
water, making it ideal for outdoor textiles and geotextiles.
 Chemical Resistance: Polypropylene is highly resistant to chemicals, acids, and alkalis, which
makes it suitable for industrial and packaging applications.
 Low Melting Point: Polypropylene has a relatively low melting point compared to other
synthetic fibres, limiting its use in high-temperature environments.

Industrial Applications:

 Polypropylene is used in a variety of applications, including carpets, ropes, automotive interiors,

geotextiles, and packaging materials.
3. Comparative Analysis of Synthetic Fibres

Moisture
Fibre Strength Elasticity Durability Applications
Absorption

Apparel, outdoor gear, home

Polyester High Moderate Low Very High
textiles

Nylon Very High High Low Very High Hosiery, ropes, parachutes, gears

Acrylic Moderate Moderate Low Moderate Sweaters, blankets, upholstery

Polypropylene High Moderate Very Low High Carpets, packaging, geotextiles

4. Industrial Applications of Synthetic Fibres

Synthetic fibres are widely used in various industries due to their customizable properties. Some
key applications include:

 Apparel and Textiles: Polyester and nylon dominate the apparel market, particularly in
activewear, sportswear, and outdoor clothing. Acrylic is used in knitwear, while polypropylene
finds use in carpets and rugs.
 Automotive Industry: Nylon and polyester are used in seat belts, airbags, and interior
upholstery due to their strength and durability.
 Industrial Applications: Polypropylene is used in non-woven fabrics for geotextiles, medical
textiles, and industrial filters. Nylon is also used in conveyor belts, fishing nets, and parachutes.
 Home Textiles: Polyester and acrylic are popular for home textiles, including curtains,
upholstery, and bedding, due to their durability and ease of maintenance.
Unit IV: Specialty Fibres

1. Introduction to Specialty Fibres

Specialty fibres refer to a class of fibres that exhibit superior properties in terms of strength, heat
resistance, flame retardancy, chemical resistance, and other performance attributes. These fibres
are engineered for high-performance applications and are widely used in industries like
aerospace, defense, medical, and industrial textiles. Unlike conventional fibres, specialty fibres
are designed to meet specific technical requirements where ordinary fibres fail to perform.

Characteristics of Specialty Fibres:

 High Tenacity: Specialty fibres are often designed to have high tensile strength, enabling them
to withstand extreme stress and strain.
 High Modulus: Many of these fibres have a high modulus, meaning they are stiff and resistant to
stretching.
 Flame Retardancy: Certain specialty fibres are engineered to resist ignition and sustain
combustion at high temperatures.
 Chemical Resistance: Some fibres are resistant to a wide range of chemicals, acids, and alkalis,
making them suitable for industrial and protective applications.
 Thermal Resistance: Many specialty fibres are capable of withstanding extreme temperatures
without degradation.

2. Properties and End Uses of High Tenacity and High Modulus Fibres

High-tenacity fibres possess exceptionally high tensile strength, making them suitable for
applications that demand durability and resistance to mechanical stress. High-modulus fibres are
stiff and resistant to deformation under load. These fibres are often employed in technical
textiles, protective gear, and reinforcement materials in composite structures.

2.1 Aramid Fibres (e.g., Kevlar® and Twaron®)

Introduction:

 Aramid fibres are synthetic fibres characterized by their high strength, heat resistance, and
excellent impact resistance. They belong to the polyamide family, with the polymer chains
composed of aromatic rings that provide exceptional stability.

Properties:

 High Tensile Strength: Aramid fibres exhibit five times the strength of steel on a weight-to-
weight basis, making them ideal for high-performance applications.
 High Modulus: These fibres are highly stiff, meaning they resist stretching under load.
  Heat Resistance: Aramid fibres can withstand temperatures up to 500°C without melting.
 Flame Retardancy: Aramid fibres are inherently flame-resistant and do not propagate flames.
 Chemical Resistance: Aramid fibres show good resistance to most chemicals and solvents,
though they may degrade in strong acids or alkalis.

Production Process:

1. Polymerization: The production of aramid fibres begins with the polymerization of aromatic
polyamides (aramids). The most common polymers used are para-aramid (e.g., Kevlar®) and
meta-aramid (e.g., Nomex®).
2. Solution Spinning: The polymer solution is spun into fibres through a spinneret. For para-
aramids, the spinning is usually done in sulfuric acid to keep the polymer in solution.
3. Drawing: The fibres are drawn to align the polymer chains, enhancing strength and stiffness.
4. Post-Treatment: Aramid fibres are heat-treated and can be coated or treated for additional
properties like UV resistance or chemical protection.

End Uses:

 Personal Protection: Aramid fibres are widely used in ballistic-resistant vests, helmets, and body
armor due to their exceptional impact resistance.
 Aerospace and Automotive: These fibres are used in aerospace components, tires, and
automotive parts for their lightweight and strength.
 Reinforcement in Composites: Aramid fibres are used to reinforce plastics and other composite
materials, especially in industries requiring lightweight yet strong materials (e.g., aircraft wings,
sporting goods).

2.2 Ultra-High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE)

Introduction:

 UHMWPE fibres, such as Dyneema® and Spectra®, are high-performance polyethylene fibres
known for their extreme strength and low weight. These fibres are produced from ultra-high
molecular weight polymers that provide superior tensile properties.

Properties:

 High Strength-to-Weight Ratio: UHMWPE fibres are 15 times stronger than steel by weight.
 Low Density: These fibres are lightweight, making them suitable for applications where weight
savings are critical.
 Low Elongation: UHMWPE fibres exhibit low elongation under load, meaning they are highly
resistant to stretching.
 Chemical Resistance: These fibres have excellent resistance to chemicals, including acids, alkalis,
and organic solvents.
 Moisture Resistance: UHMWPE fibres are hydrophobic and do not absorb water, making them
suitable for marine applications.
Production Process:

1. Gel Spinning: UHMWPE is dissolved in a solvent and extruded through a spinneret. The gel-like
polymer is then cooled to solidify the fibres.
2. Drawing and Stretching: The fibres are drawn to align the molecular chains, which enhances
their strength and modulus.
3. Post-Treatment: The fibres may undergo heat treatment to improve their performance
characteristics, such as UV resistance or abrasion resistance.

End Uses:

 Marine and Industrial Ropes: UHMWPE fibres are used in ropes and cables for offshore oil rigs,
fishing, and marine applications due to their strength and durability in harsh environments.
 Ballistic Protection: These fibres are used in body armor and vehicle armor, where high strength
and low weight are essential.
 Medical Applications: UHMWPE fibres are used in medical implants, such as artificial joints and
sutures, due to their biocompatibility and wear resistance.

3. Properties and End Uses of High Temperature and Flame Retardant Fibres

High-temperature and flame-retardant fibres are engineered to withstand extreme heat without
melting or degrading. These fibres are critical for applications in firefighting gear, industrial
insulation, and aerospace components where high-temperature resistance is essential.

3.1 PBI (Polybenzimidazole)

Introduction:

 PBI fibres are high-performance fibres known for their exceptional heat and flame resistance.
They are often used in applications where continuous exposure to high temperatures is
required.

Properties:

 Extreme Heat Resistance: PBI fibres can withstand continuous exposure to temperatures up to
700°C without degradation.
 Flame Retardancy: PBI does not burn or melt and self-extinguishes when exposed to flame.
 Chemical Resistance: These fibres are resistant to a wide range of chemicals, including acids and
bases.
 Moisture Absorbency: PBI fibres are slightly hydrophilic, which makes them comfortable in
applications like protective clothing.

Production Process:
 1. Polymerization: PBI fibres are made by polymerizing tetraaminobiphenyl and diphenyl
isophthalate.
2. Solution Spinning: The polymer is dissolved in a solvent and spun into fibres using a spinneret.
3. Drawing and Heat Treatment: The fibres are drawn to align the polymer chains and heat-
treated to stabilize the molecular structure.

End Uses:

 Firefighting Gear: PBI is used in firefighter suits, hoods, and gloves due to its exceptional flame
and heat resistance.
 Aerospace Applications: PBI fibres are used in spacecraft and aircraft insulation materials that
must withstand extreme temperatures.
 Industrial Applications: These fibres are used in industrial filtration systems and protective
equipment for workers in high-temperature environments (e.g., foundries and refineries).

3.2 Carbon Fibres

Introduction:

 Carbon fibres are composed of carbon atoms bonded together in a crystalline structure. They
are known for their high strength, lightweight, and ability to withstand high temperatures.

Properties:

 High Strength: Carbon fibres have a tensile strength higher than steel while being much lighter.
 High Modulus: These fibres are extremely stiff, providing excellent structural rigidity.
 Heat Resistance: Carbon fibres can withstand temperatures up to 3,000°C in non-oxidizing
environments.
 Chemical Resistance: Carbon fibres are resistant to many chemicals, though they can oxidize at
high temperatures in the presence of oxygen.

Production Process:

1. Precursor Formation: Carbon fibres are typically made from polyacrylonitrile (PAN) or pitch-
based precursors.
2. Stabilization: The precursor fibres are heated in an oxidizing environment to stabilize the
molecular structure.
3. Carbonization: The stabilized fibres are then heated to extremely high temperatures (above
1,000°C) in an inert atmosphere, converting them to nearly pure carbon.
4. Graphitization: Further heat treatment at temperatures above 2,500°C increases the crystalline
structure and enhances the modulus of the fibres.

End Uses:
  Aerospace and Automotive: Carbon fibres are used in aircraft components, racing cars, and
sports equipment due to their high strength-to-weight ratio.
 Reinforcement in Composites: Carbon fibre-reinforced polymers (CFRP) are used in high-
performance applications like wind turbine blades and bicycle frames.
 Heat Shields and Insulation: Carbon fibres are used in heat shields for spacecraft and industrial
furnaces.

4. Chemical Resistant Fibres

Fibres that are resistant to chemicals play a critical role in industries where exposure to harsh
substances is common. These fibres are engineered to resist degradation from acids, alkalis,
solvents, and other corrosive agents.

4.1 PTFE (Polytetrafluoroethylene) Fibres

Introduction:

 PTFE, commonly known by the brand name Teflon®, is a fluoropolymer with exceptional
chemical resistance. PTFE fibres are used in applications that require resistance to aggressive
chemicals and extreme temperatures.

Properties:

 Chemical Resistance: PTFE fibres are highly resistant to virtually all chemicals, including strong
acids, bases, and solvents.
 Heat Resistance: PTFE can withstand temperatures up to 260°C.
 Low Friction: PTFE fibres have one of the lowest coefficients of friction, making them suitable
for applications where sliding or rotational motion occurs.
 Hydrophobicity: PTFE is highly hydrophobic, meaning it repels water and resists moisture
absorption.

Production Process:

1. Polymerization: PTFE fibres are produced by polymerizing tetrafluoroethylene (TFE) monomers.

2. Melt Spinning: The polymer is melted and extruded through a spinneret to form fibres.
3. Drawing and Heat Treatment: The fibres are drawn to align the polymer chains, enhancing
strength and stability.

End Uses:

 Chemical Processing: PTFE fibres are used in filtration systems, gaskets, and seals where
exposure to aggressive chemicals is common.
 Protective Clothing: PTFE is used in chemically resistant protective gear, such as gloves, suits,
and aprons.
 Medical Applications: PTFE is used in vascular grafts, sutures, and other medical devices due to
its biocompatibility and resistance to chemicals in the human body.
Unit V: Functional Specialty Fibres

Functional specialty fibres refer to fibres designed for specific, advanced functions beyond those
offered by conventional textile fibres. These fibres are developed to meet the needs of highly
specialized industries, including medical, environmental, and technical textiles. Functional fibres
can exhibit properties like biodegradability, super absorbency, elasticity, conductivity, and more.

1. Biodegradable Fibres Based on PLA (Polylactic Acid)

Introduction:

 PLA (Polylactic Acid) fibres are biodegradable and derived from renewable resources
like corn starch or sugarcane. PLA is a biopolymer produced through the fermentation of
natural sugars, making it an eco-friendly alternative to conventional synthetic fibres.

Properties:

 Biodegradability: PLA fibres decompose under industrial composting conditions,

breaking down into carbon dioxide, water, and organic compounds.
 Renewable Source: PLA is made from bio-based materials, unlike petroleum-based
fibres such as polyester and nylon.
 Moisture Management: PLA fibres have good moisture-wicking properties, making
them suitable for activewear.
 Low Melting Point: PLA has a relatively low melting point (around 170°C), limiting its
use in high-temperature environments.
 UV Resistance: PLA fibres show good resistance to ultraviolet light, which reduces
fading and degradation when exposed to sunlight.

Production Process:

1. Fermentation: Sugars from corn, sugarcane, or other crops are fermented to produce
lactic acid.
2. Polymerization: Lactic acid undergoes polymerization to form polylactic acid (PLA).
3. Melt Spinning: PLA is melted and extruded through a spinneret to form fibres.
4. Drawing and Crystallization: The extruded fibres are drawn to increase their strength,
and they are then heat-treated to crystallize and stabilize the polymer structure.

End Uses:

 Sustainable Textiles: PLA fibres are used in biodegradable fabrics for apparel,
disposable textiles, and non-woven materials.
 Medical Applications: PLA is used in medical sutures, drug delivery systems, and tissue
engineering due to its biocompatibility and degradability.
  Packaging: PLA is increasingly used in biodegradable packaging materials for food and
consumer goods.

2. Super Absorbent Fibres

Super absorbent fibres (SAF) are designed to absorb and retain large amounts of water or other
liquids relative to their weight. These fibres find extensive use in medical textiles, hygiene
products, and environmental cleanup applications.

Properties:

 High Absorbency: SAF can absorb many times their weight in liquids, making them
highly effective in moisture management applications.
 Swelling Capacity: As SAF absorbs liquid, it swells, increasing its volume significantly.
 Retention Capability: These fibres are designed not only to absorb but also to retain
liquid, preventing leakage even under pressure.
 Chemical Compatibility: Some super absorbent fibres are designed to absorb specific
liquids, such as oil or industrial chemicals, making them suitable for environmental or
industrial uses.

Production Process:

1. Polymerization: Super absorbent fibres are typically made from cross-linked polymers
like sodium polyacrylate or polyacrylamide, which are known for their absorbent
properties.
2. Fibre Formation: The polymer is spun into fibres using either wet spinning or melt
spinning processes.
3. Post-Treatment: The fibres may be coated or treated to enhance their liquid absorption
or retention properties.

End Uses:

 Hygiene Products: SAF are widely used in disposable diapers, sanitary pads, and adult
incontinence products due to their ability to absorb and lock in moisture.
 Medical Textiles: These fibres are used in wound dressings, surgical pads, and bandages
where absorption of bodily fluids is critical.
 Agricultural Applications: SAF is used in soil conditioning materials to retain water for
plants in dry environments, improving irrigation efficiency.
 Environmental Clean-Up: Super absorbent fibres are used in spill containment materials
to absorb and retain hazardous liquids, such as oil spills.

3. Elastomeric Fibres
Elastomeric fibres are stretchable fibres that can be stretched significantly and still return to their
original length once the tension is released. These fibres are essential in applications requiring
flexibility, comfort, and resilience.

Properties:

 High Elasticity: Elastomeric fibres can be stretched up to five times their original length
and return to their original shape without deformation.
 Lightweight: Despite their high stretchability, elastomeric fibres are lightweight and do
not add significant bulk to fabrics.
 Durability: These fibres are resistant to wear and tear, making them suitable for
applications that require repeated stretching and recovery.
 Resistance to Chemicals: Elastomeric fibres are resistant to many chemicals, including
oils, lotions, and detergents.

Types of Elastomeric Fibres:

 Spandex/Lycra: The most well-known elastomeric fibre, used extensively in sportswear,

underwear, and hosiery. It is a synthetic fibre known for its superior stretch and recovery.
 Rubber: Natural or synthetic rubber fibres are also used for their stretch properties,
although they are less common than spandex due to their lower durability.

Production Process:

1. Solution Spinning: Elastomeric polymers, such as polyurethane for spandex, are

dissolved in a solvent and extruded through a spinneret to form fibres.
2. Drawing and Heat Treatment: The fibres are drawn to orient the polymer chains, which
improves their elasticity and strength.
3. Post-Treatment: The fibres may be coated or finished to enhance their compatibility
with other fibres or improve their durability.

End Uses:

 Apparel: Elastomeric fibres are used in sportswear, swimwear, leggings, and

compression garments where stretch and recovery are crucial.
 Medical Textiles: These fibres are used in compression bandages, support stockings, and
surgical gloves.
 Industrial Applications: Elastomeric fibres are used in gaskets, seals, and flexible hoses
where flexibility and stretchability are needed.

4. Ultra-Fine Fibres
Ultra-fine fibres, also known as microfibres, have diameters less than 1 denier, making them
much finer than traditional fibres. These fibres are valued for their softness, flexibility, and
ability to trap fine particles.

Properties:

 High Surface Area: Due to their small diameter, ultra-fine fibres have a high surface
area, which enhances their ability to absorb liquids and trap dust or particles.
 Softness: Ultra-fine fibres are extremely soft and are often used in textiles where comfort
is important.
 Flexibility: These fibres are flexible and can be woven into dense, compact fabrics with
excellent drapability.
 Water and Oil Absorption: Microfibres can absorb both water and oil, making them
useful in cleaning applications.

Production Process:

1. Melt Spinning: Ultra-fine fibres are typically produced using melt spinning techniques,
where polymers like polyester or nylon are melted and extruded through fine spinnerets.
2. Splitting and Fibrillation: Some microfibres are produced by spinning bi-component
fibres and then splitting them into finer strands.
3. Finishing: Ultra-fine fibres may undergo special treatments to enhance their absorbency
or moisture-wicking properties.

End Uses:

 Cleaning Cloths: Ultra-fine fibres are used in cleaning products, such as microfiber
cloths and mops, which trap dust, dirt, and oil.
 High-Performance Fabrics: These fibres are used in sportswear, where moisture
management and breathability are key.
 Medical Applications: Ultra-fine fibres are used in medical wipes, wound dressings, and
filters for air and fluid purification.

5. Electrospun Nanofibres

Electrospun nanofibres are extremely fine fibres with diameters in the nanometer range. These
fibres are produced using electrospinning, a process that uses an electric charge to draw polymer
solutions into fine fibres.

Properties:

 High Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio: Due to their nanoscale dimensions, these fibres
have an extremely high surface area relative to their volume, enhancing their
functionality in applications like filtration.
  Porosity: Nanofibres form a porous structure that allows gases or liquids to pass through
while trapping fine particles.
 Mechanical Strength: Despite their small size, nanofibres can exhibit considerable
strength, depending on the polymer used.
 Biocompatibility: Electrospun nanofibres made from biocompatible materials are used in
medical applications, such as tissue engineering scaffolds and drug delivery systems.

Production Process:

1. Electrospinning: A polymer solution is subjected to a high-voltage electric field, causing

the polymer jet to elongate and form nanofibres as it travels to a collector plate.
2. Fibre Collection: The nanofibres are collected as a non-woven mat or in aligned
structures, depending on the application.
3. Post-Processing: Nanofibres may be functionalized or coated with additional materials to
enhance their performance characteristics.

End Uses:

 Medical Textiles: Nanofibres are used in wound dressings, drug delivery systems, and
scaffolds for tissue engineering.
 Filtration: Due to their high surface area and porosity, nanofibres are used in air and
liquid filters for applications ranging from HVAC systems to water purification.
 Protective Clothing: Nanofibres are incorporated into protective clothing for enhanced
breathability and particle filtration.