BPOPS103/203

Principles Of Programming using C

Module1:Chapter1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Prof.Rajeshwari R
AssistantProfessor,Dept.ofCSE
 What is computer?
A Computer is device that can automatically
performs a set of instructions. The computer takes
asinputtheseinstructionsasasingleunit,usesthem to
manipulate the data, and outputs the results in user-
specified ways. The processing is fast, accurate and
consistent, and is generally achieved without
significant human intervention.
HistoryofComputer
 COMPUTERGENERATIONS
Generation Basedon OtherFeatures

First. Vacuumtubes Magneticdrumsformemory

Magneticcores,disks,punchedcardsand
Second Transistors
printouts

Integratedcircuits
Third. Keyboard,monitorandoperatingsystem
(ICs)

Fourth Microprocessors Networking

ULSINano
Fifth Mainlyunclear
technology.
 VacuumTubes:TheFirstGeneration
 Memoryrequirementsweremetbymagneticdrums(forerunneroftoday's
harddisk).
 Becauseofthesizeofvacuumtubes,firstgenerationcomputerstookupa
lotofspace.
 Theyalso consumed enormous amounts ofpowerand generated alot of
heat.Inspite of housing these computers in air-conditioned enclosures,
frequent breakdowns were common.
 The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer ) used 18,000
vacuum tubes, occupied 1800 sq. ft. of room spaceand consumed 180KW
of power.
 Machinesofthisgenerationwereprohibitivelyexpensivetobuyand
maintain.
 First-generationcomputerswereprogrammedusingafirst-generation
language-machinelanguage.
 Programinputwasprovidedbypunchedcardsandoutputwasobtainedon
paper.
 First-generationcomputerswereonlyusedforscientificworkandwerenot
deployedcommercially.
 Transistors:TheSecondGeneration
 Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors were faster, smaller and
consumed less powersmaller magnetic coresalsoreplacedthefirst-
generation magnetic drums.
 Eventhoughtransistorgeneratedlessheat,second-generation
computersstillneededair-conditioning.
 Theinput-outputmechanismhoweverremainedlargelyunchanged.
 Second-generationcomputerswereprogrammedusingasymbolic
orassemblylanguage.
 Thecomputersalsoimplementedthestoredprogramconcept
whichallowedbothprogramanddatatoresideinmemory.
 Languages like COBOL and FORTRAN began to make their
appearance
 IntegratedCircuits:TheThird
Generation
 By virtue of miniaturization, computers consequently got smaller,
cheaperandenergyefficient.Forthesereasons,theycouldbeseen in
several medium-sized organizations.
 Thisgenerationadoptedakeyboardandmonitorto interactwith the
user.
 Memorycapacityincreasedsubstantiallyandthemagnetichard
diskwasusedforsecondarystorage.
 Third-generationcomputersalsohadanoperatingsystem,which is
aspecialprogrammeanttocontroltheresourcesofthecomputer.
 Byvirtueofafeatureknownastimesharing,thecomputercould
runprogramsinvokedbymultipleusers.
 Theexistingprogramminglanguagesweresupplementedby
BASIC,C,C++andJava.
TheMicroprocessor:TheFourthGeneration
 The integration of components went several steps ahead. Using LSI and VLSI
technology,itisnowpossibletohavethe entireCPU,itsassociatedmemoryand
input/output control circuitry on a single chip.
 Intel introduced the 4004 microprocessor in 1971 and improvement in the usual
parameters(likespeed,heat generation,size,etc.)continues atafreneticpaceto this
day.
 Microprocessorshaveinvadedourhomestodrivedesktops,laptops,smartphones,
microwave ovens and washing machines.
 Laptopsandsmartphonesoffergigabytes(GB)ofmemory compared toa few
megabytes (MB) that were available in the early days of this generation.
 Operating systems have moved from the rudimentary MSDOS to a mouse based
GraphicalUserInterface(GUI)likeWindows.MoreadvancedsystemslikeLinux are
now available for desktops and laptops, and a variant of it (Android) powers
most of our smartphones.
 There have been other sweeping changes in this generation. Laptops and
smartphonesofferFourthgenerationlanguages(4GLs),whichresemblenatural
languages, have also come into being.
 Thisgenerationhasalsomade a rapidstridesinnetworkingtechnology,sharingof
information, becamepossiblebyconnectingcomputersina networkusingTCP/IP
technology.
 ArtificialIntelligence:TheFifth
Generation
 The fifth generation represents a vision of the computers of the future. The
conventionalparameters ofcomputing(speed,size, energyconsumption,VLSI to
UL.SI, etc.) would continue to improve path-breaking changes in the way we use
computers are also expected.
 Fifth-generationsystems should be capable ofproducing human-likebehaviour.These
systems expected tointeract with users in natural languageand learn from experience.
Speech recognitionand speech output should also be possible withthese systems.
 Computer speeds need tomake an exponential jump, a feat that would be possible
usingquantum computers.Google's D-Wave2Xquantum computeris100 million
times faster than today's machines.
 Computersmust beabletoperform parallelprocessingsothatmultipleprocessors
concurrentlyhandledifferentaspectsofaproblem.
 Neuralnetworks andexpertsystems havetobedeveloped.Theseapplications would be
able to make decisions and advise humans by analysing data using human-like
intelligence but without using the services of an expert.
 Otherpossiblydisruptivetechnologies-likemolecularcomputingthatcouldtake
miniaturizationtomolecularlevels.
 COMPUTERTYPES
The computers can also be
categorizedbytheirsize.Thesizeof a
computer is often an indirect
indicator of its capabilities and the
applicationdomainswheretheyare
employed.
Thefollowingcategoriesarein
orderofdescendingsize
1. Supercomputers
2. Mainframes
3. Minicomputers
4. Microcomputers
5. Smartphones and
EmbeddedComputers
 Supercomputers
 Thesearehugemachineshavingthemostpowerfulandfastest
processors.
 AsupercomputerusesmultipleCPUsforparalleldataprocessing.
 Speedsaremeasuredinflop(floatingpointoperationspersecond).
 Thefastestsupercomputer(theTianhe-2)operatesataspeedof34peta
flops.(1peta=1000tera=1,000,000giga).
 Supercomputerscanhandlemultipleusersbutthat'snotitsunique
feature.
 Supercomputersaretoopowerfultobeusedfortransactionprocessing.
 Usedforweatherforecasting,analysisofgeologicaldata,nuclear
simulationandspaceexploration.
 They are also used to solve complex scientific problems
Supercomputers haveenormousstorage,withhugeamountsof power
and generate a lot of heat.
 Because of theirexorbitantcost, theyare mainlyused bygovernment
agencies
 Mainframes
 Thesearemulti-usermachinesthatcansupporthundredsorthousandsof
usersusingthefeatureoftimesharingsupportedbysystemslikeLinux.
 Usersinteractwiththissystemusingaterminalandkeyboard,whichisakinto
thewayweusePCs.
 MainframescanconcurrentlyrunmultipleprogramsevenwithasingleCPU.
 Theprocessorspeedinamainframeismeasuredinmip(millioninstructions
persecond).
 Mainframesaregenerallyusedtohandledataandapplicationsrelatedtothe
organization as whole.
 Themainframesareemployedtohandleonlinetransactions(stockexchange
transactions, for instance).
 Thecapabilitytohandlelargeamountsofdatamakesthemainframesuitable for
use in government, banks and financial institutions, and large corporations.
Note:
 Thesupercomputerisemployedtorunoneprogramasfastaspossible.
 Themainframeismeanttoservealargenumberofusers.
 Minicomputers
Minicomputers or midrange computers as they can be
consideredasdownsizedmainframessincetheyhavethe
essential features of mainframes.
Minicomputerscanservehundredsofusersandaresmall
enough to partially occupy a room. But they are not
affordable enough to be used in the home.
Theminicomputer,whichDigitalEquipmentCorporation
(DEC) introduced in the 1970s, is thus rightly positioned
between a mainframe and a micro-computer.
Minicomputersareusedinsmallerorganizationsora
department of large one captive machines of turnkey
equipment running specialized software.
 Microcomputers
 Themicrocomputerorpersonalcomputer(PC) introducedbyAppleand laterendorsed by
IBM.
 This computerisasingle-usermachinepowered byasinglemicroprocessor;Today's PCs are
very powerful machines having gigabytes of memory and a terabyte or two of disk
storage.
 Theyareusedbothinthestandalonemode(athome)andinanetwork(inoffice).
 A microcomputer takestheformofa desktop, notebook(laptop)ora netbook (smaller
Laptop).
 EventhoughaPC has asingleCPU,high-end PCssupport microprocessors comes with
multiple cores like the Intel Core i5 and i7 etc. Each core can be considered with some
approximation processor by itself.
 PCstodayarepoweredbythreetypesofoperatingsystemsWindows,MacOSandLinux.
 Businesses and individuals use the PC for word processing, spread sheet handling and
desktoppublishing;PCsalsosupportInternetbrowsingsoftwarelikeFirefoxandGoogle
Chrome.
 AllPCsaremultimediaready,theycanhandleimages,audioandvideofilesthePCisalso
anentertainmentdevice.
 Avariantofthemicrocomputeris theworkstationwhichessentiallyisamicrocomputer with
a more powerful processor, high resolution terminal and high quality graphic
capabilities (like CAD/CAM).
SmartphonesandEmbeddedComputers
• Smartphones:
• The smartphone is a general purpose computer that is
also capable of making phone calls.
• Thesmartphonehasapowerfulprocessor,usuallywith
multiple cores like the quad-core Snapdragon 820).
• It also supports gigabytes of main memory but doesn't
haveaharddiskforsecondarystorage.Thisrequirementis met
by flash memory (1.10.4).
• Smartphones today run well-developed operating system
(AndroidoriOS),andcanrunawiderangeof application
(popular called “apps”).
 Embeddedcomputers
 The embedded computer is a small computer-like that is
partofalargersystem.Embeddedcomputers(alsocalled
microcontrollers) arrived before smartphones.
 These are very small circuits containing CPU, non-
volatilememoryandinputandoutput handlingfacilities.
 They are embedded into many of the machines like
cars, washing machines, MP3 players and cameras.
 Theprocessorhereinasinglemodifiableprogramstored in
memories embedded computers can't match the
capabilities of a smartphone
 BITS,BYTESANDWORDS
Unit Equivalentto Remarks

1 kilobyte(KB) 1024bytes Spaceusedby10linesoftext.

Imegabyte(MB) 1024kilobytes MemoryoftheearliestPCs

1gigabyte(GB) 1024megabytes StoragecapacityofaCD-ROM

Iterabyte(TB) 1024gigabytes Capacityoftoday'sharddisks.

1petabyte(PB) 1024terabytes SpaceusedforrenderingoffilmAvatar

INSIDETHECOMPUTER
THECENTRALPROCESSINGUNIT(CPU)
 The CPUhas evolved from abulky vacuum tube
basedunitofthe 1940s toa modern5cmsquare
chip that is commonly called the
microprocessor, or simple processor. It
comprises the following components
 ArithmeticandLogicUnit(ALU)
 ControlUnit(CU)
 Specialpurposeregisters
 Aclock
 PRIMARYMEMORY
Theprimarymemorywhichincludesthefollowing types:
 RandomAccessMemory(RAM-SRAMandDRAM)
 Read Only Memory (ROM, PROM, EPROM,
EEPROM)
 CacheMemory
 CPURegisters
 SECONDARYMEMORY
Thelastcoupleofdecadeshaveseentheemergence of
multiple types of storage devices.
 Harddisk
 Magnetictape
 CD-ROM(700MB-lessthan1GB).
 DVD-ROM(4.7GBand8.5GB).
 Blu-raydisk(27GBand50GB).
 Flashmemorybased onthe EEPROM(1GBto128
GB).
 Theobsoletedfloppydisk(1.2MBand1.44MB).
 TheHardDisk
● Electro-mechanical data storage device that uses magnetic storage to
store and retrieve information using one or more rigid rapidly rotating
disks.
● Platterspairedwithmagneticheads,arrangedonamovingactuatorarm,
whichreadandwritedata totheplattersurfaces.
● Dataisaccessedinarandom-accessmanner
○ Individualblocksofdatacanbestoredorretrievedinanyorder
● Non-volatilestorage(dataretainedevenwhenpoweredoff)
 MagneticTape

 Theage-oldmagnetictapeis stillaroundthankstotheenhancementsthathavebeen made

to this device.
 Thebasictechnologyhasnotchangedthough;thetapeismadeofaplasticfilmwithone
sidecoatedwithmagneticmaterial.
 Theentire mechanismcomprisingtwospoolsandthe tapeisencapsulatedinasmall
cassetteorcartridge.
 Currenttechnologysupportscapacitiesof 1 TBormore,but200TB tapesareexpected to be
launched in the near future.
 OpticalDisks:TheCD-ROM,DVD-ROMandBlu-Ray
 Non-volatileread-onlymemory,whichwesawintheROMfamily(including
PROM, EPROM and EEPROM), is also available on optical disks. These
disks, comprising mainly the CD-ROM and DVD-ROM, can hold large
volumesof data (700 MB to 8.5 GB) on inexpensive media.
 TheBlu-raydiskenhancesthiscapacityto50GB.Alaserbeamintheir
drivescontrolsthereadandwritesoperations.
 Opticaldisksaremadeofcarbonate materialwithathinlayerortwoof
reflectivefilm.
 Alaserbeamisusedtoconstructpitsandlandsbyburning(writing)
selectedareasalongitstracks.
 CD-R,DVD-R–Datacanberecordedonlyonce,CD-RW,DVD-RW–Data
canberecordedmultipletimes.
 FlashMemory
 Theyareportable,needlittlepowerandarequitereliable.
 Thememorystickorpendriveisthemostcommontypeofflash
memoryusedonthecomputer.
 The solidstatedisk(SSD)a biggerdevicemeant to replace the
traditional magnetic hard disk. Many small laptops (like Chrome
books) have the operating system and a small set of programs
stored on this online device.
 Thethirddevice,themagneticcard,isusedmainlyincameras, but
using adapters,they can connect to theUSB port as well.
 FloppyDiskette
 The floppy diskette was once the only form of
portablestoragethatcould becarriedinthepocket.
 A read/writeheadactuallymakescontactwiththis
disk while it is rotating.
 The floppy was available in two sizes (5.25"and
3.5"),offeringcapacitiesof1.2MB and1.44MB(yes, MB
not GB), respectively.
Quiz
Inputdevices,Outputdevices
WHYCOMPUTERSNEEDSOFTWARE
Softwareisacollectionofcodethatdrivesacomputerto perform a
related group of tasks.
SOFTWARETYPES
• Systemsoftware
▫BasicInputOutputSystem(BIOS)
▫Operatingsystem
▫Devicedriver
▫Compilersandassociatedprograms
• Applicationsoftware
▫Officesoftware
▫Databasesoftware
▫Communicationssoftware
▫Entertainmentsoftware
Featuresofsystem software:
1. SystemSoftwareisclosertothecomputersystem.
2. System Softwareiswritteninalow-levellanguageingeneral.
3. Systemsoftwareisdifficulttodesignandunderstand.
4. Systemsoftwareisfastinspeed(workingspeed).
5. System software isless interactive fortheusers incomparison to
application software.

FeaturesofApplicationsoftware:
1. Animportantfeatureofapplicationsoftwareisitperformsmore
specializedtaskslikewordprocessing,spreadsheets,email,etc.
2. Mostly,thesizeofthesoftwareisbig,soitrequiresmorestoragespace.
3. Application software ismoreinteractive fortheusers,soitis easytouse and
design.
4. Theapplicationsoftwareiseasytodesignandunderstand.
5. Applicationsoftwareiswritteninahigh-levellanguageingeneral.