Finite Mathematics Chapter 3 Second course

3. Polynomials function
Definition: A function defined by
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + a2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 ; 𝑎0 ≠ 0 Where 𝑛 is non negative integer, 𝑎𝑖 (𝑖 =
0,1,2, … , 𝑛) are real constants is called a polynomial of degree 𝑛 in 𝑥 ,denoted by [𝑃𝑛 (𝑥)]. The numbers
𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are called the coefficients of 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑎0 𝑖s called the leading coefficient, 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 is called the leading
term.
Example:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 7 + 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 − 𝑥 5
Note: If 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are equal zero, then the polynomial is called zero polynomial.
Note that:
• monomial—A polynomial with exactly one term is called a monomial.
• binomial—A polynomial with exactly two terms is called a binomial.
• trinomial—A polynomial with exactly three terms is called a trinomial.
Then we can define Polynomial: monomial, or two or more monomials combined by addition or subtraction, is
a polynomial.

Properties:
1. Equating of two polynomials.
Two polynomials are equals when the coefficients of corresponding powers are equals.
That is if

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + a2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛

And
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + a2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) ⇔ 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑏𝑖 for 𝑖 = 0,1, … , 𝑛

1- Add and subtract polynomials.

𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑎0 ± 𝑏0 )𝑥 𝑛 + (𝑎1 ± 𝑏1 )𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + (𝑎𝑛 ± 𝑏𝑛 )

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Example:

Exabmple:

Note: 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 (𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) ∓ 𝐺𝑛 (𝑥) ≤ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓[𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥), 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐺𝑛 (𝑥) ]

Note: degree of 𝑝𝑛 (𝑥). 𝑔𝑚 (𝑥) = 𝑛 + 𝑚

2- Division
If 𝑓(𝑥)and 𝑔(𝑥)e two polynomials of degree 𝑛 and 𝑚 respectively and 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0, then there exist two
polynomials 𝑞(𝑥)and 𝑟(𝑥) where deg(𝑟(𝑥)) = 0 or 𝑑𝑒𝑔 (𝑟(𝑥)) < 𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑔(𝑥)).

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑟(𝑥)
= 𝑞(𝑥) +
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)
or
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑞(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥)
𝑞(𝑥) is called quotient, 𝑟 is reminder.
Note:
❖ If deg 𝑓(𝑥) < deg 𝑔(𝑥) ⟶ 𝑞(𝑥) = 0 and 𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
❖ If 𝑟(𝑥) = 0 it means 𝑓(𝑥)is divisible by 𝑔(𝑥)

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Definition: A constant 𝛼 is called zero of polynomial 𝑝𝑛 (𝑥) iff 𝑓(𝛼) = 0(root of 𝑓(𝑥))
Example:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 − 4𝑥, 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3
Find 𝑞(𝑥)and 𝑟(𝑥)

Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 58 − 8, 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3.

Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 ,𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1.

Example: Divide 5𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 1 by 𝑥 − 3
Solution:

5𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 1 = (𝑥 − 3)(5𝑥 2 + 13𝑥 + 39) + 118

Example:
Divide 𝑥 3 + 8 by 𝑥 + 2, then find 𝑓(−2)
Solution:
𝑥 3 + 8 = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4)

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Example:
Find all possible roots of 𝑥 3 + 8 = 0

Remainder Theorem:
Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) is a polynomial of degree at least 1 and 𝑐 is a real number, when 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑ivide by (𝑥 − 𝑐) the
remainder is 𝑓(𝑐).

Note:
If 𝑟(𝑥) = 0 then 𝑓(𝑐) = 0 it means 𝑐 is zero of 𝑓(𝑥).
**************************************************************************final exam

The factor Theorem:

Suppose that 𝑓(𝑥) is non zero polynomial. the real number 𝑐 is a zero of 𝑓(𝑥) iff (𝑥 − 𝑐) is a factor of p.

The factor Theorem: when 𝑓(𝑐) = 0 then (𝑥 − 𝑐) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) or when (𝑥 − 𝑐) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥)
then 𝑓(𝑐) = 0
Example:
Divide 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 14 by 𝑥 − 2

𝑥−2 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 14

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𝑟(𝑥) = 0 ⟶ 𝑓(𝑐) = 0 ⟶ 𝑓(2) = 0

𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 14 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 7).

Synthetic division (the division check for a linear divisor)

The quotient and reminder in the division by 𝑥 − 𝑐 can be find as
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑟(𝑥)
= 𝑞(𝑥) +
𝑥−𝑐 𝑥−𝑐
𝑓(𝑥) is polynomial of degree 𝑛.

𝑐 𝑎0 𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑛
𝑐𝑎0 …. 𝑐𝑎𝑛
𝑎0 =𝑏0 𝑏1 …. 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑟
Then 𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑏0 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛−1 and 𝑟 is remainder.

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Theorem: The fundamental theorem of algebra

Every polynomial function of degree 𝑛 ≥ 1 has at least one zero.

Theorem: Every polynomial of degree 𝑛 has 𝑛 and only 𝑛 zeros.

Note: 𝐼𝑓 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 , … , 𝛼𝑛 are 𝑛 roots of 𝑝𝑛 (𝑥)then
𝑝𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑎0 (𝑥 − 𝛼1 )(𝑥 − 𝛼2 ) … (𝑥 − 𝛼𝑛 ).

Example:
Find polynomial of degree 2 has two roots −1and 1.
Solution:

Example:
Find polynomial of degree 2 has roots −1, −1,2, −2.
Solution:

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Theorem:
If the equation 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + a2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 = 0,where 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are real numbers 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 has a
complex root 𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽, then it also has a complex root 𝛼 − 𝑖𝛽(it means complex roots occur in conjugate
pair for polynomial equation with real coefficients.

Creating polynomial function when given zero’s

Example:
Find an n-th degree polynomial function where 𝑛 = 3, 2 + 3𝑖and 4 are zeros; 𝑓(3) = −20.
Solution:

Example:
Use the given root to find all of the roots of the polynomial equation 5𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 6 = 0; (1 + 𝑖)is
a root.
Solution:

H.W

1- solve 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 35 = 0, given that 2 + 𝑖√3 is a root.

The upper and the lower bound of real roots

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upper Bound:
if you divide polynomial function 𝑓(𝑥) by (𝑥 − 𝑐) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐 >0, using synthetic division and this yields all
positive, then 𝑐 is an upper bound to the real roots of the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.
Note that: two things must occur for 𝑐 to be an upper bound is
1- 𝑐 > 0,
2- all the coefficients of the quotient as well as remainder are positive.

Lower Bound:
if you divide polynomial function 𝑓(𝑥) by (𝑥 − 𝑐) where 𝑐 < 0, using synthetic division and these yields
alternating signs, then 𝑐 is an lower bound to the real roots of the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.
Note:
Zero can be either positive or negative
− + 0 + −, alternative signs
− + − 0 + − alternative signs
− + 0 − + not alternative signs

Example:
Find upper and lower bound of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2.
𝐴𝑛𝑠: 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 , −3 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

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Example:
show that all roots of the equation 𝑥 5 − 5𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 20 = 0 lie between −4, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4.
Show that −4 is a lower bound and 4 is an upper bound for real roots of the given equation.

-4 1 0 -5 10 12 -20
-4 16 -44 216 -912
1 -4 11 -54 228 -932

Note that: 𝑐 = − 4 < 0 and Signs in the bottom row of our synthetic division alternative
Hence -4 is a lower bound for the real roots of the equation

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-4 1 0 -5 10 12 -20
4 16 44 136 542
1 4 11 34 148 572

Note that: 𝑐 = 4 > 0 and Signs in the bottom row of our synthetic division positive
Hence 4 is a upper bound for the real roots of the equation

Test
1-

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Finite Mathematics Chapter 3 Second course

2-

https://www.nagwa.com/en/worksheets/529109865759/
Highest Common divisor of two polynomials
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Two polynomials may be divisible by the same third polynomial, which is called their common divisor
The greatest common divisor of two Polynormal is a polynomial that is a factor of both the two original
polynomials
Let two given polynomials be 𝑓 and 𝑓1
𝑓 = 𝑓1 𝑞1 + 𝑓2 𝑞1 is quotient and 𝑓2 is remainder
If 𝑓2 = 0 → 𝑓1 𝑖𝑠 𝑔. 𝑐. 𝑑 of 𝑓 and 𝑓1
𝑖𝑓 𝑓2 ≠ 0 then 𝑓1 = 𝑞2 𝑓2 + 𝑓3
If 𝑓3 = 0 then 𝑓2 is 𝑔. 𝑐. 𝑑
If 𝑓3 ≠ 0 then 𝑓2 = 𝑓3 𝑞3 + 𝑓4
⋮
𝑓𝑟−1 = 𝑓𝑟 𝑞𝑟 + 𝑓𝑟+1
If 𝑓𝑟+1 = 0 → 𝑓𝑟 is 𝑔. 𝑐. 𝑑 between 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓1 .

Example: Find the highest common divisor of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 6 + 2𝑥 5 + 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2

𝑓1 = 𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2

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Relation between roots and coefficients of any polynomial equation

Consider the poly nominal function𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 ; 𝑎0 ≠ 0 (1)
And Let 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , … , 𝛼𝑛 be the roots of𝑓(𝑥) = 0
Then We can write𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 (𝑥 − 𝛼1 )(𝑥 − 𝛼2 )(𝑥 − 𝛼3 ) … (𝑥 − 𝛼𝑛 ) (2)
Equating 𝑓(𝑥)in equation (1) and (2)
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
And dividing by 𝑎0 we obtain 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎 1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 = (𝑥 − 𝛼1 )(𝑥 − 𝛼𝑛 ) … (𝑥 − 𝛼𝑛 )
𝜎 0 0

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= 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑠1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑠2 𝑥 𝑛−2 − ⋯ + (−1)𝑛 𝑠𝑛 𝑐

Comparing the coefficient both sides we see that
−𝑎1 𝑎 𝑎𝑛
𝑠1 = , 𝑠2 2 , … 𝑆𝑛 = (−1)𝑛
𝑎0 𝑎0 𝑎0

Example: Solve the equation 3𝑥 3 − 16𝑥 2 + 23𝑥 − 6 = 0 if the product of two roots is1.
Solution:

Example:
Solve the equation 𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 + 14𝑥 + 24 = 0 given that two of whose roots are in ratio 14𝑥 + 24 = 0 given
that two of whose roots are in ratio 3:2.
Solution:

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Special Cases:
−𝑎1 𝑎2
If 𝛼1 and 𝛼2 are the roots of 𝑎0 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 = 0 then 𝛼1 + 𝛼2 = 𝑎0
and 𝛼1 𝛼2 =
𝑎0

If 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 and 𝛼3 are the roots of 𝑎0 𝑥 3 + 𝑎1 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎3 = 0 then

−𝑎1
𝛼1 + 𝛼2 + 𝛼3 =
𝑎0

and
𝑎2
𝛼1 𝛼2 + 𝛼2 𝛼3 + 𝛼3 𝛼1 =
𝑎0
𝑎3
𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 = −
𝑎0

If 𝑛 = 𝑟
𝑟
𝑎1
∑ 𝛼𝑖 = −
𝑎0
𝑖=1
𝑟
𝑎2
∑ 𝛼𝑖 𝛼𝑗 =
𝑎0
𝑖≠𝑗=1

𝑟
𝑎3
∑ 𝛼𝑖 𝛼𝑗 𝛼𝑘 = −
𝑎0
𝑖≠𝑗≠𝑘=1

𝑎𝑟
𝛼1 𝛼2 … 𝛼𝑟 = (−1)𝑟 .
𝑎0

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The general form of polynomial equations

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + a2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛

• Linear equation (or polynomial of degree 1)

Example:𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 1

roots of linear equation 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 is 𝑥 = −𝑏/𝑎

• Quadratic equation (or polynomial of degree 2)

Example:𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2

roots of quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

• Cubic equation (or polynomial of degree 3)

 How to solve cubic equation?

• Use relation between roots and coefficients.

•

• Cardan's Method
The general form of the cubic function is given by
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
To find zeros of 𝑓(𝑥) it means find roots of

𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 (1)
Suppose that 𝑓(𝑥) has a root 𝑥 = 𝑦 + 𝑘 where 𝑘 is a fixed arbitrary constant
From Tayler series expansion 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous and differentiable for all order in the interval [𝑦, 𝑦 +
𝑘]
𝑓 ′′ (𝑘) 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑘) 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥)
𝑓(𝑦 + 𝑘) = 𝑓(𝑘) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑘)𝑦 + 2!
𝑦2 + + 3!
𝑦3 + ⋯ + 𝑛!
𝑦𝑛 + ⋯

Where 𝑓(𝑘) = 𝑘 3 + 𝑎𝑘 2 + 𝑏𝑘 + 𝑐
𝑓 ′ (𝑘) = 3𝑘 2 + 2𝑎𝑘 + 𝑏
𝑓 ′′ (𝑘) = 6𝑘 + 2𝑎
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑘) = 6
To eliminate term that contain 𝑦 2 choose
𝑎
𝑓 ′′ (𝑘) = 0 → 𝑘 = −
3
𝑎
′
𝑎2
𝑓 (− ) = 𝑏 −
3 3
𝑎 𝑏𝑎 2𝑎3
𝑓 (− ) = 𝑐 − +
3 3 27
𝑎
And 𝑥 = 𝑦 − 3
Then (1) becomes 𝑦 3 + 𝑝𝑦 + 𝑞 = 0 (2)

Note
The cubic equation
𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

Can be reduced by the substitution

𝑎
𝑥=𝑦−
3
To the norm form
𝑦 3 + 𝑝𝑦 + 𝑞 = 0 .
 𝑎2 𝑎
where 𝑝 = 𝑏 − 3
𝑝 = 𝑓′(− 3)
𝑏𝑎 2𝑎3 𝑎
and 𝑞 = 𝑐 − + 𝑞 = 𝑓(− )
3 27 3

To solve equation (2) use 𝑦 =𝑢+𝑣

Equation (2) becomes
𝑢3 + 𝑣 3 + (𝑝 + 3𝑢𝑣)(𝑢 + 𝑣) + 𝑞 = 0 (3)
𝑝
Let 𝑢𝑣 = − we get 𝑢3 + 𝑣 3 = −𝑞
3

Then solve equation (2) like solution of equations

𝑝
𝑢𝑣 = −
3 } (4)
𝑢3 + 𝑣 3 = −𝑞
By cubic first equation we get
𝑝3
𝑢3 𝑣 3 = − 27 (5)

From eq(4) and (5)we have the sum and multiplication two roots 𝑢3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 3 of quadratic equation
𝑝3
𝑡 2 + 𝑞𝑡 − =0
27
The roots are 𝐴 = 𝑢3 and 𝐵 = 𝑣 3

𝑞 𝑞2 𝑝3 𝑞 𝑞2 𝑝3
Where 𝐴 = − + √ + and 𝐵 = − − √ + then
2 4 27 2 4 27

3
𝑢 = √𝐴
3
𝑢 = 𝑤 √𝐴
3
𝑢 = 𝑤 2 √𝐴
1 𝑖√3
Where 𝑤 = − 2 + is the cubic root of unity and
2
3
𝑣 = √𝐵
3
𝑣 = 𝑤 √𝐵
3
𝑣 = 𝑤 2 √𝐵
But not all of them suitable for different value 𝑢 it must satisfy
𝑢𝑣 = −𝑝/3
3 3 3 𝑝
Let √𝐵 be satisfy √𝐴 √𝐵 = − 3 then the value which suitable to
3 3 3
𝑢 = √𝐴 , 𝑢 = 𝑤 √𝐴, 𝑢 = 𝑤 2 √𝐴
is
3 3 3
𝑣 = √𝐵 , 𝑣 = 𝑤 2 √𝐵 , 𝑣 = 𝑤 √𝐵
respectively
3 3
Then 𝑦1 = √𝐴 + √𝐵
3 3
𝑦2 = 𝑤 √𝐴 + 𝑤 2 √𝐵
3 3
𝑦3 = 𝑤 2 √𝐴 + 𝑤 √𝐵

Example:
Solve 𝑥 3 − 27𝑥 + 54 = 0
Solution:
Example:
Solve 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 16 = 0
Example:
Solve 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 2 = 0

Cardan Method Q.6 - Bing video

CARDAN METHOD-Q2-MATHEMATICS-2 - Bing video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zgx7qyUV3DU
biquadratic equation (or a quartlc equation, or a fourth degree equation)

Ferrari’s method for solving quartic equations

Now consider the general quartic equation 𝑥 4 + 2𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 = 0

Step 1:

Write 𝑥 4 + 2𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 = (𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴)2 − (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)2

Where 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are constants

Step 2:
Find numbers A, B, and C
Step 3
Use the fact that 𝑀2 − 𝑁 2 = (𝑀 + 𝑁)(𝑀 − 𝑁). To the R.H.S of equation in step 2 that is
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴)2 − (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)2 = (𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴 − (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶))((𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴) − (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶))

Example:
Solve the quartic equation 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 = 0
Example:
Solve the equation 𝑥 4 − 12𝑥 3 + 41𝑥 2 − 81𝑥 − 72 = 0
Solution:
http://www2.trinity.unimelb.edu.au/~rbroekst/MathX/Quartic%20Formula.pdf