Research Methodology

Chapter 1

The Nature of Research

 Topics covered
• Definition of research
• Reasons for doing research
• Applications of research
• Characteristics and requirements of research
process
• Types of research
• Differences between qualitative, quantitative
and mixed methods approaches
 Research: What does it mean?
• “Research is a structured inquiry that utilises
acceptable scientific methodology to solve
problems and creates new knowledge that is
generally applicable.” (Grinnell 1993:4)

• “a systematic investigation to find answers to

a problem” (Burns, 1997:2)
 Reasons for doing research
• To understand a field you are
studying/working in
• To explain and find answers in
relation to what you perceive
• To critically examine certain
aspects
• To make changes
• To find answers to theoretical
questions
 Application of research
• Examine your own field
• Methodologists have developed research
methods to understand your specific area
• There are many different procedures and
techniques
• Reliability and validity depends on the
soundness of the research methods adopted

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

Figure 1.1 The applications of research
 Characteristics and requirements of
research process
Collecting, analysing and
interpretation of information
to answer questions must
require certain characteristics:
• Controlled
• Rigorous
• Systematic
• Valid and verifiable
• Empirical
• Critical
 Types of research
• Mode of enquiry to find answers to a
research problem underpinned by
different philosophies:
– Quantitative approach or the
structured approach
– Qualitative approach or the
unstructured approach
– Mixed methods approach
• The choice of approach depends on
– Aim of enquiry – exploration,
confirmation or quantification.
– Use of the findings – policy formulation
or process understanding.
Figure 1.2 Types of research
 The mixed methods approach
Combine multiple methods of different paradigms
(quantitative /qualitative ) to improve findings
• Advantages:
– Enhances research possibilities
– Better for more complex situations
– Enrichment of data
– Collecting additional research evidence
• Disadvantages:
– More data means more work and resources
– Requires additional and diverse skills
– Contacting two study populations
– Resolving disagreements in data
 Paradigms of research
Form the basis of research methodology
• Quantitative approach (systematic, scientific
or positivist approach to social enquiry)
• Qualitative approach (ethnographic, ecological
or naturalistic approach)
• Mixed methods approach (combination of
quantitative and qualitative approach)
Table 1.2 Differences between qualitative,
quantitative and mixed methods
approaches
The Research Onion
(Saunders, 2006)
 Research Methodology
Chapter 2

The Research
Process:
A Quick Glance

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

 Topics covered
The eight step model for carrying out research:
Phase I: DECIDING what to research
Step I: Formulating a research problem
Phase II: PLANNING a research study
Step II: Conceptualising a research design
Step III: Constructing an instrument for data collection
Step IV: Selecting a sample
Step V: Writing a research proposal
Phase III: CONDUCTING a research study
Step VI: Collecting data
Step VII: Processing and displaying data
Step VIII: Writing a research report
© SAGE publications Ltd 2014
Figure 2.1 The research journey

© SAGE publications Ltd 2014

 The research process
• Methodologies differ due
to underpinning philosophy
• The process is the same for
quantitative and qualitative
research
• Each approach uses
different research methods
for data collection, data
processing, analysis and
style of communicating the
findings

© SAGE publications Ltd 2014

Figure 2.2 The research journey

© SAGE publications Ltd 2014

Figure 2.3 The chapters in the book in
relation to the operational steps

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

 Phase I: DECIDING what to do
Step I: Formulating a research problem
• Most important step, because the
following steps are influenced by the
research problem
• What do you want to find out about?
 Have you got sufficient funds to do
the research?
 Have you got the time available to
conduct the study?
 Have you got knowledge of relevant
disciplines?
 Do you have sufficient knowledge of
skills needed?

© SAGE publications Ltd 2014

 Phase II: PLANNING a research study
Step II: Conceptualising a research
design
What you find depends on how it was
found
• Select an appropriate research
design:
– Quantitative
– Qualitative
– Mixed methods
• The design has to be
• Valid
• Workable
• Manageable
• Be aware of its strengths and
weaknesses
© SAGE publications Ltd 2014
 Phase II: PLANNING - continued
Step III: Constructing an instrument for data
collection
How will you collect your data?
• Construct a research instrument or
research tool to collect data (interview
schedules, questionnaires, notes on
observations, diaries, interview guides,
etc.)
• Or use secondary data (information
already collected for other purposes)
• Do a pre-testing of your research tool
(pilot study)

© SAGE publications Ltd 2014

 Phase II: PLANNING – continued
Step IV: Selecting a sample
Who will take part in your research?
• Select appropriate sample/participants to represent the study population
• Avoid bias
• Random / probability samples
• Non-random / non probability samples
• Be aware of strengths and weaknesses of different sampling methods

© SAGE publications Ltd 2014

 Phase II: PLANNING - continued
Step V: Writing a research
proposal
Write a detailed plan
about your research:
• What are you proposing
to do?
• How you plan to
proceed?
• Why you select the
proposed strategy?
© SAGE publications Ltd 2014
Phase III: CONDUCTING a research study
Step VI: Collecting data
Doing the data gathering using one or more data collection
method, such as:
– conducting interviews
– mailing out questionnaires
– conducting nominal/focus groups discussions
– making an observation

Be aware of ethical issues!

© SAGE publications Ltd 2014

 Phase III: CONDUCTING - continued
Step VII: Processing and displaying
data
What did you find how?
• Analysing the data depends on
the type of information and how
to communicate the findings
• Distinguish between
– Descriptive
– Quantitative (statistical
procedures)
– Qualitative (narrative, content
analysis)
– Attitudinal
© SAGE publications Ltd 2014
 Phase III: CONDUCTING - continued
Step VIII: Writing a research
report
What have you done? What
conclusions have you drawn
from the findings?
• Different format for
quantitative and
qualitative research
• Structure using main
themes of study
• Use academic conventions
© SAGE publications Ltd 2014
 Research Methodology : Chapter 4

Formulating a Research Problem

 Topics covered
Formulating a research problem in
quantitative research
• Importance of formulating a research
problem
• Sources of formulating a research
problem
• Considerations in selecting a research
problem
• Steps in formulating a research problem
• How to formulate research objectives
• The study population
• Operational definitions
Formulating a research problem in
qualitative research
authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014
Importance of formulating a research
problem
• First and most important step
• Quality and relevance of the
research relies on it
• Key to formulating the idea of
what needs to be investigated
• Determines the methodology
and design of the project:
– Descriptive and qualitative
– Correlational and quantitative
• The clearer the research
question, the easier the next
steps
authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014
 Sources of research problems
• Look closely in your academic field or
discipline
• Use four Ps:
– People
– Problems
– Programmes
– Phenomena
• Apply to qualitative and quantitative research
authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014
Table 4.1 Aspects of the research problem
 Considerations in selecting a research
problem
• Interest
• Magnitude
• Measurement of concepts
• Level of expertise
• Relevance
• Availability of data
• Ethical issues
authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014
 Steps in formulating a research
problem
Step 1: Identify the main subject area
Step 2: Dissect into sub-areas
Step 3: Select sub-areas of most interest
Step 4: Raise research questions
Step 5: Formulate objectives
Step 6: Assess objectives
Step 7: Double-check
authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014
Figure 4.1 Dissecting the subject area of domestic violence into
sub- areas
How to formulate research objectives
• Goals that inform what will be
achieved
• Main objective – overall
statement
– Describing the main focus
• Sub-objectives – specific
aspects
– Clear and unambiguous
wording
– Numerically listed
– Each contains one aspect
– Starts with action word: ‘to
find out’, ‘to explore’
Figure 4.5 Characteristics of objectives
Figure 4.2 Steps in formulating a research problem - alcoholism
 The study population
• Second important aspect to the research
• Who constitutes the study population?
• Select appropriate participants from the study
population
• Definition may need to be narrowed down
• Be as specific as possible
Establishing operational definitions
• Explain working definitions
specific to study
• Define specific terms,
meanings to concepts used
• These may differ to dictionary
or legal definitions
• Avoids ambiguity and
confusion
• Develops a framework for the
study
authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014
 Formulating a research problem in
qualitative research
• Different to quantitative research
which is specific, narrow and the
framework confines the research
(tests hypotheses)
• Qualitative research is flexible,
open, freedom to include new
ideas at a later stage:
• Research problem can be
reformulated
• Inductive reasoning
• Flexible conceptual framework to
increase depth and richness of
data
Research Methodology : Chapter 3

Reviewing the literature

 Topics covered
• Function of literature review
• What is literature review?
• Types of literature review
sources
• How to review the literature
• Searching for existing literature
• Reviewing selected literature
• Developing theoretical and
conceptual frameworks
• How to write a literature review
 What is literature review?
• It is a critical description of the literature
relevant to a particular research.
• A Literature Review (LR) should
never be just a list of previous work
contain the works that you consulted in
order to develop your research provide
justification/background for the research
undertaken:
- The LR guides the reader to
understanding the contribution of the
work by pointing out the
shortcomings/gaps of the state of the art
- If you leave this task to the reader, your
paper may be rejected
 Function of literature review
• A literature review is an integral
part of the research process
• Providing a theoretical
background to a study:
– Bringing clarity and focus to the
research problem
– Improving research methodology
– Broadening knowledge base in the
research area of interest
– Contextualizing findings by
integrating with the exiting body of
knowledge
 Types of literature review sources
• Journal articles (surveys, research papers). Provide technical up-
to-date information (last 2 years) about a research topic.
• Books. Recent research monographs can be useful in your
literature review. Do not include citations of textbooks not in
your LR, but you can use them in later sections of your paper.
• Conference proceedings. They provide information about the
latest/unpublished research. In general, less reliable than a
journal paper. Always cite the journal paper version if available.
• Government or corporate reports. Depending on your field of
study can be a useful source of information. They may outline
general research lines a particular organization is interested in
funding.
 Types of literature review sources
• Theses and dissertations. Can be useful sources of
information. However they can be difficult to obtain, parts of
the research presented may have to be treated with caution.
• Specialized magazines. Sometimes these are considered as
reputable as a journal. Other types of magazines can provide
a good starting point to find more reputed work.
• Other sources include newspapers and the Internet. These
can point you to the more reputed sources; in general avoid
citing them directly in your LR.
 LR should answer…
1. What do we already know in the
immediate area concerned?
2. What are the characteristics of the key
concepts or the main factors or
variables?
3. What are the relationships between
these key concepts, factors or variables?
4. What are the complementary existing
theories/approaches?
5. Where are the inconsistencies or other
shortcomings in our knowledge which
these works have not solved?
 LR should answer…
6. What views need to be (further) tested?
7. What evidence is lacking, inconclusive,
contradictory or too limited?
8. Why study (further) the research
problem?
9. What contribution can the present study
be expected to make?
10. What research designs or methods
seem unsatisfactory?
 How to review the literature
• Start with broad area of interest if research problem
is not known and narrow down
• Focused around the research problem
– What is already known in the area?
– What is not known or what are the gaps in the existing
body of knowledge?
– What questions have remained unanswered?
– Are there any areas of professional conflict?
– What theories have been put forward relevant to the
area of research?
– What suggestions have been made for further research?
– What research strategies have been employed by others
undertaking similar research?
Four steps of doing a literature review

1. Searching for the existing

literature in the area of
interest
2. Reviewing the selected
literature
3. Developing a theoretical
framework
4. Developing a conceptual
framework
 Reviewing selected literature
• Read existing literature and examine critically:
– Note whether the knowledge relevant to a theoretical
framework has been confirmed beyond doubt
– Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their
basis, the methodologies adopted (study design, sample size
and its characteristics, measurement procedures, etc.) and the
criticisms of them
– Examine to what extent the findings can be generalised to other
situations
– Notice where there are significant differences of opinion among
researchers, giving an opinion about their validity in addition to
putting forward a position with reasons
– Ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is known – the gaps
that exist in the body of knowledge

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

Developing theoretical and conceptual
frameworks
• Read with focus in mind
• Sort information into main
themes and theories
• Literature fits in two
categories:
– Universal or general
– More specific
• Conceptual framework is
the basis of enquiry and
stems from the theoretical
framework
authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014
 How to write a literature review
Write about the literature reviewed to
provide a theoretical background and
contextualise findings to existing body of
literature:
• Describe various theories
• Specify gaps in the existing knowledge area
• Write about recent advances in the area of
study
• State current trends
• Refine own methodology
• Quote findings from existing studies
 Writing a literature review
• Thematic, based on the main theme of
enquiry
• Following a logical order
• Arguments referenced with supporting
evidence from the existing literature
• Use academic referencing style

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

A bad example of LR
Until recently many researchers have shown interest in the field of coastal erosion
and the resulting beach profiles. They have carried out numerous laboratory
experiments and field observations to illuminate the darkness of this field. Their
findings and suggestions are reviewed here.
JACHOWSKI (1964) developed a model investigation conducted on the interlocking
precast concrete block seawall. After a result of a survey of damages caused by the
severe storm at the coast of USA, a new and especially shaped concrete block was
developed for use in shore protection. This block was designed to be used in a
revetment type seawall that would be both durable and economical as well as
reduce wave run-up and overtopping, and scour at its base or toe. It was proved that
effective shore protection could be designed utilizing these units.
HOM-MA and HORIKAWA (1964) studied waves forces acting on the seawall which
was located inside the surf zone. On the basis of the experimental results conducted
to measure waves forces against a vertical wall, the authors proposed an empirical
formula of wave pressure distribution on a seawall. The computed results obtained by
using the above formula were compared well with the field data of wave pressure on
a vertical wall.
 Why is it bad?
• It offers a summary of previous research.
• Does not answer any other question. It does not
evaluate the summarized research, does not
show any relationship between theories
• Organized by listing authors, presented using
chronological order, instead of organized using
the research (key concepts or theories). A
chronological order should be avoided
• It is not critical
• It does not relate to the writer’s research
A good example of LR
Automated storage and retrieval systems (AS/RS) are being introduced into the industry and
warehousing at an increasing rate. Forecasts indicate that this trend will continue for the
foreseeable future (Jane, 2001). Research in the area of AS/RS has followed several
avenues. Early work by Hausman, Schwarz & Graves (2008) was concerned with storage
assignment and interleaving policies, based on turnover rates of the various items. Elsayed
(1996) and Elsayed & Stern (2000) compared algorithms for handling orders in AR/RS.
Several researchers addressed the problem of the optimal handling unit (pallet or
container) size, to be used in material handling and warehousing systems. Agee (2004),
Tanchoco et al. (2005) and Grasso & Tanchoco [5] studied various aspects of this subject.
The last two references incorporate the size of the pallet, or unit load, in evaluation of the
optimal lot sizes for multi-inventory systems with limited storage space. In a report on a
specific case, Normandin (2010) has demonstrated that using the 'best-size' container can
result in considerable savings. A simulation model combining container size and warehouse
capacity considerations, in an AS/RS environment, was developed by Kadosh (2008). The
general results, reflecting the stochastic nature of the flow of goods, are similar to those
reported by Rosenblatt & Roll (2012). Nevertheless, container size was found to affect
strongly overall warehousing costs.
This study presents an analytical framework for approximating the optimal size of a
warehouse container. The approximation is based on series of generalizations and specific
assumptions. However, these are valid for a wide range of real life situations. The
underlying assumptions of the model are presented in the following section.
 Why is it good?
• Grouped similar information
• Shows the relations between different works
• It is organized following the outline presented
earlier
• It is organized around ideas and not
researchers
Research Methodology
Chapter 5 & 6

Identifying Variables
&
Constructing Hypothesis
 Topics covered
1. Identifying Variables
• What is a variable?
• Difference between concepts and variables
• How to turn concepts into variables
• Types of variables
• Types of measurement scales
2. Hypothesis
• Definition of a hypothesis
• Function of hypothesis
• How to formulate a hypothesis
• Types of hypotheses
• Hypothesis in qualitative research
 What is a variable?
• An image, perception or concept that is
measurable
• Gender (male/female)
• Variables take on different values often
expressed as numbers
• Age (x years, y months)
• Use of measurement scales
to vary the degree of
precision in measurement
 Difference between concepts and
variables
• Concepts cannot be measured (e.g.
satisfaction has different meaning to different
people)
• Variables can be measured (e.g. persons
weight in kg)
• Convert concepts into variables using a set of
indicators in order to subjectively measure
(e.g. effectiveness, attitude)
Converting concepts into variables
How can a concept be measured? What indicators
can be identified? Convert into a measurement
• Concept: rich/poor
• Indicators: 1. Income, 2. value of assets
• Variables: 1. Total income per year, 2. Total value
of a) home, b) cars, c) investments, etc.
• Working definition for rich if 1. Income is >
200,000, 2. considered rich if total value of assets
is >2,000,000
 Type of variable

“The way a variable is measured determines the

type of analysis that can be performed, the
statistical procedures that can be applied to the
data, the way the data can be interpreted and
the finding that can be communicated.”
Figure 5.1 Types of variables
 Variables from a viewpoint of causal
relationships
• Independent variable (bringing change in a
situation)
• Dependent variable (outcome or change
brought by the independent variable)
• Extraneous variable (several factors affecting
the changes in the dependent variable)
• Intervening variable (confounding variable
links independent and dependent variable)
 Variables from a viewpoint of study
design

• Active variables (that can be manipulated,

changed or controlled in an experiment)
• Attribute variables (variables that cannot be
manipulated and that reflect the
characteristics of a study population)
 Variable from the viewpoint of unit
measurement
• Categorical variable (nominal and ordinal scales)
– Constant variable (one category or value, e.g. taxi)
– Dichotomous variable (two categories, e.g. yes/no)
– Polytomous variable (more than two categories, e.g.
religion: Christian, Muslim, Hindu, etc.)
Or Continuous data (interval and ratio scales)
• Qualitative variables are like categorical variables
such as gender: male/female
Or Quantitative (interval and ratio scales)
Constructing Hypotheses
 Definition of a hypothesis
• Verification of an assumption/ assertion
• Assertions become the basis of the enquiry and
are called hypotheses
• Hypotheses bring focus to the research problem
in quantitative research
• Grinnell’s definition (1988: 200)
– A tentative proposition that can be proven or
disproven
– Validity is unknown, hence reliable and valid data
needed
– Specifies a relationship between variables
 Functions of a hypothesis
• The formulation of a hypothesis brings specificity and clarity
to a study.
• This specificity and clarity used to construct a hypothesis
ensures that only information needed is collected, thereby,
providing focus to the study. This also enhances the validity
of a study as it ensures measuring what the study sets out to
measure.
• As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis
enhances objectivity in a study.
• The testing of a hypothesis enables the researcher to
specifically conclude what is true or what is false, thereby,
contributing towards theory formulation.
Figure 6.1 The process of testing a
hypothesis
 Hypothesis in qualitative research
• As qualitative studies are characterized by an
emphasis on describing, understanding and
exploring phenomena using categorical and
subjective measurement procedures,
construction of hypotheses is neither greatly
advocated nor significantly practiced.
 Identifying Variables

Goal: Identify independent and

dependent variables in research.
 Let’s see it-Apply what we learned
Your RQ/hypothesis can TELL you what your
variables are!

If Ali drinks coffee before bed, then he will not

sleep very much.

IV : drinking coffee
DV : the amount of sleep
 Discussions…
Now read the following situations, what is the testable question
and identify the IV and DV

Jalil wanted to test if temperature affected how fast milk goes

bad and curdles. He left milk at room temperature, a fridge, and
a kitchen in his house in Shah Alam. He then measured the
amount of bacteria in the milk after 10 days.

Testable Question : ______________________

IV : ______________________
DV : _____________________
 Group 1 -Practice
Does the amount of time the lights remain
on in my house affect the price of my
electric bill?

IV : __________________
DV : __________________
 Group 2- Practice
If I brush my cat for more hours, will the
mass of cat fur on the furniture be
reduced?

IV : __________________
DV : __________________
 Group 3 -Practice
If you increase the number of vegetables you
eat, then you will increase your health attend
fewer doctor’s visits per year.

IV : __________________
DV : __________________
 Group 4 -Practice
If you increase the volume of milk you drink, will
you increase your bone density?

IV : __________________
DV : __________________
 Group 5 -Practice
How does the amount of rainfall affect the
number of green leaves present on a tree?

IV : __________________
DV : __________________
 Group 6 -Practice
How does the number of friends on a social
media affect GPA?

IV : __________________
DV : __________________
 Group 7 -Practice
If you increase the amount of blood in the
water, then will you increase the number of
sharks in a 1 km radius?

IV : __________________
DV : __________________
 Now that you know about variables:
• Design your own research using your
experience :
1. What is your Testable Question/Hypothesis?
2. What measurements are you making? What is
your indexes/indicators?
3. What is your Independent Variable?
4. What is your Dependent Variable?
RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER 7 & 8

The Research
Design
Topics covered
• What is a research design?
• Functions of research design
• Differences between
quantitative and qualitative
study designs
• Study design in quantitative
research
• Study design in qualitative
research
• Other commonly used
philosophy-guided designed
What is a research design
• Detailed plan of how the
research study will be
completed:
– Operationalizing variables
– Selecting a sample
– Selecting data collection methods
– Selection analysis methods
• Valid and reliable
• Justified and supported by
literature
 Function of a research design
i. Conceptualize an operational
plan to undertake the various
procedures and tasks required
to complete a study

ii. Ensure that these procedures

are adequate to obtain valid,
objective and accurate
answers to the research
questions. Kerlinger calls this
function the control of
variance (1986: 280).
 Research design

Specifying procedures clearly so that another researcher

would be able to follow them exactly the same way. This
should include:
• Name of the study design (e.g. experiment, cross-
sectional design, etc.)
• Provide detailed information on study population,
method of data collection, analysis methods and
ethical issues
 Differences between quantitative and
qualitative study designs
Quantitative studies Qualitative research
designs: designs:

• Specific • Flexible
• Rigid • Emergent
• Well structured • Non-sequential
• Ensure validity and
reliability

Differences in philosophical perspectives determine the approach of enquiry

Study designs in quantitative research

Study designs can be classified

by examining from three
different perspectives:
1. The number of contacts
with the study population
2. The reference period of the
study
3. The nature of the
investigation
Figure 8.1 Types of study design

authored by Stephanie Fleisher © SAGE

publications Ltd 2014
Study designs based on the number of
contacts
• Cross-sectional: most common and
take a cross-section of the
population at one point in time
• Before-and-after: also known as pre-
test/post-test design which take two
cross-sectional data collection points
on the same population to find out
changes.
• Longitudinal: the population is
researched a number of times; a
series of repetitive cross-sectional
studies collecting the same
information
Figure 8.2 Before-and-after study
design
Figure 8.3 The regression effect
(Longitudinal)
Figure 8.4 The longitudinal study
design
 Study designs based on the reference
period (time-frame)
• Retrospective: investigate
things that happened in the
past
• Prospective: investigate things
that are likely to happen in the
future, such as experiments
• Retrospective-prospective:
focus on both past trends and
study it into the future, such as
before-and-after studies
without a control group
Figure 8.5 Classification of study designs

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE

publications Ltd 2014
 Study designs based on the nature of
the investigation

• Experimental: starting
from the cause to
establish the effect; the
researcher introduces
the intervention that is
assumed to cause the
change in a controlled or
natural environment.
 Experimental designs
• Random design
• The after-only design
• The before-and-after
experimental design
• The control group design
• The double control group
design
• The comparative design
• The ‘matched control’
experimental design
• The placebo design
Figure 8.6 Experimental and non-
experimental studies

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE

publications Ltd 2014
Figure 8.7 Randomisation in
experiments

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE

publications Ltd 2014
 Study designs based on the nature of
the investigation - continued

• Non-experimental: Starting with the effect to research

the cause; a phenomenon is known and the researcher
attempts to establish what caused it.
• Quasi- or semi-experimental: This design has elements of
both experimental and non-experimental studies.
 Other quantitative designs
• Online surveys
• The cross-over
comparative experimental
design
• The replicated cross-
sectional design
• Trend studies
• Cohort studies
• Panel studies
• Blind studies
• Double-blind studies
 Study designs in qualitative research
• Case studies: In-depth exploration of a atypical case
of a particular event, group, instance, etc.
• Oral history: Obtaining, recording, presenting and
interpreting information in someone’s own words
• Focus groups/ group interviews: Facilitated group
interviews of an open discussion of a topic
 Study designs in qualitative research
continued
• Participant observation: Researcher gets involved in a social
interaction and observes the situation first hand
• Holistic research: More a philosophy, research from every
perspective
• Community discussion forums: Large group discussion
• Reflective journal log: Diary of the researcher’s thoughts

authored by Stephanie Fleisher © SAGE

publications Ltd 2014
 Other philosophy-guided designs
• Action Research: Research that requires action to
improve practice or take action to an issue

• Feminist research: Underpinned by feminist

concerns in terms social inequality between men
and women.

• Participatory and
collaborative research
enquiry: Based on the
philosophy of community
development involving
community members
actively in the research
process
Research Methodology :
Chapter 9

Constructing Instrument
for Data Collection
 Topics covered
• Differences in methods of collecting data
• Major approaches of information gathering
• Collecting data using primary sources
– Observation
– The interview
– The questionnaire
– Advantages and disadvantages
– Types of questions
– Formulating effective questions
• Constructing a research instrument in quantitative research
• Methods of data collection in qualitative research
• Collecting data using secondary sources
 Differences in methods of collecting data in
quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods
research
Quantitative, qualitative or mixed methods
classification depends on the answers to the
following questions:
• What philosophical approach is
underpinning the research approach?
• How was the information collected? Was
the format structured or
unstructured/flexible or a combination of
the both?
• Were the questions or issues discussed
during data collection predetermined or
developed during data collection?
 Differences in methods of collecting data in
quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods
research continued
• How was the information gathered
recorded? Was it in a descriptive,
narrative, categorical, quantitative
form or on a scale?
• How was the information
analyzed? Was it a descriptive,
categorical or numerical analysis?
• How will the findings be
communicated? In a descriptive or
analytical manner?
• How many different methods were
used in undertaking the study?
Insert Figure 9.1 Methods of data
collection
 Major sources of information
gathering

• Primary data: The researcher

undertakes the data collection

• Secondary data: The data is

already available and can be
reanalysed
 Observation
Watching and listening to interactions
– Participant observation
– Non-participant observation
– Natural
– Controlled
 Recording of observations:
• Narrative recording
• Categorical recording
• Recording on electronic devices
 Effects that could affect observations:
• Hawthorne effect: Participants are aware of the observation and
change their behaviour
• Elevation effect: Researcher over-uses a particular scale for
recording
• Halo effect: Researcher bias towards a particular participant
 The interview
Questioning people
– Unstructured interviews: Freedom in structure,
content, wording and order of questions
– Structured interviews: Interview schedule
predetermines the questions, wording and order
 The questionnaire
Written list of questions completed
by the respondent
– Mail or postal questionnaire
(covering letter)
– Collective administration
– Online questionnaire
– Administration in a public
place
 Choose between interview schedule
and questionnaire
Consider the following:
• The nature of the investigation
• The geographical distribution of the study population
• The type of study population

INTERVIEW? QUESTIONAIRE?

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE

publications Ltd 2014
Strengths and weaknesses of
questionnaires
Strengths Weaknesses
• Convenience: • Limited application
• Low response rate
– Saves time
• Self-selecting bias
• Inexpensive: • Lack of opportunity to clarify
issues
– Saves human and financial
• No opportunity for spontaneous
resources responses
• Offer greater anonymity • Responses may be influenced by
the response to other questions
– No face-to-face action
• Others can influence the answers
– Likelihood to obtain more • Responses cannot be
accurate information on supplemented with other
sensitive questions information
 Advantages and disadvantages of
interviews
Advantages Disadvantages
• More appropriate for • Time consuming and
complex situations expensive
• Useful for collecting in- • Quality of data depends on
depth information – Quality of interaction
• Information can be – Quality of interviewer
supplemented – Could vary when multiple
researchers are involved
• Questions can be explained
• Possibility of researcher bias
• Has a wider application

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE

publications Ltd 2014
 Types of questions

Open-ended questions Closed questions

• Advantages: • Advantages:
– Provide in-depth information – Easy to answer
– Greater variety of information – Easy to analyse due to ready-
– No investigator bias made categories
• Disadvantages:
• Disadvantages
– Information lacks depths and
– Analysis is more difficult if variety
answers need to be classified
– Loss of information if – Greater possibility of
respondents cannot express investigator bias
themselves – Answers are selected from a
– Possible interviewer bias list and may not reflect
respondents opinion
 Formulating effective questions

• Use easy and every day

language
• Avoid ambiguous questions
• Avoid double-barrelled
questions
• Avoid leading questions
• Avoid questions based on
assumptions
 Constructing a research instrument in
quantitative research
• Personal and sensitive questions
• The order of the questions
• Pre-testing a research instrument
• Pre-requisites for data collection:
– Motivation to share required
information
– Clear understanding of the
questions
– Possession of the required
information
 Methods of data collection in
qualitative research

• Unstructured interviews
• In-depth interviews
• Focus group interviews
• Narratives
• Oral histories
• Observation
 Collecting data using secondary
sources
• Government or corporate
websites
• Earlier research
• Personal records
• Mass media

Possible problems of secondary

data:
• Validity and reliability
• Personal bias
• Availability
• Format
 Research Methodology
Chapter 10

Collecting Data Using Attitudinal

Scales
 Topics covered
• Attitudinal scales in research
• Function of attitudinal scales
• Developing attitudinal scales
• Types of attitudinal scales
– Likert scale
– Thurstone scale
– Guttman scale
• Attitudinal scales and measurement scales
 Attitudinal scales in research
• Helps to find out how people feel towards certain
issues and situations (level of satisfaction,
agreement, positive/negative attitude, etc.)
• Quantitative research explores types of attitudes,
how many people have a certain attitude and
intensity of attitude
• Qualitative research explores the spread of
attitudes and establish types of attitudes
• Attitude scales are prevalent in quantitative
research such as the Likert scale
 Function of attitudinal scales

• Measure of intensity of respondents’ attitudes

toward the various aspects of a situation or
issue
• Provide techniques to combine the attitude
toward different aspects into on overall
indicator
 Developing attitudinal scales
1. Which aspects of a situation or issue should
be included when seeking to measure an
attitude towards an issue or problem?
2. What procedure should be adopted for
combining the different aspects to obtain an
overall picture?
3. How can one ensure that a scale really is
measuring what it is supposed to measure?
 Types of attitudinal scales
• The summated rating scale, also known as the
Likert scale;
• The equal-appearing interval scale or
differential scale, also known as the Thurstone
scale;
• The cumulative scale, also known as the
Guttman scale.
 Likert Scale
• Most common attitudinal scale
• Measures intensity of attitude toward an issue
• Each statement has equal attitudinal value
• Measures in categories or on a numerical scale
• 1, 2 or 3 dimensions of attitudes (e.g. 2 as in
positive and negative)
• Scores will be assigned to the attitude scale if
calculations are used for weighting responses
Figure 10.1 An example of a
categorical scale
Figure 10.2 An example of a seven
point scale
Figure 10.3 An example of a scale with
statements reflecting varying degrees
of an attitude
 Other scales
Thurstone scale:
• Calculates an attitudinal value for each statement
• Mean score is recorded for each statement
• The mean score is equivalent to the attitudinal
value assigned by a group of judges
• Reflects absolute rather than relative attitudes
Guttman scale:
• Cumulative scale which is rarely used
 Attitudinal scales and measurement
scales
Table 10.1 The relationship between attitudinal
and measurement scales
 Research Methodology
Chapter 11

Establishing Research
Validity and Reliability
 Topics covered
• The concept of validity
• Types of validity
• The concept of reliability in quantitative research
• Factors affecting the reliability of a research
instrument
• Methods of determining the reliability in
quantitative research
• Validity and reliability in qualitative research
 The concept of validity
Validity is the ability of a research instrument to
measure what it is designed to measure

“Validity is defined as the degree to which the

researcher has measured what he has set out to
measure” (Smith 1991, 106)

“The commonest definition of validity is epitomised

by the question: Are we measuring what we thing
we are measuring?” (Kerlinger, 1973, 457)
Types of validity in quantitative research
Face and Content validity based on subjective logic
• Face validity: Logic link between research instrument and a
research objective
• Content validity: All aspects of the issue being measured
Concurrent and Predictive validity based on types of comparison
• Concurrent validity: Judged by how well an instrument compares
with a second assessment concurrently done (validity
coefficient)
• Predictive validity: Judged by the degree to which an instrument
can forecast an outcome
Construct validity based on statistical procedures
• Construct validity: Statistical procedures establish the
contribution of each important factor (construct)
 The concept of reliability
• The research tool is consistent, stable,
predictable and accurate when used
repeatedly

“ A scale or test is reliable to the extent that

repeat measurements made by it under
constant conditions will give the same result”
(Moser & Kalton, 1989, 353)
 Factors affecting the reliability of a
research instrument
• The wording of questions
• The physical setting
• The respondent’s mood
• The interviewer’s mood
• The nature of interaction
• The regression effect of an instrument
Methods of determining the reliability
in quantitative research
External consistency procedures:
• Test and retest ( the instrument is compared
with itself)
• Parallel forms of the same test (two
instruments measure the same issue)
Internal consistency procedures:
• The split-half technique (if measuring
attitudes statements are divided in half and
scores are correlated)
 Validity and reliability in qualitative
research
Trustworthiness and authenticity
Four indicators that reflect validity and reliability
in qualitative research:
• Credibility
• Transferability
• Dependability
• Confirmability
Table 11.1 from Trochim and Donnell
 Summary
• Validity and reliability is used differently in
quantitative and qualitative research
• Concepts of validity and reliability relate more to
quantitative research
• Validity refers to whether a research instrument
measures what is set out to measure
• Reliability refers to an instrument that produces
consistent measurement each time
• There are not set procedures for validity and
reliability in qualitative research
 Research Methodology
Chapter 12

Selecting a Sample
 Topics covered
• Differences in sampling in quantitative and
qualitative research
• Definition of sampling terminology in quantitative
research
• Principles of sampling
• Types of sampling
• Sample size
• Concept of saturation point in qualitative
research
Differences in sampling in quantitative
and qualitative research
Quantitative research Qualitative research

• Unbiased • Ease of access

• Representative • Purpose driven
• Make inferences • Information rich
• Random samples respondents
• Large sample sizes • A few cases until saturation
is reached
Figure 12.1 Principles of sampling
 Sampling in quantitative research
Sampling is the process of selecting a few (a
sample) from a bigger group (the sampling
population) to become the basis for predicting
an outcome for the bigger group.

• Advantage: Researching a sample is easier

• Disadvantage: The sample and the sampling
population differ
 Sampling terminology
• Study population is the group the sample is taken
from
• Sample size refers to the number of items/people
in the sample
• Sampling frame is a list of each item/person in
the study population
• Sample statistics are the results found in the
sample
• Population parameter are the estimates for the
population from the sample statistics
 Principles of Sampling
1. There will be a difference between the sample
statistics and the true population mean, which is
attributable to the selection of the units in the
sample.
2. The greater the sample size, the more accurate
the estimate of the true population mean.
3. The greater the difference in the variable under
study in a population, for a given sample size,
the greater the difference between the sample
statistics and the true population mean.
Figure 12.2 Types of sampling
Random/Probability sampling designs
Each element in the sampling frame has an equal
and independent chance of selection in the sample
Advantages:
• Representative of the total sampling population,
the inferences drawn from such samples can be
generalized to the total sampling population.
• Some statistical tests based upon the theory of
probability can be applied only to data collected
from random samples.
 Specific random sampling designs

• Simple random sampling (SRS)

• Stratified random
• Cluster sampling
• Systematic sampling
 Non-random/ non-probability
sampling designs

• Quota sampling
• Accidental sampling
• Judgmental or purposive sampling
• Expert sampling
• Snowball sampling
 Sample size
The greater the heterogeneity or diversity in
what to be found out about, the greater the
number of respondents needed to contact to
reach saturation point.
Cause-effect studies need to consider:
• Level of confidence
• Degree of accuracy
• Level of variation
 Concept of saturation point in
qualitative research
• Qualitative research uses non-probability
sampling
• Collecting information from a predetermined
number of people
• Sampling until saturation point is reached (no
new information collected)
• Guided by judgment as to who is likely to
provide the ‘best’ information.
 Summary
• Quantitative research wants to represent the
sampling population which is best achieved
through random sampling

• Qualitative research uses non-random

sampling with a purpose to collect the best
information from the sample
Research Methodology
Chapter 15

Processing Data
 Topics covered
• Part 1: Methods for processing data in
quantitative research
– Coding
– Analysis
• Part 2: Methods for processing data in
qualitative researcher
– Content analysis in qualitative research
• Computers in research
Figure 15.1 Steps in data processing
PART I: Methods for processing data in
quantitative research
• The raw data need to be edited or cleaned for
analysis to check for completeness
• Problems can be minimised by:
– By inference
– By recall
– By going back to the respondents
• Checking all answers to one question/variable
• Checking all responses given to all questions
by one respondents
 Coding
• The way a variable has been measured
– Nominal
– Ordinal
– Ratio/interval
• Numerical values will be used to describe the
data
– Quantitative (numerical) responses
– Categorical responses
– Descriptive responses
 Steps of coding

1. Developing a code book

2. Pre-testing the code book
3. Coding the data
4. Verifying the coded data
Figure 15.5 respondent 81

authored
authored
by by
Stephanie
Stephanie
Fleisher
Fleischer
© SAGE
© SAGE
publications
publications
Ltd Ltd
2014
2014
Fig. 15.7 An example of coded data on
a code sheet
 Analysing the data
• Developing a frame of analysis
• Analysing data manually or using a computer
software: frequency distributions,
percentages, means, etc.
• Examining the relationship between variables
• Other statistical procedures
• Objectives of the study need to be addressed
 PART II: Methods for processing data
in qualitative research
• Developing a narrative to describe the
situation, episode, event or instance
• Identify main themes that emerge from the
field notes or transcriptions
• In addition also quantify the frequency of
occurrence of main themes in order to
provide their prevalence
Content analysis in qualitative research
Process of content analysis:
1. Identifying the main themes
2. Assigning codes to the main themes
3. Classifying responses under the main themes
4. Integrating themes and responses into the
text of the report
 Computers in research
• Statistical packages such as SPSS or SAS can
help to organise numerical data and to
understand it
• Computers can help to aggregate and display
data
• Word processing is useful in qualitative
research
• ATLAS.ti and Nvivo software help to handle
large volumes of written information
Research Methodology
Chapter 16

Displaying Data
 Topics covered
• Methods of communicating and displaying
analysed data
• Text
• Presenting data in tables
• Types of graphs
• Statistical measures
 Methods of communicating and
displaying data
• Presenting findings to the reader in a clear way
using:
– Text
– Tables
– Graphs
– Statistical measures
• Analytical style with factual information for
quantitative results
• Descriptive and narrative writing style for
qualitative findings
 Text
“The language of well-written documents helps to
communicate information effectively. Language is
also the means by which writers create the tone or
register of a publication and establish relationships
with their readers. For these relationships to be
productive, the language the writer uses must take
full account of the diversity of knowledge, interests
and sensitivities within the audience.”
Commonwealth of Australia Style Manual (2002: 49)
 Presenting data in tables
• Most common method to accurately and
effectively present analysed data
• Frequency tables (univariate, one variable)
• Cross tabulations (bivariate, two variables)
• Multivariate containing information about
more than two variables
• Use of percentages to interpret the data
presented
16.1 structure of a table
 Types of percentages
• Row percentage Insert Fig 16.3
• Column percentage Respondents by attitude
• Total percentage toward uranium mining
and age (cross tabulation
– hypothetical data)
 Types of graphs
• Histogram
• Bar chart
• 100 per cent bar chart
• Frequency polygon
• Cumulative frequency polygon
• Stem-and leaf display
• Pie charts
• Line diagram or trend curve
• Area chart
• Scattergram
 Different charts
• Insert Fig 16.4 The stacked bar chart (top left
hand side)
• Insert Fig 16.5 The 100 per cent bar chart
(bottom left hand side)
• Insert Fig 16.7 the cumulative frequency
polygon (top right hand side)
• Insert 16.9 Two- and three-dimensional pie
charts (bottom right hand side)
 More charts
• Insert Fig 16.10 The line diagram or trend
curve (top left hand side)
• Insert Fig 16.11 The area chart (bottom left
hand side)
• Insert Fig 16.12 The scattergram (on right
hand side)
 Statistical measures
• Dependent on:
– Type of data
– Knowledge of statistics
– Purpose of communicating the results
• Descriptives statistics such as mean, mode,
median
• Inferential statistics like ANOVA, factor
analysis or multiple regression
 Research Methodology
Chapter 14

Considering Ethical Issues in Data

Collection
 Topics covered
• The concept of ethics
• Stakeholders in research
• Ethical issues to consider concerning research
participants
• Ethical issues to consider relating to the
researcher
• Ethical issues regarding the sponsoring
organisation
• Ethical issues in collecting data from secondary
sources
 The concept of ethics
• Code of conduct on how to conduct research
appropriately
• Differs between disciplines and professions
– What are these principles of conduct?
– Who determines them?
– In whose judgement must they be considered
appropriate?
 Concept of ethics continued
Code of ethics addresses ethical practice to
avoid:
– Causing harm to individuals
– Breaching confidentiality
– Using information improperly
– Introducing bias
 Stakeholders in research
Ethical issues need to be considered for all
stakeholders involved in a research study:
• The research participants or subjects
• The researcher
• The funding body
 Ethical issues to consider concerning
research participants
• Collecting information
• Seeking informed consent
• Providing incentives
• Seeking sensitive information
• The possibility of causing harm to participants
• Maintaining confidentiality
 Ethical issues to consider relating to
the researcher

• Avoiding bias
• Provision or deprivation of a treatment
• Using inappropriate research methodology
• Incorrect reporting
• Inappropriate use of the information
Ethical issues regarding the sponsoring
organisation

• Restrictions imposed by the sponsoring

organisation
• The misuse of information
 Ethical issues in collecting data from
secondary data
• Plagiarism
• Informed consent
• Misinpresentation of data
• Misinterpretation of data
• Disclosing data source
• Using data collected by covert means
 Summary
• Conducting research requires considering
ethical issues
• Researchers have to adhere to a code of
conduct developed by professional practice
• Ethical issues relate to participants,
researchers and sponsoring organisation
involved in the research study
• Ethical issues need to be addressed in the
research process to prevent harm
 Research Methodology
Chapter 13

Writing a Research Proposal

 Topics covered

• Purpose of a research proposal

• Proposals in quantitative and qualitative or
mixed methods research
• Content of a research proposal
 Purpose of a research proposal
• It is an overall plan, structure and strategy
designed to obtain answers to the research
questions
• A document for scientific scrutiny for others to
judge the appropriateness of the project
• A reference document as to how the research
was/will be carried out
 Proposals in quantitative and
qualitative or mixed methods research

• Follow the same structure

• Differ in content
• Differ in methodology
• Differ in proposed methods
 Information about the study

• What the research is proposing to do

• How to find the answers to what is proposed

• Why the proposed strategies of investigation

were selected
 Content of a research proposal
• an introduction, including a brief literature review
• theoretical framework that underpins the study
• conceptual framework which constitutes the
basis of the study
• objectives or research questions of the study
• hypotheses to be tested, if applicable
• study design that is proposed to be adopted
• setting for the study
 Content of a research proposal
continued
• research instrument(s)
• sampling design and sample size
• ethical issues involved and how they will be
dealt with
• data processing procedures
• proposed chapters of the report
• problems and limitations of the study
• proposed time-frame for the project
 Introduction
• an overview of the main area under study
• a historical perspective (development, growth, etc.)
pertinent to the study area
• philosophical or ideological issues relating to the topic
• trends in terms of prevalence, if appropriate
• major theories, if any
• the main issues, problems and advances in the subject
area under study
• important theoretical and practical issues relating to
the central problem under study
• the main findings relating to the core issue(s)
 The problem
• Identifying the issues that are the basis of the study
• Specifying the various aspects/perspectives on these issues
• Identifying the main gaps in the existing body of knowledge
• Raising some of the main research questions that will be
answered through the study
• Identifying what the literature says concerning the research
questions, specifying the differences of opinion, if any, in
the literature regarding these questions
• develop a rationale for the study with particular reference
to how the study will fill the identified gaps in the existing
body of knowledge
 Objective of the study
• The objectives of the study should be clearly
stated and specific in nature

• Hypotheses are not essential but can be listed

in this section for a quantitative study
 Study design
• Who makes up the study population?
• What sampling method will be used?
• How will the selected sample be accessed?
• How will the sample’s consent to participate in
the study be sought?
• How will the data be collected (e.g. by interview,
questionnaire or observation)?
• What other ethical issues need to be considered?
• How will the data be analysed?
 Additional sections
• Proposed structure of the report: planning
chapters around the topic
• Problem and limitations: communicating
problems that could be encountered, e.g.
availability of data, access to the sample
• Appendix: e.g. copy of research instrument,
consent form, references
• Work schedule: developing a timeline of events
• Proposed budget: list of costing
 Research Methodology
Chapter 17

Writing a Research Report

 Topics covered
• Writing a research report
• Developing an outline
• Writing about a variable
• Different referencing systems
• Writing a bibliography
 Writing a research report
• Last step in the research process is writing a
report to communicate the findings of the
study
• The report is what will be read by others
• Clear and logical
• Accurate and concise
• Developing a thematic draft outline
 Developing an outline
• Dividing the report in different chapters
• Planning what goes into each chapter
• Geared towards the study and its objectives
• Chapter titles to reflect its content
• Content and methodology of each project is
different
• How will findings be communicated?
 Structure of report outline
• Introduction and rational for the study
• Literature review
• Objectives of the study
• Methodology
• Findings and discussion
• Problems and limitations
• Conclusions and possible explanations /
recommendations
 Writing about a variable
• Why is it important to study the variable? (This is about
providing a rationale for studying the variable)
• In the case of a cross-tabulation, what relationships
have other studies found between the variables that
will be analysed? (This is where the literature review is
integrated into the findings of the study)
• What is the expected outcome between the two
variables? (Stating hypotheses)
• What has the study found out? (Reporting results, e.g.
as tables, graphs or text.)
Writing about a variable continued
• What does the data show? (Interpreting the
findings of the analysis)
• What conclusions can be drawn? How do the
conclusions drawn from this study compare with
those from similar studies in the past? Does the
study support or contradict them? (Linking results
to existing literature)
• What explanation can be provided for the
findings of the study? (Linking results to existing
theories)
 Different referencing systems
• Adopting a referencing style that is used in the
field or area of interest for the research report
• There are different academic styles of
referencing:
– The short-title system
– The author-date system (Harvard system)
– The reference by number system (Vancouver
system)
– The author-number system
 Writing a bibliography
• Preferences according to disciplines or
university
• The most common ones are:
– Harvard system
– American psychological association system
– American Medical association system
– Mcgraw-Hill system
– Modern languages association system
– Footnote system
 Summary
• The research report communicates the
findings of the research study
• Qualitative reports are written using a
descriptive and narrative style
• Quantitative reports are written in a
descriptive and analytical format
• Clearly and concisely written