YOUR NOTES

IGCSE Physics CIE

6. Space Physics

CONTENTS
6.1 Earth & The Solar System
6.1.1 The Earth, Moon & Sun
6.1.2 Calculating Orbital Speeds
6.1.3 The Solar System
6.1.4 Orbiting Bodies
6.1.5 Gravitational Effects on Orbits
6.2 Stars & The Universe
6.2.1 The Sun as a Star
6.2.2 Stars
6.2.3 The Expanding Universe
6.2.4 The Big Bang Theory
6.2.5 Hubble & The Age of the Universe
 6.1 Earth & The Solar System YOUR NOTES

6.1.1 The Earth, Moon & Sun

The Earth's Axis

The Earth is a rocky planet that rotates in a near circular orbit around the Sun
It rotates on its axis, which is a line through the north and south poles
The axis is tilted at an angle of approximately 23.4° from the vertical
The Earth completes one full rotation (revolution) in approximately 24 hours (1
day)

This rotation creates the apparent daily motion of the Sun rising and setting
Rotation of the Earth on its axis is therefore responsible for the periodic cycle
of day and night

Day and Night

The Earth's rotation around its axis creates day and night
Day is experienced by the half of the Earth's surface that is facing the Sun
Night is the other half of the Earth's surface, facing away from the Sun

Day and night are caused by the Earth's rotation

Rising and Setting of the Sun

The Earth's rotation on its axis makes the Sun looks like it moves from east to west YOUR NOTES
At the equinoxes the Sun rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west
Equinox (meaning 'equal night') is when day and night are approximately of
equal length
However, the exact locations of where the Sun rises and sets changes throughout
the seasons

In the northern hemisphere (above the equator):

In summer, the sun rises north of east and sets north of west
In winter, the sun rises south of east and sets south of west

The Sun rises in the east and sets in the west. Its approximate area changes
throughout the year

The Sun is highest above the horizon at noon (12 pm)

In the northern hemisphere, the daylight hours are longest up until roughly the
21st June
This day is known as the Summer Solstice and is where the Sun is at its
highest point in the sky all year
The daylight hours then decrease to their lowest around 21st December
This is known the Winter Solstice and is where the Sun is at its lowest point in
the sky all year
 The Earth's Orbit YOUR NOTES
The Earth orbits the Sun once in approximately 365 days
This is 1 year
The combination of the orbiting of the Earth around the Sun and the Earth's tilt
creates the seasons

Seasons in the Northern hemisphere caused by the tilt of the Earth

Over parts B, C and D of the orbit, the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the
Sun
This means daylight hours are more than hours of darkness
This is spring and summer
The southern hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun
This means there are shorter days than night
This is autumn and winter
Over parts F, G and H of the orbit, the northern hemisphere is tilted away from the
Sun
The situations in both the northern and southern hemisphere are reversed
It is autumn and winter in the northern hemisphere, but at the same time it is
spring and summer in the southern hemisphere
At C:
This is the summer solstice
The northern hemisphere has the longest day, whilst the southern hemisphere
has its shortest day
At G:
This is the winter solstice
The northern hemisphere has its shortest day, whilst the southern hemisphere
has its longest day
At A and D:
Night and day are equal in both hemispheres YOUR NOTES
These are the equinoxes
 Moon & Earth YOUR NOTES
The Moon is a satellite around the Earth
It travels around the Earth in roughly a circular orbit once a month
This takes 27-28 days
The Moon revolves around its own axis in a month so always has the same side
facing the Earth at all times
We never see the hemisphere that is always facing away from Earth, although
astronauts have orbited the Moon and satellite have photographed it
The Moon shines with reflected light from the Sun, it does not produce its own
light

Phases of the Moon

The way the Moon's appearance changes across a month, as seen from Earth, is
called its periodic cycle of phases

Phases of the Moon as it orbits around Earth

In the image above, the inner circle shows that exactly half of the Moon is
illuminated by the Sun at all times
The outer circle shows how the Moon looks like from the Earth at its various
positions
In the New Moon phase:
The Moon is between the Earth and the Sun
Therefore, the sunlight is only on the opposite face of the Moon to the Earth
This means the Moon is unlit as seen from Earth, so it is not visible
At the Full Moon phase:
The Earth is between the Moon and the Sun
The side of the Moon that is facing the Earth is completely lit by the sunlight
 This means the Moon is fully lit as seen from Earth YOUR NOTES
In between, a crescent can be seen where the Moon is partially illuminated from
sunlight
 6.1.2 Calculating Orbital Speeds YOUR NOTES

Orbital Speed
EXTENDED

When planets move around the Sun, or a moon moves around a planet, they orbit
in circular motion
This means that in one orbit, a planet travels a distance equal to the
circumference of a circle (the shape of the orbit)
This is equal to 2πr where r is the radius a circle

The relationship between speed, distance and time is:

distance
Speed =
time

the average orbital speed of an object can be defined by the equation:

2 πr
v=
T
Where:
v = orbital speed in metres per second (m/s)
r = average radius of the orbit in metres (m)
T = orbital period in seconds (s)

This orbital period (or time period) is defined as:

The time taken for an object to complete one orbit

The orbital radius r is always taken from the centre of the object being orbited to
the object orbiting

Orbital radius and orbital speed of a planet moving around a Sun

 Worked Example
The Hubble Space Telescope moves in a circular orbit. Its distance above
the Earthʼs surface is 560 km and the radius of the Earth is 6400 km. It
completes one orbit in 96 minutes.

Calculate its orbital speed in m/s.

Step 1: List the known quantities

Radius of the Earth, R = 6400 km

Distance of the telescope above the Earth's surface, h = 560 km
Time period, T = 96 minutes

Step 2: Write the relevant equation

2 πr
v=
T
Step 3: Calculate the orbital radius, r

The orbital radius is the distance from the centre of the Earth to the telescope

r=R+h
 r = 6400 + 560 = 6960 km
Step 4: Convert any units

The time period needs to be in seconds

1 minute = 60 seconds
96 minutes = 60 × 96 = 5760 s

The radius needs to be in metres

1 km = 1000 m
6960 km = 6 960 000 m
Step 5: Substitute values into the orbital speed equation

2π × 6 960 000
v= = 7592. 18 = 7590 m/s
5760

Exam Tip
Remember to check that the orbital radius r given is the distance from
the centre of the Sun (if a planet is orbiting a Sun) or the planet (if a moon is
orbiting a planet) and not just from the surface. If the distance is a height
above the surface you must add the radius of the body, to get the height
above the centre of mass of the body.

This is because orbits are caused by the mass, which can be assumed to act
at the centre, rather than the surface.

Don't forget to check your units and convert any if required!

 6.1.3 The Solar System YOUR NOTES

The Solar System

The Solar System consists of:
1. The Sun
2. Eight planets
3. Natural and artificial satellites
4. Dwarf planets
5. Asteroids and comets

The Sun & the Planets

The Sun lies at the centre of the Solar System
The Sun is a star that makes up over 99% of the mass of the solar system

There are eight planets and an unknown number of dwarf planets which orbit the
Sun
The gravitational field around planets is strong enough to have pulled in all
nearby objects with the exception of natural satellites
The gravitational field around a dwarf planet is not strong enough to have
pulled in nearby objects

The 8 planets in our Solar System in ascending order of the distance from the Sun
are:
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune

Satellites
There are two types of satellite:
Natural
Artificial

Some planets have moons which orbit them

Moons are an example of natural satellites

Artificial satellites are man-made and can orbit any object in space
The International Space Station (ISS) orbits the Earth and is an example of an
artificial satellite

Asteroids & Comets

Asteroids and comets also orbit the sun
An asteroid is a small rocky object which orbits the Sun
The asteroid belt lies between Mars and Jupiter
Comets are made of dust and ice and orbit the Sun in a different orbit to those of YOUR NOTES
planets
The ice melts when the comet approaches the Sun and forms the cometʼs tail

The objects in our solar system

Exam Tip
You need to know the order of the 8 planets in the solar system. The
following mnemonic gives the first letter of each of the planets to help you
recall them:

My Very Excellent Mother Just Served Us Noodles

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune

 Accretion Model of the Solar System YOUR NOTES
There are 4 rocky and small planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars
These are the nearest to the Sun
There are 4 gaseous and large planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
There are the furthest from the sun

The eight planets of our Solar System

The differences in the types of planets are defined by the accretion model for Solar
System formation

The Sun was thought to have formed when gravitational attraction of pulled
together clouds of hydrogen dust and gas (called nebulae)
The Solar System then formed around 4.5 billion years ago
The planets were formed from the remnants of the disc cloud of matter left
over from the nebula that formed the Sun
These interstellar clouds of gas and dust included many elements that were
created during the final stages of a star's lifecycle (a previous supernova)
Gravity collapsed the matter from the nebula in on itself causing it to spin around
the Sun
The gravitational attraction between all the small particles caused them to join
together and grow in an accretion process
A rotating accretion disc is formed when the planets emerged
 YOUR NOTES

The accretion model of the creation of the Solar System

As the Sun grew in size it became hotter YOUR NOTES
Where the inner planets were forming near the Sun, the temperature was too high
for molecules such as Hydrogen, Helium, water and Methane to exist in a solid
state
Therefore, the inner planets are made of materials with high melting
temperatures such as metals (e.g. iron)
Only 1% of the original nebula is composed of heavy elements, so the inner,
rocky planets could not grow much and stayed as a small size, solid and rocky
The cooler regions were further away from the Sun, and temperature was low
enough for the light molecules to exist in a solid state
The outer planets therefore could grow to a large size up and include even the
lightest element, Hydrogen
These planets are large, gaseous and cold

Exam Tip
When referring to the accretion model for the formation of the Solar System,
make sure your answer has the following:

(a) the modelʼs dependence on gravity

(b) the presence of many elements in interstellar clouds of gas and dust

(c) the rotation of material in the cloud and the formation of an accretion
disc
6.1.4 Orbiting Bodies YOUR NOTES

Light Speed
The planets and moons of the solar system are visible from Earth when they reflect
light from the Sun
The outer regions of the Solar System are around 5 × 1012 m from the Sun,
which means even light takes some time to travel these distances
The Sun is so far away from Earth that the light we see actually left the Sun eight
minutes earlier
the nearest star to us after the Sun is so far away that light from it takes four
years to reach us
The Milky Way galaxy contains billions of stars, huge distances away, with the
light taking even longer to be seen from Earth

The speed of light is a constant 3 × 108 m/s

Therefore, using the equation:

distance
speed =
time

The time taken to travel a certain distance can be calculated by rearranging to:
distance
time =
speed

Worked Example
Calculate the time taken for light from the Sun to reach Mercury if the
radius of Mercury's orbit is 5.8 × 109 m.

Step 1: State the equation for the time taken for light to travel a certain distance

distance
time =
speed
Step 2: Substitute in the values

The distance travelled is the radius of the orbit

Distance, d = 5.8 × 109 m.
Speed = the speed of light, v = 3.0 × 108 m/s
5.8 × 109
time = = 1. 933333
3.0 × 108
Step 3: Round up the answer and include units

time = 19.3 s
 YOUR NOTES
Exam Tip
The speed of light is very fast. This is why in our everyday life, we do not
notice that it travels a distance at all. For example, when you switch on a
light bulb, the room is flooded with light instantly. However, this is only
because it is so fast and our eyes cannot see the difference. In large,
astronomical distances which can be millions or even billions of kilometres,
the limit of the speed of light starts to have an affect.

For example, it takes light 8 minutes to travel from the Sun to the Earth. This
means we are technically seeing the Sun 8 minutes ago. If the Sun was to
disappear, we would not notice till 8 minutes later. Although, by that time,
the time delay is the least of our worries...

Elliptical Orbits
EXTENDED

Orbits of planets, minor planets and comets are elliptical

An ellipse is just a 'squashed' circle
Planets, minor planets and comets have elliptical orbits
However, the Sun is not at the centre of an elliptical orbit
This is only the case when the orbit is approximately circular
In an elliptical orbit, the Sun is not at the centre of the orbit
However, in a circular orbit, the Sun is at the centre

Planets and comets travel in elliptical orbits, but the Sun is not at the centre of these
orbits

Exam Tip
You will not be asked to do any calculations with elliptical orbits. If you are
asked to calculate the time period, orbital speed or radius of an orbit, it can
be assumed that it is circular.
 Analysing Orbits YOUR NOTES
EXTENDED

Over many years, data about all the planets, moons and the Sun have been
collected
This is not just for general interest, but to indicate:
Factors that affect conditions on the surface of the planets
Environmental problems that a visit (using manned spaceships or robots)
would encounter

Table of Data for Planets in our Solar System

Uniform
Surface
Orbital Surface
Orbital duration / Density / Gravitational
Planet distance / Temperature/
days or years kg/m3 Field
million km °C
Strength/
N/kg
Mercury 57.9 88 days 5427 350 3.7
Venus 108.2 225 days 5243 460 8.9
Earth 149.6 365 days 5514 20 9.8
Mars 227.9 687 days 3933 –23 3.7
Jupiter 778.6 11.9 years 1326 –120 23.1
Saturn 1433.5 29.5 years 687 –180 9.0
Uranus 2872.5 75 years 1271 –210 8.7
Neptune 4495.1 165 years 1638 –220 11.0

There are some common themes from the data of the planets is:
Orbital duration (how long it takes to travel around the Sun) increases with orbital
distance (distance from the Sun)
The circular path that the planet's travel in has a larger radius
Orbital duration increases with orbital distance
E.g. Neptune travels much slower than Mercury
The planets further away from the Sun experience a weaker gravitational pull,
so move slower in their orbit
Surface temperature decreases with orbital distance except for Venus
Venus has a dense atmosphere of carbon dioxide, trapping in heat through the
greenhouse effect
The surface gravitational field strength doesn't just depend on a planet's size, but
also its mass
This is why although Uranus is 4 times larger than Earth, it has a smaller
gravitational field strength because it is less dense
 YOUR NOTES
Exam Tip
Although you don't need to memorise any of this data, you must be able to
confidently analyse and interpret it. Look out for trends such as one variable
increasing whilst the the other decreases (or also increases). This carefully
about why that may be with what you have already learnt about the planets
from this topic. For example, what is the planet made of? What is its distance
from the Sun and how does this affect it?
6.1.5 Gravitational Effects on Orbits YOUR NOTES

Gravitational Field Strength

The strength of gravity on different planets after an object's weight on that planet
Weight is defined as:

The force acting on an object due to gravitational attraction

Planets have strong gravitational fields

Hence, they attract nearby masses with a strong gravitational force

Because of weight:
Objects stay firmly on the ground
Objects will always fall to the ground
Satellites are kept in orbit

Objects are attracted towards the centre of the Earth due to its gravitational field
strength

Both the weight of any body and the value of the gravitational field strength g
differs between the surface of the Earth and the surface of other bodies in space,
including the Moon because of the planet or moon's mass
The greater the mass of the planet then the greater its gravitational field
strength
A higher gravitational field strength means a larger attractive force towards
the centre of that planet or moon

g varies with the distance from a planet, but on the surface of the planet, it is
roughly the same
 The strength of the field around the planet decreases as the distance from the YOUR NOTES
planet increases
However, the value of g on the surface varies dramatically for different planets and
moons

The gravitational field strength (g) on the Earth is approximately 10 N/kg

The gravitational field strength on the surface of the Moon is less than on the
Earth
This means it would be easier to lift a mass on the surface of the Moon than
on the Earth

The gravitational field strength on the surface of the gas giants (eg. Jupiter and
Saturn) is more than on the Earth
This means it would be harder to lift a mass on the gas giants than on the
Earth

Value for g on the different objects in the Solar System

On such planets such as Jupiter, an objectʼs mass remains the same at all points in
space
However, their weight will be a lot greater meaning for example, a human will be
unable to fully stand up
 YOUR NOTES

A personʼs weight on Jupiter would be so large a human would be unable to fully

stand up

Exam Tip
You do not need to remember the value of g on different planets for your
exam, the value of g for Earth will be given in the exam question.
 Gravitational Attraction of the Sun YOUR NOTES
There are many orbiting objects in our solar system and they each orbit a different
type of planetary body

Orbiting Objects or Bodies in Our Solar System Table

A smaller body or object will orbit a larger body

For example, a planet orbiting the Sun

In order to orbit a body such as a star or a planet, there has to be a force pulling
the object towards that body
Gravity provides this force

Therefore, it is said that the force that keeps a planet in orbit around the Sun is the
gravitational attraction of the Sun
The gravitational force exerted by the larger body on the orbiting object is always
attractive
Therefore, the gravitational force always acts towards the centre of the larger
body
Therefore, the force that keeps an object in orbit around the Sun is the
gravitational attraction of the Sun and is always directed from the orbiting object
to the centre of the Sun

The gravitational force will cause the body to move and maintain in a circular path
 YOUR NOTES

Gravitational attraction causes the Moon to orbit around the Earth

 Sun's Gravitational Field & Distance YOUR NOTES
EXTENDED

As the distance from the Sun increases:

The strength of the Sun's gravitational field on the planet decreases
Their orbital speed of the planet decreases
To keep an object in a circular path, it must have a centripetal force
For planets orbiting the Sun, this force is gravity
Therefore, the strength of the Sun's gravitational field in the planet affects how
much centripetal force is on the planet
This strength decreases the further away the planet is from the Sun, and the
weaker the centripetal force
The centripetal force is proportional to the orbital speed
Therefore, the planets further away from the Sun have a smaller orbital speed
This also equates to a longer orbital duration

How the speed of a planet is affected by its distance from the Sun

This can be seen from data collected for a planet's orbital distance against their
orbital speed
E.g. Neptune travels much slower than Mercury

Table of Orbital Distance, Speed and Duration

Orbital distance / Orbital Speed / Orbital duration /

Planet
million km km/s days or years

Mercury 57.9 47.9 88 days

Venus 108.2 35.0 225 days
Earth 149.6 29.8 365 days
 Mars 227.9 24.1 687 days YOUR NOTES
Jupiter 778.6 13.1 11.9 years
Saturn 1433.5 9.7 29.5 years
Uranus 2872.5 6.8 75 years
Neptune 4495.1 5.4 165 years

Exam Tip
Be careful with your wording in this topic when talking about gravity. It is
important to refer to the force of gravity as 'gravitational attraction', '
strength of the Sun's gravitational field' or 'the force due to gravity'. Avoid
terms such as 'the Sun's gravity' or even more vague, 'the force from the
Sun'.
 Orbits & Conservation of Energy YOUR NOTES
EXTENDED

An object in an elliptical orbit around the Sun travels at a different speed

depending on its distance from the Sun
Although these orbits are not circular, they are still stable
For a stable orbit, the radius must change if the comet's orbital speed
changes
As the comet approaches the Sun:
The radius of the orbit decreases
The orbital speed increases due to the Sun's strong gravitational pull
As the comet travels further away from the Sun:
The radius of the orbit increases
The orbital speed decreases due to a weaker gravitational pull from the Sun

Comets travel in highly elliptical orbits, speeding up as they approach the Sun
Conservation of Energy
Although an object in an elliptical orbit, such as a comet, continually changes its
speed its energy must still be conserved
Throughout the orbit, the gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy of
the comet changes
As the comet approaches the Sun:
It loses gravitational potential energy and gains kinetic energy
This causes the comet to speed up
This increase in speed causes a slingshot effect, and the body will be flung
back out into space again, having passed around the Sun
As the comment moves away from the Sun:
It gains gravitational potential energy and loses kinetic energy
This causes it to slow down
Eventually, it falls back towards the Sun once more
In this way, a stable orbit is formed YOUR NOTES

Exam Tip
1
2
Remember that an objects kinetic energy is defined by: mv where m is the
2
mass of the object and v is its speed. Therefore, if the speed of an object
increases, so does its kinetic energy. Its gravitational potential energy
therefore must decrease for energy to be conserved.
6.2 Stars & The Universe YOUR NOTES

6.2.1 The Sun as a Star

The Sun
The Sun lies at the centre of the Solar System
The Sun is a star which makes up over 99% of the mass of the solar system
The fact that most of the mass of the Solar System is concentrated in the Sun is
the reason the smaller planets orbit the Sun
The gravitational pull of the Sun on the planets keeps them in orbit

The Sun is a medium sized star consisting of mainly hydrogen and helium
It radiates most of its energy in the infrared, visible and ultraviolet regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum

Our Sun (Image courtesy of NASA)

Stars come in a wide range of sizes and colours, from yellow stars to red dwarfs,
from blue giants to red supergiants
These can be classified according to their colour

Warm objects emit infrared and extremely hot objects emit visible light as well
Therefore, the colour they emit depends on how hot they are

A star's colour is related to its surface temperature

A red star is the coolest (at around 3000 K)
A blue star is the hottest (at around 30 000 K)
 YOUR NOTES

The colour of a star correlates to its temperature

 Nuclear Fusion in Stars YOUR NOTES
EXTENDED

In the centre of a stable star, hydrogen atoms undergo nuclear fusion to form
helium
The equation for the reaction is shown here:

Deuterium and Tritium are both isotopes of hydrogen. They can be formed through
other fusion reactions in the star

A huge amount of energy is released in the reaction

This provides a pressure that prevents the star from collapsing under its gravity

The fusion of deuterium and tritium to form helium with the release of energy
 YOUR NOTES
Worked Example
An example of a hydrogen fusion reaction which takes place in stars is
shown here.

Which of the following is a valid reason as to why hydrogen fusion is not

currently possible on Earth?

A Hydrogen fusion produces dangerous radioactive waste

B Hydrogen nuclei require very high temperature to fuse together

C Hydrogen is a rare element that would be difficult to get large amounts

of

D Hydrogen fusion does not produce enough energy to be commercially

viable

ANSWER: B

Hydrogen nuclei have positive charges

So two hydrogen nuclei would have a repulsive force between them
High temperatures are required to give the nuclei enough energy to overcome
the repulsive force
The answer is not A because the products of the hydrogen fusion shown in the
reaction is helium
Helium is an inert gas

The answer is not C because hydrogen is a very abundant element

It is the most common element in the universe

The answer is not D because hydrogen fusion would produce a huge amount
of energy
 6.2.2 Stars YOUR NOTES

The Milky Way

Galaxies are made up of billions of stars
The Universe is made up of many different galaxies

The Sun is one of billions of stars in a galaxy called the Milky Way
Other stars in the Milky Way galaxy are much further away from Earth than the Sun
is
Some of these stars also have planets which orbit them

Our solar system is just one out of potentially billions in our galactic neighbourhood,
the Milky Way. There are estimated to be more than 100 billion galaxies in the entire
universe

Astronomical distances such as the distances between stars and galaxies, are so
large that physicists use a special unit to measure them called the light-year

One light-year is:

The distance travelled by light through (the vacuum of) space in one year

The speed of light is the universal speed limit, nothing can travel faster than the
speed of light
But over astronomical distances, light actually travels pretty slowly
The diameter of the Milky Way is approximately 100 000 light-years
This means that light would take 100 000 years to travel across it

EXTENDED

One light year = 9.5 × 1012 km = 9.5 × 1015 m

 Life Cycle of Stars YOUR NOTES
EXTENDED

1. Nebula
All stars form from a giant interstellar cloud of hydrogen gas and dust called a
nebula

2. Protostar
The force of gravity within a nebula pulls the particles closer together until it
forms a hot ball of gas, known as a protostar
As the particles are pulled closer together the density of the protostar will
increase
This will result in more frequent collisions between the particles which causes
the temperature to increase

3. Main Sequence Star

Once the protostar becomes hot enough, nuclear fusion reactions occur within its
core
The hydrogen nuclei will fuse to form helium nuclei
Every fusion reaction releases heat (and light) energy which keeps the core hot

Once a protostar is formed, its life cycle will depend on its mass
The different life cycles are shown below:
 YOUR NOTES

Flow diagram showing the life cycle of a star which is the same size as the Sun (solar
mass) and the lifecycle of a star which is much bigger than the Sun

Once a star is born it is known as a main-sequence star

 During the main sequence, the star is in equilibrium and said to be stable YOUR NOTES
The inward force due to gravity is equal to the outward pressure force from
the fusion reactions

4. Red Giant or Red Super Giant

After several billion years the hydrogen causing the fusion reactions in the star will
begin to run out
Once this happens, the fusion reactions in the core will start to die down
This causes the core to shrink and heat up
The core will shrink because the inward force due to gravity will become
greater than the outward force due to the pressure of the expanding gases as
the fusion dies down

A new series of reactions will then occur around the core, for example, helium
nuclei will undergo fusion to form beryllium
These reactions will cause the outer part of the star to expand
A star the same size as the Sun or smaller will become a red giant
A star much larger than the Sun will become a red super giant
It is red because the outer surface starts to cool

5. For Red Giant Stars

Planetary Nebula
Once this second stage of fusion reactions have finished, the star will become
unstable and eject the outer layer of dust and gas
The layer of dust and gas which is ejected is called a planetary nebula

White Dwarf
The core which is left behind will collapse completely, due to the pull of gravity,
and the star will become a white dwarf
The white dwarf will be cooling down and as a result, the amount of energy it
emits will decrease

Black Dwarf
Once the star has lost a significant amount of energy it becomes a black dwarf
It will continue to cool until it eventually disappears from sight
 The lifecycle of a solar mass star

6. For Red Super Giants

Supernova
Once the fusion reactions inside the red supergiant finally finish, the core of the
star will collapse suddenly causing a gigantic explosion
This is called a supernova

At the centre of this explosion a dense body, called a neutron star will form
The outer remnants of the star will be ejected into space during the supernova
explosion, forming a planetary nebula
The nebula from a supernova may form new stars with orbiting planets

Neutron Star (or Black Hole)

In the case of the biggest stars, the neutron star that forms at the centre will
continue to collapse under the force of gravity until it forms a black hole
A black hole is an extremely dense point in space that not even light can
escape from
Lifecycle of a star much larger than our Sun
6.2.3 The Expanding Universe YOUR NOTES

Galaxies & Redshift

Usually, when an object emits waves, the wavefronts spread out symmetrically
If the wave source moves, the waves can become squashed together or stretched
out

Diagram showing the wavefronts produced from a stationary object and a moving
object

A moving object will cause the wavelength, λ, (and frequency) of the waves to
change:
The wavelength of the waves in front of the source decreases and the
frequency increases
The wavelength behind the source increases and the frequency decreases
This effect is known as the Doppler effect

The Doppler effect also affects light

If an object moves away from an observer the wavelength of light increases
This is known as redshift as the light moves towards the red end of the
spectrum

Redshift is:

An increase in the observed wavelength of electromagnet radiation emitted

from receding stars and galaxies
Light from a star that is moving towards an observer will be blueshifted and light
from a star moving away from an observer will be redshifted
 The observer behind observes a red shift

The Milky Way is just one of billions of galaxies that make up the Universe
Light emitted from distant galaxies appears redshifted when compared with light
emitted on Earth

The diagram below shows the light coming to us from a close object, such as the
Sun, and the light coming to us from a distant galaxy
 Comparing the light spectrum produced from the Sun and a distant galaxy

The diagram also shows that the light coming to us from distant galaxies is
redshifted
The lines on the spectrum are shifted towards the red end

This indicates that the galaxies are moving away from us

If the galaxies are moving away from us it means that the universe is expanding
The observation of redshift from distant galaxies supports the Big Bang theory

Another observation from looking at the light spectrums produced from distant
galaxies is that the greater the distance to the galaxy, the greater the redshift
This means that the further away a galaxy, the faster it is moving away from
us
Graph showing the greater the distance to a galaxy, the greater the redshift
YOUR NOTES
 6.2.4 The Big Bang Theory YOUR NOTES

The Big Bang

Around 14 billion years ago, the Universe began from a very small region that
was extremely hot and dense
Then there was a giant explosion, which is known as the Big Bang
This caused the universe to expand from a single point, cooling as it does so, to
form the universe today
Each point expands away from the others
This is seen from galaxies moving away from each other, and the further away
they are the faster they move

Redshift in the light from distant galaxies is evidence that the Universe is
expanding and supports the Big Bang Theory
As a result of the initial explosion, the Universe continues to expand

All galaxies are moving away from each other, indicating that the universe isexpanding

An analogy of this is points drawn on a balloon where the balloon represents

space and the points as galaxies
When the balloon is deflated, all the points are close together and an equal
distance apart
As the balloon expands, all the points become further apart by the same
amount
 This is because the space itself has expanded between the galaxies YOUR NOTES

A balloon inflating is similar to the stretching of the space between galaxies

 Redshift and CMBR YOUR NOTES

Evidence for the Big Bang

The Big Bang theory is very well supported by evidence from a range of sources
The main pieces of evidence are
Galactic red-shift
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR)

Evidence from Galactic Red-Shift

Galactic redshift provides evidence for the Big Bang Theory and the expansion of
the universe
The diagram below shows the light coming to us from a close object, such as the
Sun, and the light coming to the Earth from a distant galaxy

Comparing the light spectrum produced from the Sun and a distant galaxy

Red-shift provides evidence that the Universe is expanding because:

Red-shift is observed when the spectral lines from the distant galaxy move closer
to the red end of the spectrum
This is because light waves are stretched by the expansion of the universe so
the wavelength increases (or frequency decreases)
This indicates that the galaxies are moving away from us

Light spectrums produced from distant galaxies are red-shifted more than nearby
galaxies
This shows that the greater the distance to the galaxy, the greater the
redshift
This means that the further away a galaxy is, the faster it is moving away
from the Earth

These observations imply that the universe is expanding and therefore support
the Big Bang Theory
 YOUR NOTES

Tracing the expansion of the universe back to the beginning of time leads to the idea
the universe began with a “big bang”

EXTENDED

Evidence from CMB Radiation

The discovery of the CMB (Cosmic Microwave Background) radiation led to the Big
Bang theory becoming the currently accepted model
The CMB is a type of electromagnetic radiation which is a remnant from the
early stages of the Universe
It has a wavelength of around 1 mm making it a microwave, hence the name
Cosmic Microwave Background radiation

In 1964, Astronomers discovered radiation in the microwave region of the

electromagnetic spectrum coming from all directions and at a generally uniform
temperature of 2.73 K
They were unable to do this any earlier since microwaves are absorbed by the
atmosphere
Around this time, space flight was developed which enabled astronomers to
send telescopes into orbit above the atmosphere

EXTENDED

According to the Big Bang theory, the early Universe was an extremely hot and
dense environment
As a result of this, it must have emitted thermal radiation
 The radiation is in the microwave region YOUR NOTES
This is because over the past 14 billion years or so, the radiation initially from
the Big Bang has become redshifted as the Universe has expanded
Initially, this would have been high energy radiation, towards the gamma end
of the spectrum
As the Universe expanded, the wavelength of the radiation increased
Over time, it has increased so much that it is now in the microwave region of
the spectrum

The CMB is a result of high energy radiation being redshifted over billions of years

EXTENDED

The CMB radiation is very uniform and has the exact profile expected to be emitted
from a hot body that has cooled down over a very long time
This phenomenon is something that other theories (such as the Steady State
Theory) cannot explain

EXTENDED

The CMB is represented by the following map:

 YOUR NOTES

The CMB map with areas of higher and lower temperature. Places with higher
temperature have a higher concentration of galaxies, Suns and planets

EXTENDED

This is the closest image to a map of the observable Universe

The different colours represent different temperatures
The red / orange / brown regions represent warmer temperature indicating a
higher density of galaxies
The blue regions represents cooler temperature indicating a lower density of
galaxies

The temperature of the CMB radiation is mostly uniform, however, there are
minuscule temperature fluctuations (on the order of 0.00001 K)
This implies that all objects in the Universe are more or less uniformly spread
out
 6.2.5 Hubble & The Age of the Universe YOUR NOTES

Hubble Constant Calculations

EXTENDED

In 1929, the astronomer Edwin Hubble showed that the universe was expanding
He did this by observing that the absorption line spectra produced from the
light of distant galaxies was shifted towards the red end of the spectrum
This doppler shift in the wavelength of the light is evidence that distant
galaxies are moving away from the Earth

Hubble also observed that light from more distant galaxies was shifted further
towards the red end of the spectrum compared to closer galaxies
From this observation he concluded that galaxies or stars which are further
away from the Earth are moving faster than galaxies which are closer

Hubbleʼs law states:

The recessional velocity v of a galaxy is proportional to its distance from Earth

Hubbleʼs law can be expressed as an equation:

v
H0 =
d
Where:
H0 = Hubble constant, this will be provided in your examination along with the
correct units (km s-1 Mpc-1)
The accepted value is that H0 = 2.2 × 10–18 per second
v = recessional velocity of an object, the velocity of an object moving away
from an observer (km s-1)
d = distance between the object and the Earth (Mpc)

As the equation shows, the Hubble Constant, H0 is defined as:

The ratio of the speed at which the galaxy is moving away from the Earth, to its
distance from the Earth
 Age of the Universe YOUR NOTES
EXTENDED

Since Hubble's Law states that

v
H0 =
d
It can be rearranged to show that
1 d
=
H0 v

Hubbleʼs law shows that the further away a star is from the Earth, the faster it is
moving away from us

A key aspect of Hubbleʼs law is that the furthest galaxies appear to move away the
fastest

The gradient of the graph can be used to find the Age of the Universe
When the distance equals zero, this represents all the matter in the Universe
being at a single point
This is the singularity that occurred at the moment of the Big Bang

The units of the gradient are per second (the same as the units of the Hubble
Constant)
1
By taking the reciprocal, or, the units will become seconds
H0
Therefore the reciprocal of the gradient represents time and gives the amount
of time which the Universe has been expanding for
Astronomers have used this formula to estimate the age of the Universe at about YOUR NOTES
13.7 billion years

Worked Example
A distant galaxy is 20 light-years away from Earth.

Use Hubbleʼs Law to determine the velocity of the galaxy as it moves away
from Earth.

The Hubble constant is currently agreed to be 2.2 x 10-18 s-1.

Step 1: List the known quantities:

d = 20 light years
Ho = 2.2 x 10-18 s-1

Step 2: Convert 20 light-years to m:

From the data booklet: 1 ly ≈ 9.5 x 1015 m

So, 20 ly = 20 x (9.5 x 1015) = 1.9 x 1017 m

Step 3: Substitute values into Hubble's Law:

From the data booklet: v ≈ H0d

So, v ≈ (2.2 x 10-18 ) x (1.9 x 1017) = 0.418 m s-1

Step 4: Confirm your answer:

The velocity of the galaxy as it moves away from Earth 0.42 m s-1