Computer Organization

Definition:

Computer Organization refers to the way in which the various components

of a computer system are arranged and connected.

 It involves the study of the internal working and structuring of a computer

system.

 This includes the design and architecture of the central processing unit
(CPU), memory, input/output devices, and how they interact with each other.

Key Features:

Instruction Set Architecture (ISA):

This is a set of rules that dictates the operations that the computer can perform. It
includes the set of instructions that a CPU can execute.

2. Memory Hierarchy:
Computer systems have multiple levels of memory, including registers, cache,
main memory, and secondary storage. The organization of these memory levels
is crucial for performance.

3. Processor Organization:
This involves the design and implementation of the CPU, including the control
unit, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and registers.
4. Bus Structure:
The way in which data is transferred between components is through a bus.
Computer organization involves the design and implementation of the bus
structure.

5. Input/Output Organization:
This deals with how the computer communicates with the external world,
including devices such as keyboards, monitors, and storage devices.

Technology Used:
The technology used in computer organization includes digital logic design,
integrated circuits, assembly language programming, and various computer
architecture principles.

It also encompasses the design of instruction sets and the development of

techniques to optimize performance and power consumption.

Applications:
Computer organization is fundamental to the development of computer systems
and is used in a wide range of applications, including:

Personal Computers (PCs):

The organization of components in a PC, such as the CPU, memory, and
peripheral devices, follows principles of computer organization.

2. Servers:
In server systems, efficient organization is crucial for handling large amounts of
data and providing services to multiple users simultaneously.

3. Embedded Systems:
Devices like smartphones, smart TVs, and IoT devices require careful
consideration of computer organization to optimize performance and power
consumption.
4. Supercomputers:
High-performance computing systems used for complex calculations and
simulations rely on advanced computer organization principles
Computer Architecture
Computer architecture refers to the end-to-end structure of a computer
system that determines how its components interact with each other in
helping to execute the machine’s purpose (i.e., processing data), often
avoiding any reference to the actual technical implementation.

How does computer architecture work?

Computer architecture allows a computer to compute, retain, and retrieve
information. This data can be digits in a spreadsheet, lines of text in a file,
dots of color in an image, sound patterns, or the status of a system such as
a flash drive.
 Purpose of computer architecture: Everything a system
performs, from online surfing to printing, involves the
transmission and processing of numbers. A computer’s
architecture is merely a mathematical system intended to
collect, transmit, and interpret numbers.
 Data in numbers: The computer stores all data as numerals.
When a developer is engrossed in machine learning code and
analyzing sophisticated algorithms and data structures, it is easy
to forget this.
 Manipulating data: The computer manages information using
numerical operations. It is possible to display an image on a
 screen by transferring a matrix of digits to the video memory,
with every number reflecting a pixel of color.
 Multifaceted functions: The components of a computer
architecture include both software and hardware. The processor
— hardware that executes computer programs — is the primary
part of any computer.
 Booting up: At the most elementary level of a computer
design, programs are executed by the processor whenever the
computer is switched on. These programs configure the
computer’s proper functioning and initialize the different
hardware sub-components to a known state. This software is
known as firmware since it is persistently preserved in the
computer’s memory.
 Support for temporary storage: Memory is also a vital
component of computer architecture, with several types often
present in a single system. The memory is used to hold
programs (applications) while they are being executed by the
processor and the data being processed by the programs.
 Support for permanent storage: There can also be tools for
storing data or sending information to the external world as part
of the computer system. These provide text inputs through the
keyboard, the presentation of knowledge on a monitor, and the
transfer of programs and data from or to a disc drive.
 User-facing functionality: Software governs the operation and
functioning of a computer. Several software ‘layers’ exist in
computer architecture. Typically, a layer would only interface
with layers below or above it
Components of Computer Architecture
Depending on the method of categorization, the parts of a computer
architecture can be subdivided in several ways. The main components of a
computer architecture are the CPU, memory, and peripherals. All these
elements are linked by the system bus, which comprises an address bus, a
data bus, and a control bus. Within this framework, the computer
architecture has eight key components, as described below.
1. Input unit and associated peripherals
The input unit provides external data sources to the computer system.
Therefore, it connects the external environment to the computer. It
receives information from input devices, translates it to machine language,
and then inserts it within the computer system. The keyboard, mouse, or
other input devices are the most often utilized and have
corresponding hardware drivers that allow them to work in sync with the
rest of the computer architecture.
2. Output unit and associated peripherals
The output unit delivers the computer process’s results to the user. A
majority of the output data comprises music, graphics, or video. A
computer architecture’s output devices encompass the display, printing
unit, speakers, headphones, etc.
To play an MP3 file, for instance, the system reads a number array from
the disc and into memory. The computer architecture manipulates these
numbers to convert compressed audio data to uncompressed audio data
and then outputs the resulting set of numbers (uncompressed audio file) to
the audio chips. The chip then makes it user-ready through the output unit
and associated peripherals.
3. Storage unit/memory
The storage unit contains numerous computer parts that are employed to
store data. It is typically separated into primary storage and secondary
storage.
Primary storage unit
This component of the computer architecture is also referred to as the main
memory, as the CPU has direct access to it. Primary memory is utilized for
storing information and instructions during program execution. Random
access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM) are the two kinds of
memory:
 RAM supplies the necessary information straight to the CPU. It
is a temporary memory that stores data and instructions
intermittently.
  ROM is a memory type that contains pre-installed instructions,
including firmware. This memory’s content is persistent and
cannot be modified. ROM is utilized to boot the machine upon
initial startup. The computer is now unaware of anything
outside the ROM. The chip instructs it on how to set up the
computer architecture, conduct a power-on self-test (POST),
and finally locate the hard drive so that the operating system
can be launched.
Secondary storage unit
Secondary or external storage is inaccessible directly to the CPU. Before
the CPU uses secondary storage data, it must be transferred to the main
storage. Secondary storage permanently retains vast amounts of data.
Examples include hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs),
compact disks (CDs), etc.
4. Central processing unit (CPU)
The central processing unit includes registers, an arithmetic logic unit
(ALU), and control circuits, which interpret and execute assembly
language instructions. The CPU interacts with all the other parts of the
computer architecture to make sense of the data and deliver the necessary
output.
Here is a brief overview of the CPU’s sub-components:
1. Registers
These are high-speed and purpose-built temporary memory devices.
Rather than being referred to by their address, they are accessed and
modified directly by the CPU throughout execution. Essentially, they
contain data that the CPU is presently processing. Registers contain
information, commands, addresses, and intermediate processing results.
2. Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
The arithmetic logic unit includes the electrical circuitry that performs any
arithmetic and logical processes on the supplied data. It is used to execute
all arithmetic (additions, subtractions, multiplication, division) and logical
(<, >, AND, OR, etc.) computations. Registers are used by the ALU to
retain the data being processed.
3. Control unit
The control unit collaborates with the computer’s input and output devices.
It instructs the computer to execute stored program instructions via
communication with the ALU and registers. The control unit aims to
arrange data and instruction processing.
The microprocessor is the primary component of computer hardware that
runs the CPU. Large printed circuit boards (PCBs) are utilized in all
electronic systems, including desktops, calculators, and internet of things
(IoT) devices. The Intel 40004 was the first microprocessor with all CPU
components on a single chip.
In addition to these four core components, a computer architecture also has
supporting elements that make it easier to function, such as:
5. Bootloader
The firmware contains the bootloader, a specific program executed by the
processor that retrieves the operating system from the disc (or non-volatile
memory or network interface, as deemed applicable) and loads it into the
memory so that the processor can execute it. The bootloader is found on
desktop and workstation computers and embedded devices. It is essential
for all computer architectures.
6. Operating system (OS)
The operating system governs the computer’s functionality just above
firmware. It manages memory usage and regulates devices such as the
keyboard, mouse, display, and disc drives. The OS also provides the user
with an interface, allowing them to launch apps and access data on the
drive.
Typically, the operating system offers a set of tools for programs, allowing
them to access the screen, disc drives, and other elements of the
computer’s architecture.
Types of Computer Architecture
1. Instruction set architecture (ISA)
Instruction set architecture (ISA) is a bridge between the software and
hardware of a computer. It functions as a programmer’s viewpoint on a
machine. Computers can only comprehend binary language (0 and 1), but
humans can comprehend high-level language (if-else, while, conditions,
and the like). Consequently, ISA plays a crucial role in user-computer
communications by translating high-level language into binary language.
In addition, ISA outlines the architecture of a computer in terms of the
fundamental activities it must support. It’s not involved with
implementation-specific computer features. Instruction set architecture
dictates that the computer must assist:
 Arithmetic/logic instructions: These instructions execute
various mathematical or logical processing elements solely on a
single or maybe more operands (data inputs).
 Data transfer instructions: These instructions move
commands from the memory or into the processor registers, or
vice versa.
 Branch and jump instructions: These instructions are
essential to interrupt the logical sequence of instructions and
jump to other destinations.
2. Microarchitecture
Microarchitecture, unlike ISA, focuses on the implementation of how
instructions will be executed at a lower level. This is influenced by the
microprocessor’s structural design.
Microarchitecture is a technique in which the instruction set architecture
incorporates a processor. Engineering specialists and hardware scientists
execute ISA with various microarchitectures that vary according to the
development of new technologies. Therefore, processors may be
physically designed to execute a certain instruction set without modifying
the ISA.
Simply put, microarchitecture is the purpose-built logical arrangement of
the microprocessor’s electrical components and data pathways. It
facilitates the optimum execution of instructions.
3. Client-server architecture
Multiple clients (remote processors) may request and get services from a
single, centralized server in a client-server system (host computer). Client
computers allow users to request services from the server and receive the
server’s reply. Servers receive and react to client inquiries.
A server should provide clients with a standardized, transparent interface
so that they are unaware of the system’s features (software and hardware
components) that are used to provide the service.
Clients are often located on desktops or laptops, while servers are typically
located somewhere else on the network, on more powerful hardware. This
computer architecture is most efficient when the clients and the servers
frequently perform pre-specified responsibilities.
4. Single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) architecture
Single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) computer systems can process
multiple data points concurrently. This cleared the path
for supercomputers and other devices with incredible performance
capabilities. In this form of design, all processors receive an identical
command from the control unit yet operate on distinct data packets. The
shared memory unit requires numerous modules to interact with all CPUs
concurrently.

Differences between Computer Architecture and Computer

Organization

The following table highlights how Computer Architecture is different

from Computer Organization −

Key Computer Architecture Computer Organization

 Computer architecture Computer organization
Purpose explains what a computer explains how a computer
should do. works.

Computer architecture Computer organization

provides functional behavior provides structural
Target
of computer system. relationships between
parts of computer system.

Computer architecture deals Computer organization

Design with high level design. deals with low level
design.

Computer architecture assists Computer organization

in understanding the helps to understand the
Role
functionality of the computer. exact arrangement of
component of a computer.

Actors in Computer Actor in computer

Actors architecture are hardware organization is
parts. performance.

Computer architecture is Computer organization is

Order designed first. started after finalizing
computer architecture.

Computer architecture Computer organization

involves the relationship involves the relationship
among logical attributes of the among physical parts of
Involves
system like instruction sets, the system like circuits,
data types, addressing modes, peripherals, etc.
etc.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF COMPUTER COMPONENTS
Computer systems consist of three components as shown in below
image: Central Processing Unit, Input devices and Output devices. Input
devices provide data input to processor, which processes data and
generates useful information that’s displayed to the user through output
devices. This is stored in computer’s memory.
Central Processing Unit

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is called "the brain of computer" as it

controls operation of all parts of computer. It consists of two components:
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), and Control Unit.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Data entered into computer is sent to RAM, from where it is then sent to
ALU, where rest of data processing takes place. All types of processing,
such as comparisons, decision-making and processing of non-numeric
information takes place here and once again data is moved to RAM.

Control Unit

As name indicates, this part of CPU extracts instructions, performs

execution, maintains and directs operations of entire system.

Functions of Control Unit

Control unit performs following functions −

It controls all activities of computer

 Supervises flow of data within CPU
 Directs flow of data within CPU
 Transfers data to Arithmetic and Logic Unit
 Transfers results to memory
 Fetches results from memory to output devices
Memory Unit

This is unit in which data and instructions given to computer as

well as results given by computer are stored. Unit of memory is

Basics of Operating System

Operating System

Operating system is a software that controls system’s hardware

and interacts with user and application software.

In short, an operating system is computer’s chief control

program.

Functions of Operating System

The operating system performs the following functions −

 It offers a user interface.

 Loads program into computer’s memory.
  Coordinates how program works with hardware and other
software.
 Manages how information is stored and retrieved from the
disk.
 Saves contents of file on to disk.
 Reads contents of file from disk to memory.
 Sends document to the printer and activates the printer.
 Provides resources that copy or move data from one
document to another, or from one program to another.
 Allocates RAM among the running programs.
 Recognizes keystrokes or mouse clicks and displayes
characters or graphics on the screen.

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM

 Batch OS: These systems run a series of jobs without requiring
manual help. While they’re still useful in some cases, modern
computing mostly uses more interactive, real-time systems.
 Distributed OS: These manage many connected computers,
spreading the work between them. They’re becoming more important
with cloud and edge computing, efficiently handling big, spread-out
apps.
 Multitasking OS: These let you do many things at once, and they’re
constantly improving. Today’s multitasking OSs are good at giving
resources to different tasks, making everything run smoothly even
with many apps open.
 Network OS: These manage groups of networked computers, letting
them share stuff like files and printers. With cloud services getting
more popular, network OSs are adding cloud features for better
sharing and connecting.
 Real-Time OS (RTOS): RTOSs are vital when things have to happen
quickly, like in robots or IoT devices.
 Mobile OS: Mobile operating systems have improved, especially with
cloud stuff, security, and appearance. Now, they’re focusing on
making everything work across different gadgets so users get the
same experience everywhere.
 IoT Integration: Modern OSs are improving at managing many IoT
gadgets. They’re taking charge of these gadgets, offering one way to
control them all.
 AR/VR Support: In the future, Operating Systems will be great for
AR/VR stuff, with cool graphics, tracking, and sound.
 Enhanced Security and Privacy: With more online dangers,
Operating systems are getting stronger security and privacy features.
This means better ways to keep stuff safe and private.
  Cross-Platform Compatibility: OSs are getting better at working
well across different gadgets and platforms. They’re making it easier
to use the same stuff on different devices, like storing things in the
cloud and using apps everywhere.
 Edge Computing and Distributed Systems: Operating systems are
changing to handle resources in spread-out setups like edge
computing as computing moves beyond regular data centers. This
means apps aim to be faster and more responsive in this
environment.
 Machine Learning and Predictive Capabilities: Operating systems
increasingly leverage machine learning for predictive analytics and
optimization. This includes intelligent power management and
personalized user experiences.

EXAMPLES OF OPERATING SYSTEM

 Windows: Windows is the most popular desktop operating system,

used by over 1 billion users worldwide. It has a wide range of
features and applications, including the Office suite, gaming, and
productivity tools.
 macOS: macOS is the desktop operating system used by Apple Mac
computers. Users appreciate its clean, user-friendly interface, making
it popular among creative professionals.
 Linux: Linux is an open-source operating system. It is available for
free, and users can customize it to meet their specific needs.
Developers, businesses, and individuals who prefer an open-source,
customizable operating system use it.
 iOS: iOS is the mobile operating system used by Apple iPhones and
iPads. Its reputation arises from its user-friendly interface, close
integration with Apple’s hardware and software, and robust security
features.
 Android: Android is the most popular mobile operating system, used
by over 2 billion users worldwide. Its reputation stems from its open-
source nature, which offers customization options and compatibility
with a wide range of devices.