Correlation

This is an important statistical concept which refers to interrelationship or association between variables.
The purpose of studying correlation is for one to be able to establish a relationship, plan and control the
inputs (independent variables) and the output (dependent variables)
In business one may be interested to establish whether there exists a relationship between the
i. Amount of fertilizer applied on a given farm and the resulting harvest
ii. Amount of experience one has and the corresponding performance
iii. Amount of money spent on advertisement and the expected incomes after sale of the
goods/service
There are two methods that measure the degree of correlation between two variables these are denoted by
R and r.

(a) Coefficient of correlation denoted by r, this provides a measure of the strength of association
between two variables one the dependent variable the other the independent variable r can range
between +1 and – 1 for perfect positive correlation and perfect negative correlation respectively
with zero indicating no relation i.e. for perfect positive correlation y increase linearly with x
increament.
(b) Rank correlation coefficient denoted by R is used to measure association between two sets of
ranked or ordered data. R can also vary from +1, perfect positive rank correlation and -1 perfect
negative rank correlation where O or any number near zero representing no correlation.

SCATTER GRAPHS
- A scatter graph is a graph which comprises of points which have been plotted but are not joined
by line segments
- The pattern of the points will definitely reveal the types of relationship existing between variables
- The following sketch graphs will greatly assist in the interpretation of scatter graphs.
 Perfect positive correlation
y
Dependant variable x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

Independent variable
NB: For the above pattern, it is referred to as perfect because the points may easily be represented by a
single line graph e.g. when measuring relationship between volumes of sales and profits in a company,
the more the company sales the higher the profits.

Perfect negative correlation

y x
Quantity sold x
X
x
x
x
x
x
x
10 20 Price X
This example considers volume of sale in relation to the price, the cheaper the goods the bigger the sale.
 High positive correlation
y
Dependant variable xx
xx
x
x
xx
xx
xx
xx
x
xxx
x
x

independent variable x

High negative correlation

y
quantity sold x
x
xx
x
xx
x
x
x
x
xx
x

price
 No correlation
y

600 x x x x x
x x x
400 x x x x x
x x x x
200 x x x x x
x x x x
0
10 20 30 40 50 x
h) Spurious Correlations
- in some rare situations when plotting the data for x and y we may have a group showing either
positive correlation or –ve correlation but when you analyze the data for x and y in normal life
there may be no convincing evidence that there is such a relationship. This implies therefore that
the relationship only exists in theory and hence it is referred to as spurious or non sense e.g. when
high passrates of student show high relation with increased accidents.

Correlation coefficient
- These are numerical measures of the correlations existing between the dependent and the
independent variables
- These are better measures of correlation than scatter graphs (diagrams)
- The range for correlation coefficients lies between +ve 1 and –ve 1. A correlation coefficient of
+1 implies that there is perfect positive correlation. A value of –ve shows that there is perfect
negative correlation. A value of 0 implies no correlation at all
- The following chart will be found useful in interpreting correlation coefficients
 __ 1.0 } Perfect +ve correlation
} High positive correlation
__ 0.5}
} Low positive correlation
__0 }
} Low negative correlation
__-0.5}
} High negative correlation
__-1.0} Perfect –ve correlation

There are usually two types of correlation coefficients normally used namely;-

Product Moment Coefficient (r)

It gives an indication of the strength of the linear relationship between two variables.

r=

note that this formula can be rearranged to have different outlooks but the resultant is always the same.

Example
The following data was observed and it is required to establish if there exists a
relationship between the two.
X 15 24 25 30 35 40 45 65 70 75
Y 60 45 50 35 42 46 28 20 22 15
Solution
Compute the product moment coefficient of correlation (r)
X Y X2 Y2 XY
15 60 225 3,600 900
24 45 576 2,025 1,080
25 50 625 2,500 1,250
30 35 900 1,225 1,050
35 42 1,225 1,764 1,470
40 46 1,600 2,116 1,840
45 28 2,025 784 1,260
65 20 4,225 400 1,300
70 22 4,900 484 1,540
75 15 5,625 225 1,125

r=

r=

The correlation coefficient thus indicates a strong negative linear association between the two variables.

Interpretation of r – Problems in interpreting r values

NOTE:
 A high value of r (+0.9 or – 0.9) only shows a strong association between the two variables but
doesn’t imply that there is a causal relationship i.e. change in one variable causes change in the other
it is possible to find two variables which produce a high calculated r yet they don’t have a causal
relationship. This is known as spurious or nonsense correlation e.g. high pass rates in QT in Kenya
and increased inflation in Asian countries.
 Also note that a low correlation coefficient doesn’t imply lack of relation between variables but lack
of linear relationship between the variables i.e. there could exist a curvilinear relation.
 A further problem in interpretation arises from the fact that the r value here measures the relationship
between a single independent variable and dependent variable, where as a particular variable may be
dependent on several independent variables (e.g. crop yield may be dependent on fertilizer used, soil
exhaustion, soil acidity level, season of the year, type of seed etc.) in which case multiple correlation
should be used instead.
The Rank Correlation Coefficient (R)
Also known as the spearman rank correlation coefficient, its purpose is to establish whether there is any
form of association between two variables where the variables arranged in a ranked form.
 R=1-

Where d = difference between the pairs of ranked values.

n = numbers of pairs of rankings

Example
A group of 8 accountancy students are tested in Quantitative Techniques and Law
II. Their rankings in the two tests were.
Student Q. T. ranking Law II ranking d d2
A 2 3 -1 1
B 7 6 1 1
C 6 4 2 4
D 1 2 -1 1
E 4 5 -1 1
F 3 1 2 4
G 5 8 -3 9
H 8 7 1 1

d = Q. T. ranking – Law II ranking

R=1-

= 0.74
Thus we conclude that there is a reasonable agreement between student’s performances in the two types
of tests.
NOTE: in this example, if we are given the actual marks then we find r. R varies between +1 and
-1.
Tied Rankings
A slight adjustment to the formula is made if some students tie and have the same ranking the adjustment
is

where t = number of tied rankings the adjusted formula becomes

R=1-

Example
Assume that in our previous example student E & F achieved equal marks in Q. T. and were given joint
3rd place.
Solution
Student Q. T. ranking Law II ranking d d2
A 2 3 -1 1
B 7 6 1 1
C 6 4 2 4
D 1 2 -1 1
E 3½ 5 -1 ½ 2¼
F 3½ 1 2½ 6¼
G 5 8 -3 9
H 8 7 1 12

R = 1- = 1-

= 0.68
NOTE: It is conventional to show the shared rankings as above, i.e. E, & F take up the 3 rd and 4th rank
which are shared between the two as 3½ each.

ii. Coefficient of Determination

This refers to the ratio of the explained variation to the total variation and is used to measure the strength
of the linear relationship. The stronger the linear relationship the closer the ratio will be to one.

Coefficient determination = Explained variation

Total variation
Example (Rank Correlation Coefficient)
In a beauty competition 2 assessors were asked to rank the 10 contestants using the professional
assessment skills. The results obtained were given as shown in the table below

Contestants 1st assessor 2nd assessor

A 6 5
B 1 3
C 3 4
D 7 6
E 8 7
F 2 1
G 4 8
H 5 2
J 10 9
K 9 10
REQUIRED
Calculate the rank correlation coefficient and hence comment briefly on the value obtained
d d2
A 6 5 1 1
B 1 3 -2 4
C 3 4 -1 1
D 7 6 1 1
E 8 7 1 1
F 2 1 1 1
G 4 8 -4 16
H 5 2 3 9
J 10 9 +1 1
K 9 10 -1 1
Σd2 = 36
∴ The rank correlation coefficient R

R=1-

=1-

=1-
= 1 – 0.22
= 0.78
Comment: since the correlation is 0.78 it implies that there is high positive correlation between the ranks
awarded to the contestants. 0.78 > 0 and 0.78 > 0.5

Example
Contestant 1st 2nd assessor d d2
assessor
A 1 2 -1 1
B 5 (5.5) 3 2.5 6.25
C 3 4 -1 1
D 2 1 1 1
E 4 5 -1 1
F 5 (5.5) 6.5 -1 1
G 7 6.5 -0.5 0.25
H 8 8 0 0
Σd2 = 11.25
Required: Complete the rank correlation coefficient

∴R= 1- =1-
 =1–
= 1 – 0.13
= 0.87
This implies high positive correlation

Example (Rank Correlation Coefficient)

Sometimes numerical data which refers to the quantifiable variables may be given after which a rank
correlation coefficient may be worked out.
Is such a situation, the rank correlation coefficient will be determined after the given variables have been
converted into ranks. See the following example;

Candidates Math r Accounts r d d2

P 92 1 67 5 -4 16
Q 82 3 88 1 2 4
R 60 5(5.5) 58 7(7.5) -2 4
S 87 2 80 2 0 0
T 72 4 69 4 0 0
U 60 5(5.5) 77 3 -2.50 6.25
V 52 8 58 7(7.5) 0.5 0.25
W 50 9 60 6 3 9
X 47 10 32 10 0 0
Y 59 7 54 9 -2 4
Σd2 = 43.5

∴ Rank correlation r = 1 -

=1- =1–

= 0.74 (High positive correlation between mathematics

marks and accounts)

Example
(Product moment correlation)
The following data was obtained during a social survey conducted in a given urban area regarding the
annual income of given families and the corresponding expenditures.

Family (x)Annual (y)Annual xy x2 Y2

income £ 000 expenditure £ 000
A 420 360 151200 176400 129600
B 380 390 148200 144400 152100
C 520 510 265200 270400 260100
D 610 500 305000 372100 250000
E 400 360 144000 160000 129600
F 320 290 92800 102400 84100
G 280 250 70000 78400 62500
H 410 380 155800 168100 144400
 J 380 240 91200 144400 57600
K 300 270 81000 90000 72900
Total 4020 3550 1504400 170660 134290
0 0
Required
Calculate the product moment correlation coefficient briefly comment on the value obtained
The produce moment correlation

r=

Workings:
= = 402

r=

= 0.89

Comment: The value obtained 0.89 suggests that the correlation between annual income and annual
expenditure is high and positive. This implies that the more one earns the more one spends.

4.2 REGRESSION
-This is a concept, which refers to the changes which occur in the dependent variable as a result of
changes occurring on the independent variable.
- Knowledge of regression is particularly very useful in business statistics where it is necessary to
consider the corresponding changes on dependant variables whenever independent variables
change
- It should be noted that most business activities involve a dependent variable and either one or
more independent variable. Therefore knowledge of regression will enable a business statistician
to predict or estimate the expenditure value of a dependant variable when given an independent
variable e.g. consider the above example for annual incomes and annual expenditures. Using the
regression techniques one can be able to determine the estimated expenditure of a given family if
the annual income is known and vice versa
- The general equation used in simple regression analysis is as follows
y = a + bx
Where y = Dependant variable
a= Interception y axis (constant)
b = Slope on the y axis
x = Independent variable
i. The determination of the regression equation such as given above is normally done by
using a technique known as “the method of least squares’.
Regression equation of y on x i.e. y = a + bx
y x x Line of best fit
x x
x x
x x
x x
x x

x
The following sets of equations normally known as normal equation are used to determine the equation of
the above regression line when given a set of data.
Σy = an + bΣx
Σxy = aΣx + bΣx2
Where Σy = Sum of y values
Σxy = sum of the product of x and y
Σx = sum of x values
Σx2= sum of the squares of the x values
a = The intercept on the y axis
b = Slope gradient line of y on x
NB: The above regression line is normally used in one way only i.e. it is used to estimate the y values
when the x values are given.
Regression line of x on y i.e. x = a + by
- The fact that regression lines can only be used in one way leads to what is known as a regression
paradox
- This means that the regression lines are not ordinary mathematical line graphs which may be used
to estimate the x and y simultaneously
- Therefore one has to be careful when using regression lines as it becomes necessary to develop an
equation for x and y before doing the estimation.
The following example will illustrate how regression lines are used

Example
An investment company advertised the sale of pieces of land at different prices. The following table
shows the pieces of land their acreage and costs
 Piece of land (x)Acreage (y) Cost £ 000 xy x2
Hectares
A 2.3 230 529 5.29
B 1.7 150 255 2.89
C 4.2 450 1890 17.64
D 3.3 310 1023 10.89
E 5.2 550 2860 27.04
F 6.0 590 3540 36
G 7.3 740 5402 53.29
H 8.4 850 7140 70.56
J 5.6 530 2969 31.36
Σx =44.0 Σy = 4400 Σxy= 25607 Σx2 = 254.96

Required
Determine the regression equations of
i. y on x and hence estimate the cost of a piece of land with 4.5 hectares
ii. Estimate the expected average if the piece of land costs £ 900,000
Σy = an + bΣxy
Σxy = a∑x + bΣx2

By substituting of the appropriate values in the above equations we have

4400 = 9a + 44b …….. (i)
25607 = 44a + 254.96b ……..(ii)
By multiplying equation …. (i) by 44 and equation …… (ii) by 9 we have
193600 = 396a + 1936b …….. (iii)
230463 = 396a + 2294.64b ……..(iv)
By subtraction of equation …. (iii) from equation …… (iv) we have
36863 = 358.64b
102.78 = b
by substituting for b in …….. (i)
4400 = 9a + 44( 102.78)
4400 – 4522.32 = 9a
–122.32 = 9a
-13.59 = a
Therefore the equation of the regression line of y on x is
Y = 13.59 + 102.78x
When the acreage (hectares) is 4.5 then the cost
(y) = -13.59 + (102.78 x 4.5)
= 448.92
= £ 448, 920
Note that
Where the regression equation is given by
y= a + bx
Where a is the intercept on the y axis and
b is the slope of the line or regression coefficient
n is the sample size
then,

intercept a =
Slope b =

Example
The calculations for our sample size n = 10 are given below. The linear regression model is
y = a + bx
Table

Distance x miles Time y mins xy x2 y2

3.5 16 56.0 12.25 256
2.4 13 31.0 5.76 169
4.9 19 93.1 24.01 361
4.2 18 75.6 17.64 324
3.0 12 36.0 9.0 144
1.3 11 14.3 1.69 121
1.0 8 8.0 1.0 64
3.0 14 42.0 9.0 196
1.5 9 13.5 2.25 81
4.1 16 65.6 16.81 256
Σx = 28.9 Σy = 136 Σxy = 435.3 Σx2 = 99.41 Σy2= 1972

The Slope b =

= 2.66

and the intercept a =

= 5.91
We now insert these values in the linear model giving
y = 5.91 + 2.66x
or
Delivery time (mins) = 5.91 + 2.66 (delivery distance in miles)
The slope of the regression line is the estimated number of minutes per mile needed for a delivery. The
intercept is the estimated time to prepare for the journey and to deliver the goods, that is the time needed
for each journey other than the actual traveling time.

PREDICTION WITHIN THE RANGE OF SAMPLE DATA

We can use the linear regression model to predict the mean of dependant variable for any given value of
independent variable
For example if the sample model is given by
Time (min) = 5.91 + 2.66 (distance in miles)
Then if the distance is 4.0 miles then our estimated mean time is
Ý = 5.91 + 2.66 x 4.0 = 16.6 minutes
4.3 Multiple Linear Regression Models
There are situations in which there is more than one factor which influence the dependent variable
Example
Cost of production per week in a large department depends on several factors;
i. Total numbers of hours worked
ii. Raw material used during the week
iii. Total number of items produced during the week
iv. Number of hours spent on repair and maintenance
It is sensible to use all the identified factors to predict department costs
Scatter diagram will not give the relationship between the various factors and total costs
The linear model for multiple linear regression if of the type; (which is the line of best fit).
y = α + b1x1 +b2x2 +………… + bnxn
We assume that errors or residuals are negligible.
In order to choose between the models we examine the values of the multiple correlation coefficient r and
the standard deviation of the residuals α.
A model which describes well the relationship between y and x’s has multiple correlation coefficient r
close to ±1 and the value of α which is small.

Example
Odino chemicals limited are aware that its power costs are semi variable cost and over the last six months
these costs have shown the following relationship with a standard measure of output.

Month Output (standard units) Total power costs £ 000

1 12 6.2
2 18 8.0
3 19 8.6
4 20 10.4
5 24 10.2
6 30 12.4
Required
i. Using the method of least squares, determine an appropriate linear relationship between total
power costs and output
ii. If total power costs are related to both output and time (as measured by the number of the
month) the following least squares regression equation is obtained
Power costs = 4.42 + (0.82) output + (0.10) month
Where the regression coefficients (i.e. 0.82 and 0.10) have t values 2.64 and 0.60 respectively
and coefficient of multiple correlation amounts to 0.976
Compare the relative merits of this fitted relationship with one you determine in (a). Explain
(without doing any further analysis) how you might use the data to forecast total power costs
in seven months.
Solution
a)
Output (x) Power costs (y) x2 y2 xy
12 6.2 144 38.44 74.40
18 8.0 324 64.00 144.00
19 8.6 361 73.96 163.40
20 10.4 400 108.16 208.00
24 10.2 576 104.04 244.80
30 12.4 900 153.76 372.00
 Σx = 123 Σy = 55.8 Σx2 = 2705 Σy2 = 542.36 Σxy= 1,206.60

b=

= = 0.342

a = (Σy – bΣx)

= (55.8 – 0.342) 123

= 2.29
(Power costs) = 2.29 + 0.342 (output)
b. For linear regression calculated above, the coefficient of correlation r is

r=

= 0.96

This show a strong correlation between power cost and output. The multiple correlation when both output
and time are considered at the same time is 0.976.
We observe that there has been very little increase in r which means that inclusion of time variable does
not improve the correlation significantly
The value for time variable is only 0.60 which is insignificant as compared with a t value of 2.64 for the
output variable
In fact, if we work out correlation between output and time, there will be a high correlation. Hence there
is no necessity of taking both the variables. Inclusion of time does improve the correlation coefficient but
by a very small amount.
If we use the linear regression analysis and attempt to find the linear relationship between output and time
i.e.

Month Output
1 12
2 18
3 19
4 20
 5 24
6 30
The value of b and a will turn out to be 3.11 and 9.6 i.e. relationship will be of the form
Output = 9.6 + 3.11 × month
For this equation forecast for 7th month will be
Output = 9.6 + 3.11 × 7
= 9.6 + 21.77
= 31.37 units
Using the equation , Power costs = 2.29 + 0.34 × output
= 2.29 + 0.34 × 31.37
= 2.29 + 10.67
= 12.96 i.e. £ 12,960

Non Linear Relationships

If the scatter diagram and the correlation coefficient do not indicate linear relationship, then the
relationship may be non – linear
Two such relationships are of peculiar interest

Both of these can be reduced to linear model. Simple or multiple linear regression methods are then used
to determine the values of the coefficients

i. Exponential model

Take log of both sides

log y = log a + log bx
log y = log a + xlog b
Let log y = Y and log a = A and log b = B

Thus we get Y = A + Bx. This is a linear regression model

ii. Geometric model

using the same technique as above

log y = log a + blog x
Y = A + bX
Where Y = log y
A = log a
X = log x
Using linear regression technique (the method of least squares), it is possible to calculate the value of a
and b