Group 5: BEED II-A

M-MATH2

Jerome Bruner and Discovery Learning

Jerome Bruner
• The founder of Discovery Learning.
• He introduced Discovery Learning in 1960.

Discovery Learning
• Students utilize prior knowledge, existing knowledge, and new knowledge gained to discover new ideas, truths, or
beliefs about a topic.
• Is inquiry based; teachers can give the students a question about a topic, and the students work independently to
discover the facts and make connections in order to learn the material.
• A learning method that encourages students to ask questions and formulate their own tentative answers, and to
deduce general principles from practical examples or experiences.

4 Components to the Discovery Learning

1) Curiosity and Uncertainty
2) Structure of Knowledge
3) Sequencing
4) Motivation

Three Stages of Representation

1. Enactive- The representation of knowledge through actions. This stage involves the encoding and storage
of information. There is a direct manipulation of objects without any internal representation of the objects.
2. Iconic- The visual summarization of images. This stage appears from one to six years old. It involves an
internal representation of external objects visually in the form of a mental image or icon.
3. Symbolic- The symbolic stage, from seven years and up, is when information is stored in the form of a code
or symbol such as language. Each symbol has a fixed relation to something it represents. There’s a use of
words and other symbols to describe experiences.
3 Principles Associated With DLT
1) Readiness- Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that makes the students willing and
able to learn.
2) Spiral Organization- Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the students.
3) Going Beyond the Information Given- Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and/or fill in the
gaps.

The 5 Principles of DLT

Principle 1: Problem-solving
Instructors should guide and motivate learners to seek for solutions by combining existing and newly acquired
information and simplifying knowledge.

Principle 2: Learner Management

Instructors should allow participants to work either alone or with others, and learn at their own pace.

Principle 3: Integrating and Connecting

Instructors should teach learners how to combine prior knowledge with new, and encourage them to connect to the
real world.

Principle 4: Information Analysis and Interpretation

Discovery Learning is process-oriented and not content-oriented, and is based on the assumptions that learning is
not a mere set of facts.

Principle 5: Failure and Feedback

Learning doesn't only occur when we find the right answers. It also occurs through failure. And it's the instructor's
responsibility to provide feedback, since without it, learning is incomplete.

Advantages of Discovery Learning

Students are:
• more actively engaged
• developing their problem-solving skills
• taking responsibility for their learning
• developing their creativity
• motivated to learn information

Robert Gagne and Learning Hierarchy

Robert Mills Gagne
• An American educational psychologist best known for his Conditions and Hierarchy of Learning.
• His theory is more properly classified as an instructional design theory, rather than a learning theory.

The 3 Domains
1) Cognitive Domain 2) Psychomotor Domain 3) Affective Domain

The 5 Categories of Learning

1) Intellectual Skills (Cognitive Domain)
• Outline how to follow procedures to get things done.

5 Levels of Learning:
• Discrimination: recognizing that two classes of things differ.
• Concrete Concept: classifying things by their physical features alone.
• Defined Concept: classifying things by their abstract (and possibly physical) features.
• Rule: applying simple procedure to solve a problem or accomplish a task.
• Problem-Solving: the capacity to integrate multiple rules to find a solution.

2) Cognitive Strategies (Cognitive Domain)

• Inventing or selecting a particular mental process to solve a problem or accomplish a task.
Learning Strategies Include:
• Rehearsal: involves copying and underlining information or reading it out loud.
• Elaboration: the students take notes, paraphrases ideas, summarizes information, and answers questions.

3) Verbal Information (Cognitive Domain)

• Is taught using different techniques to aid in memory recall.
• Using imagery and other mnemonic strategies helps students make connections with the information and
remember it more easily.

4) Motor Skills (Psychomotor Domain)

• Are physical actions that are assessed in complex performances.
• Have their own sub skills, which are also called part skills.

5) Attitudes (Affective Domain)

• Is often challenging to measure, as each individual must declare their own thoughts.
• Is an internal state of mind and can be observed in one’s own personal choices or actions.

Robert Gagne’s Hierarchy of Learning

The Conditions of Learning
Gagne distinguishes 8 types of learning, beginning with the simple forms and ending with the complex.

1) Signal Learning
• The simplest form of learning.
• consists essentially of the Classical Conditioning first described by the behavioral psychologist Pavlov.
• The animal or individual acquires a conditioned response to a given signal.
Example:
• The withdrawal of the hand upon site of a hot object.
• The salivation of a dog upon hearing food poured into his metal feeding dish.

2) Stimulus-Response Learning
• Somewhat more sophisticated form of learning.
• Also known as Operant Conditioning originally developed by Skinner.
• Exemplified by animal training, the animal makes precise responses to specific stimuli.
Example: The child may learn to say mama on request, or an adult may learn the appropriate response to the
stimulus of a word in a foreign language.

3) Chaining
• A more advanced form of learning in which the subject develops the ability to connect two or more previously
learned stimulus-response bonds into a linked experiences.
• The process whereby most complex psychomotor skills are learned.
• The person links together previously learned S-R’s.
Example: The child may learn to say “doll” at the sight of a doll, then learns to lie down, hug the doll and say “doll”.

4) Verbal Association
• A form of chaining in which the links between the items being connected are verbal in nature.
• The activity of naming an object, which involves a chain of two links: an observing response enables the child to
say the proper name.
Example: When the child can name an object “ball” and also say the “red ball”, he has learned a verbal association
of three links.

5) Discrimination Learning
• Involves developing the ability to make appropriate (different) responses to a series of similar stimuli that differ in a
systematic way.
Example: Teaching a child to discriminate between numbers and letters. Saying “touch your eyes” and a child
learning to touch their eyes instead of nose, etc
6) Concept Learning
• Involves developing the ability to make consistent response to different stimuli that form a common class or
category of some sort.
• Forms the basis of the ability to generalise, classify, etc.
Example: A concept learning system might learn to identify different types of animals based on their shape, size,
color, and behavior.

7) Rule Learning
• A very high level of cognitive process.
• Involves being able to learn relationships between concepts and apply these relationships in different situations,
including situations not previously encountered.
Example: When a child is learning to classify shapes they may apply categorization rules based on the number of
sides the shape has. Similarly, when an adult is sorting laundry they may rely on rules to determine which clothes
should be washed together.

8) Problem-Solving
• Highest level of cognitive process according to Gagne.
• Involves developing the ability to invent a complex rule, algorithm, or procedure for the purpose of solving one
particular problem, and then using the method to solve other problems of a similar nature.
Example: In terms of your broken printer, you could try checking the ink levels, and if that doesn’t work, you could
check to make sure the paper tray isn’t jammed.

Jean Piaget and Cognitive Learning

Jean Piaget
• Conducted a research on cognitive development for 60 years.
• Is truly a classic in the field of educational psychology.

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development

• Focuses on how individuals constructs knowledge.

Basic Cognitive Concepts

Schema: Refer to the cognitive structure by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment.
It is like the mind has a filling cabinet each drawer has folders that contain files of things he has had an experience
with.
Assimilation: The process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously created cognitive structure or
schema.
Accommodation: The process of creating a new schema.
Equilibration: It is achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation. When our experiences do
not match our schemata (plural of schema) or cognitive structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage 1: Sensori-motor Stage (birth to infancy)
This is the stage when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking, and reaching becomes more organized
in his movement and activity. The term sensory motor focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle
movement through which the infant comes to learn about himself/herself and the world.
Object Permanence: the ability of the child to know that an object still exists even when out of sight.

Stage 2: Pre-Operational Stage (2-7 years)

At this stage the child now makes mental representations and is able to pretend, the child is now ever closer to the
use of symbols.
Symbolic Function: the child can pretend play with objects that exist only in his mind.
Egocentrism: The tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume that everyone also has his
same point of view. The child cannot take the perspective of others.
Centration: This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing or event and exclude other
aspects.
Irreversibility: Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking.
Animism: The tendency of children to attribute human like traits or characteristics to inanimate objects.
Transductive Reasoning: Refers to the pre-operational child’s type of reasoning that is neither inductive nor
deductive. Reasoning appears to be from particular to particular. That is if A causes B, then B causes A.
Stage 3: Concrete-Operational Stage (8-11 years of age)
This is the stage of cognitive development during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to
think logically about concrete events.

Decentering: Refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations.
Reversibility: The child can now follow that certain operations can be done in reverse.
Conservation: ability to know certain properties of objects like number, mass, volume, or area do not change even if
there is a change in appearance.
Seriation: Refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one dimension such as weight,
volume, or size.

Stage 4: Formal Operational Stage (12-15 years)

The stage of cognitive development during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

Hypothetical Reasoning: The ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh
data in order to make final decision or judgment. This can be done in the absence of concrete objects.
Analogical Reasoning: the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and then use that relationship to
narrow down possible answers in another similar situation or problem.
Deductive Reasoning: the ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular instance or situation.

Members:
Molina, Michaela Grace L. Alterado, Marvy Atalad, Radia
Quiño, Febrie Heart L. Lequin, Kisha Kate L. Golfere, Benjielyn M.