Sector: METALS AND ENGINEERING

Subject Code: Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Subject Description: Welding

Module Title: Welding Carbon Steel Plates

Using SMAW

KING THOMAS LEARNING ACADEMY, INC.

JOINT DELIVERY VOUCHER PROGRAM
MALUBAGO, SIPOCOT CAMARINES SUR
E-mail: kingthomaslearningacademy@gmail.com
Contact Nos.: 09394564747/09176821580/09309273337
LEARNING OUTCOME #6 Perform Capping

CONTENTS:
1. The ABC’s of non-destructive examination
2. Welding beads
3. Performing capping

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:

1. Capping is performed in accordance with WPS and/or

client specifications.
2. Weld is visually checked for defects and repaired, as required
3. Weld is visually acceptable in accordance with applicable codes and
standards.

CONDITIONS: The students MUST be provided with the following:

4. Equipment: welding machine, portable grinding
5. Tools: chipping hammer, half-round file
6. Materials: carbon steel plate/pipe, grinding stone/disc, electrodes

ASSESSMENT METHODS:
 Written Test
 Oral Questioning/Interview
 Demonstration/Role Play
 Learning Experiences

Learning Outcome #6

PERFORM CAPPING

Learning Activities Special Instructions

Read Information Sheet 6.1-1:on This Learning Outcome deals with the
“The ABC’s of non-destructive weld development of the Institutional Competency
examination” Evaluation Tool which trainers use in
evaluating their trainees after finishing a
Read Information Sheet 6.1-2:on competency of the qualification.
“Welding beads”
Go through the learning activities outlined for
you on the left column to gain the necessary
information or knowledge before doing the
tasks to practice on performing the
requirements of the evaluation tool.

The output of this LO is a complete

Institutional Competency Evaluation Package
for one Competency of Welding. Your output
shall serve as one of your portfolio for your
Institutional Competency Evaluation for
Welding Carbon Steel Plates and Pipes Using
SMAW.

Feel free to show your outputs to your trainer

as you accomplish them for guidance and
evaluation.

After doing all the activities for this LO, you’re

through with this module.
 Information Sheet 6.1-1

THE ABC’s of NON-DESTRUCTIVE WELD EXAMINATION

Learning Objectives:
After reading this information sheet, you MUST be able to:
1.) Define the five basic methods commonly used to examine finished weld, and
2.) Explain the importance of five basic methods and its application.

Introduction

The philosophy that often guides the fabrication of welded assemblies and structures is "to
assure weld quality." However, the term "weld quality" is relative. The application determines
what is good or bad. Generally, any weld is of good quality if it meets appearance requirements
and will continue indefinitely to do the job for which it is intended. The first step in assuring
weld quality is to determine the degree required by the application. A standard should be
established based on the service requirements.

"Whatever the standard of quality, all welds should be

inspected."

Standards designed to impart weld quality may differ from job to job, but the use of appropriate
examination techniques can provide assurance that the applicable standards are being met.
Whatever the standard of quality, all welds should be inspected, even if the inspection involves
nothing more than the welder looking over his own work after each weld pass. A good-looking
weld surface appearance is many times considered indicative of high weld quality. However,
surface appearance alone does not assure good workmanship or internal quality.
Nondestructive examination (NDE) methods of inspection make it possible to verify compliance to
the standards on an ongoing basis by examining the surface and subsurface of the weld and
surrounding base material. Five basic methods are commonly used to examine finished welds:
visual, liquid penetrant, magnetic particle, ultrasonic and radiographic (X-ray). The growing use
of computerization with some methods provides added image enhancement, and allows real-time
or near real-time viewing, comparative inspections and archival capabilities. A review of each
method will help in deciding which process or combination of processes to use for a specific job
and in performing the examination most effectively.

Visual Inspection (VT)

Visual inspection is often the most cost-effective method, but it must take place prior to, during
and after welding. Many standards require its use before other methods, because there is no
point in submitting an obviously bad weld to sophisticated inspection techniques. The
ANSI/AWS D1.1, Structural Welding Code-Steel, states, "Welds subject to nondestructive
examination shall have been found acceptable by visual inspection." Visual inspection requires
little equipment. Aside from good eyesight and sufficient light, all it takes is a pocket rule, a weld
size gauge, a magnifying glass, and possibly a straight edge and square for checking
straightness, alignment and perpendicularity.

"Visual inspection is the best buy in NDE, but it must

take place prior to, during and after welding."

Before the first welding arc is struck, materials should be examined to see if they meet
specifications for quality, type, size, cleanliness and freedom from defects. Grease, paint, oil,
oxide film or heavy scale should be removed. The pieces to be joined should be checked for
flatness, straightness and dimensional accuracy. Likewise, alignment, fit-up and joint
preparation should be examined. Finally, process and procedure variables should be verified,
including electrode size and type, equipment settings and provisions for preheat or post heat. All
of these precautions apply regardless of the inspection method being used.
During fabrication, visual examination of a weld bead and the end crater may reveal problems
such as cracks, inadequate penetration, and gas or slag inclusions. Among the weld detects that
can be recognized visually are cracking, surface slag in inclusions, surface porosity and
undercut.

On simple welds, inspecting at the beginning of each operation and periodically as work
progresses may be adequate. Where more than one layer of filler metal is being deposited,
however, it may be desirable to inspect each layer before depositing the next. The root pass of a
multi-pass weld is the most critical to weld soundness. It is especially susceptible to cracking,
and because it solidifies quickly, it may trap gas and slag. On subsequent passes, conditions
caused by the shape of the weld bead or changes in the joint configuration can cause further
cracking, as well as undercut and slag trapping. Repair costs can be minimized if visual
inspection detects these flaws before welding progresses.
Visual inspection at an early stage of production can also prevent under welding and over
welding. Welds that are smaller than called for in the specifications cannot be tolerated. Beads
that are too large increase costs unnecessarily and can cause distortion through added
shrinkage stress.

After welding, visual inspection can detect a variety of surface flaws, including cracks, porosity
and unfilled craters, regardless of subsequent inspection procedures. Dimensional variances,
warpage and appearance flaws, as well as weld size characteristics, can be evaluated.
Before checking for surface flaws, welds must be cleaned of slag. Shot blasting should not be
done before examination, because the peening action may seal fine cracks and make them
invisible. The AWS D1.1 Structural Welding Code, for example, does not allow peening "on the
root or surface layer of the weld or the base metal at the edges of the weld."

Visual inspection can only locate defects in the weld surface. Specifications or applicable codes
may require that the internal portion of the weld and adjoining metal zones also be examined.
Nondestructive examinations may be used to determine the presence of a flaw, but they cannot
measure its influence on the serviceability of the product unless they are based on a correlation
between the flaw and some characteristic that affects service. Otherwise, destructive tests are
the only sure way to determine weld serviceability.

Radiographic Inspection (RT)

Radiography (X-ray) is one of the most important, versatile and widely accepted of all the
nondestructive examination methods - Fig. 1.
Fig. 2 - Thicker areas of a
Fig. 1 - Radiography is one of the specimen being x-rayed or higher
most important, versatile and density material absorbs more
widely accepted examination radiation and the corresponding
methods. areas on the radiograph will be
lighter

X-ray is used to determine the internal soundness of welds. The term 'X-ray quality," widely used
to indicate high quality in welds, arises from this inspection method.

Radiography is based on the ability of X-rays and gamma rays to pass through metal and other
materials opaque to ordinary light, and produce photographic records of the transmitted radiant
energy. All materials will absorb known amounts of this radiant energy and, therefore, X-rays
and gamma rays can be used to show discontinuities and inclusions within the opaque material.
The permanent film record of the internal conditions will show the basic information by which
weld soundness can be determined.

"Radiography is one of the most widely accepted NDE

methods."
X-rays are produced by high-voltage generators. As the high voltage applied to an X-ray tube is
increased, the wavelength of the emitted X-ray becomes shorter, providing more penetrating
power. Gamma rays are produced by the atomic disintegration of radioisotopes. The radioactive
isotopes most widely used in industrial radiography are Cobalt 60 and Iridium 192. Gamma rays
emitted from these isotopes are similar to X-rays, except their wavelengths are usually shorter.
This allows them to penetrate to greater depths than X-rays of the same power, however,
exposure times are considerably longer due to the lower intensity.
When X-rays or gamma rays are directed at a section of weldment, not all of the radiation passes
through the metal. Different materials, depending on their density, thickness and atomic
number, will absorb different wavelengths of radiant energy.

The degree to which the different materials absorb these rays determines the intensity of the
rays penetrating through the material. When variations of these rays are recorded, a means of
seeing inside the material is available. The image on a developed photo-sensitized film is known
as a radiograph. The opaque material absorbs a certain amount of radiation, but where there is
a thin section or a void (slag inclusion or porosity), less absorption takes place. These areas will
appear darker on the radiograph. Thicket areas of the specimen or higher density material
(tungsten inclusion), will absorb more radiation and their corresponding areas on the radiograph
will be lighter - Fig. 2.

Whether in the shop or in the field, the reliability and interpretive value of radiographic images
are a function of their sharpness and contrast. The ability of an observer to detect a flaw
depends on the sharpness of its image and its contrast with the background. To be sure that the
radiographic exposure produces acceptable results, a gauge known as an Image Quality
Indicator (IQI) is placed on the part so that its image will be produced on the radiograph.

IQl’s used to determine radiographic quality are also called penetra-meters. A standard hole-type
penetra-meter is a rectangular piece of metal with three drilled holes of set diameters. The
thickness of the piece of metal is a percentage of the thickness of the specimen being
radiographed. The diameter of each hole is different and is a given multiple of the penetra-meter
thickness. Wire-type penetra-meters are also widely used, especially outside the United States.
They consist of several pieces of wire, each of a different diameter. Sensitivity is determined by
the smallest diameter of wire that can be clearly seen on the radiograph.
A penetra-meter is not an indicator or gauge to measure the size of a discontinuity or the
minimum detectable flaw size. It is an indicator of the quality of the radiographic technique.
Radiographic images are not always easy to interpret. Film handling marks and streaks, fog and
spots caused by developing errors may make it difficult to identify defects. Such film artifacts
may mask weld discontinuities.
Surface defects will show up on the film and must be recognized. Because the angle of exposure
will also influence the radiograph, it is difficult or impossible to evaluate fillet welds by this
method. Because a radiograph compresses all the defects that occur throughout the thickness of
the weld into one plane, it tends to give an exaggerated impression of scattered-type defects such
as porosity or inclusions.

An X-ray image of the interior of a weld may be viewed on a fluorescent screen, as well as on
developed film. This makes it possible to inspect parts faster and at lower cost, but image
definition is but image definition is possible to overcome many of the shortcomings of
radiographic imaging by linking the fluorescent screen with a video camera. Instead of waiting
for film to be developed, the images can be viewed in real time. This can improve quality and
reduce costs on production applications such as pipe welding, where a problem can be identified
and corrected quickly.

By digitizing the image and loading it into a computer, the image can be enhanced and analyzed
to a degree never before possible. Multiple images can be superimposed. Pixel values can be
adjusted to change shading and contrast, bringing out small flaws and discontinuities that
would not show up on film. Colors can be assigned to the various shades of gray to further
enhance the image and make flaws stand out better. The process of digitizing an image taken
from the fluorescent screen - having that image computer enhanced and transferred to a viewing
monitor - takes only a few seconds. However, because there is a time delay, we can no longer
consider this "real time." It is called "radioscopy imagery."

Existing films can be digitized to achieve the same results and improve the analysis process.
Another advantage is the ability to archive images on laser optical disks, which take up far less
space than vaults of old films and are much easier to recall when needed. Industrial
radiography, then, is an inspection method using X-rays and gamma rays as a penetrating
medium, and densitized film as a recording medium, to obtain a photographic record of internal
quality. Generally, defects in welds consist either of a void in the weld metal itself or an inclusion
that differs in density from the surrounding weld metal.

Radiographic equipment produces radiation that can be harmful to body tissue in excessive
amounts, so all safety precautions should be followed closely. All instructions should be followed
carefully to achieve satisfactory results. Only personnel who are trained in radiation safety and
qualified as industrial radiographers should be permitted to do radiographic testing.

Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)

Magnetic particle inspection is a method of locating and defining discontinuities in magnetic

materials. It is excellent for detecting surface defects in welds, including discontinuities that are
too small to be seen with the naked eye, and those that are slightly subsurface.
This method may be used to inspect plate edges prior to welding, in process inspection of each
weld pass or layer, post weld evaluation and to inspect repairs - Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 - Applications for magnetic particle

testing include inspecting plate edges
prior to welding, in process inspection of
each weld pass or layer, post weld
evaluation and repairs.

It is a good method for detecting surface cracks of all sizes in both the weld and adjacent base
metal, subsurface cracks, incomplete fusion, undercut and inadequate penetration in the weld,
as well as defects on the repaired edges of the base metal. Although magnetic particle testing
should not be a substitute for radiography or ultrasonic for subsurface evaluations, it may
present an advantage over their methods in detecting tight cracks and surface discontinuities.

With this method, probes are usually placed on each side of the area to be inspected, and a high
amperage is passed through the workplace between them. A magnetic flux is produced at night
angles to the flow of current - Fig. 3. When these lines of force encounter a discontinuity, such
as a longitudinal crack. They are diverted and leak through the surface, creating magnetic poles
or points of attraction. A magnetic powder dusted onto the surface will cling to the leakage area
more tenaciously than elsewhere, forming an indication of the discontinuity.

For this indication to develop, the discontinuity must be angled against the magnetic lines of
force. Thus, when current is passed longitudinally through a workpiece, only longitudinal flaws
will show. Putting the workpiece inside a solenoid coil will create longitudinal lines of force (Fig.
3) that cause transverse and angular cracks to become visible when the magnetic powder is
applied.

Although much simpler to use than radiographic inspection, the magnetic particle method is
limited to use with ferromagnetic materials and cannot be used with austenitic steels. A joint
between a base metal and a weld metal of different magnetic characteristics will create magnetic
discontinuities that may be falsely interpreted as unsound. On the other hand a true defect can
be obscured by the powder clinging over the harmless magnetic discontinuity. Sensitivity
decreases with the size of the defect and is also less with round forms such as gas pockets. It is
best with elongated forms, such as cracks, and is limited to surface flaws and some subsurface
flaws, mostly on thinner materials.
Because the field must be distorted sufficiently to create the external leakage required to identify
flaws, the fine, elongated discontinuities, such as hairline cracks, seams or inclusions that are
parallel to the magnetic field, will not show up. They can be developed by changing the direction
of the field, and it is advisable to apply the field from two directions, preferably at right angles to
each other.

Magnetic powders may be applied dry or wet. The dry powder method is popular for inspecting
heavy weldments, while the wet method is often used in inspecting aircraft components. Dry
powder is dusted uniformly over the work with a spray gun, dusting bag or atomizer. The finely
divided magnetic particles are coated to increase their mobility and are available in gray, black
and red colors to improve visibility. In the wet method, very fine red or black particles are
suspended in water or light petroleum distillate. This can be flowed or sprayed on, or the part
may be dipped into the liquid. The wet method is more sensitive than the dry method, because it
allows the use of finer particles that can detect exceedingly fine defects. Fluorescent powders
may be used for further sensitivity and are especially useful for locating discontinuities in
corners, keyways, splines and deep holes.

"MT may have an advantage over

RT and UT in detecting tight
Fig. 4 - Dye penetrant inspection is
cracks and surface
similar to liquid penetrant inspection
discontinuities’."
except vividly colored dyes visible under
ordinary light are used.
Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI)

Surface cracks and pinholes that are not visible to the

naked eye can be located by liquid penetrant
inspection. It is widely used to locate leaks in welds
and can be applied with austenitic steels and
nonferrous materials where magnetic particle
inspection would be useless.

Liquid penetrant inspection is often referred to as an

extension of the visual inspection method. Many
standards, such as the AWS D1.1 Code, say that "welds subject to liquid penetrant testing ...
shall be evaluated on the basis of the requirements for visual inspection."

Two types of penetrating liquids are used - fluorescent and visible dye. With fluorescent
penetrant inspection, a highly fluorescent liquid with good penetrating qualities is applied to the
surface of the part to be examined. Capillary action draws the liquid into the surface openings,
and the excess is then removed. A "developer" is used to draw the penetrant to the surface, and
the resulting indication is viewed by ultraviolet (black) light. The high contrast between the
fluorescent material and the object makes it possible to detect minute traces of penetrant that
indicate surface defects.

Dye penetrant inspection is similar, except that vividly colored dyes visible under ordinary light
are used - Fig 4. Normally, a white developer is used with the dye penetrants that creates a
sharply contrasting background to the vivid dye color. This allows greater portability by
eliminating the need for ultraviolet light.

The part to be inspected must be clean and dry, because any foreign matter could close the
cracks or pinholes and exclude the penetrant. Penetrants can be applied by dipping, spraying or
brushing, but sufficient time must be allowed for the liquid to be fully absorbed into the
discontinuities. This may take an hour or more in very exacting work.

Liquid penetrant inspection is widely used for leak detection. A common procedure is to apply
fluorescent material to one side of a joint, wait an adequate time for capillary action to take
place, and then view the other side with ultraviolet light. In thin-walled vessels, this technique
will identify leaks that ordinarily would not be located by the usual air test with pressures of 5-
20 lbs. / in2. When wall thickness exceeds 1/4 in., however, sensitivity of the leak test
decreases.

Fig. 5 - Ultrasonic inspection detects

Ultrasonic Inspection (UT)
discontinuities’ both on and below the
Ultrasonic Inspection is a method of detecting weld surface. Compact, portable
discontinuities by directing a high-frequency sound equipment makes it easy to use in the
beam through the base plate and weld on a field.
predictable path. When the sound beam's path strikes
an interruption in the material continuity, some of the
sound is reflected back. The sound is collected by the
instrument, amplified and displayed as a vertical trace
on a video screen - Fig. 5.
Both surface and subsurface defects in metals can be
detected, located and measured by ultrasonic inspection, including flaws too small to be detected
by other methods.

The ultrasonic unit contains a crystal of quartz or other piezoelectric material encapsulated in a
transducer or probe. When a voltage is applied, the crystal vibrates rapidly. As an ultrasonic
transducer is held against the metal to be inspected, it imparts mechanical vibrations of the
same frequency as the crystal through a couplet material into the base metal and weld. These
vibrational waves are propagated through the material until they reach a discontinuity or change
in density. At these points, some of the vibrational energy is reflected back. As the current that
causes the vibration is shut off and on at 60-1000 times per second, the quartz crystal
intermittently acts as a receiver to pick up the reflected vibrations. These cause pressure on the
crystal and generate an electrical current. Fed to a video screen, this current produces vertical
deflections on the horizontal base line. The resulting pattern on the face of the tube represents
the reflected signal and the discontinuity. Compact portable ultrasonic equipment is available for
field inspection and is commonly used on bridge and structural work.

Ultrasonic testing is less suitable than other NDE methods for determining porosity in welds,
because round gas pores respond to ultrasonic tests as a series of single-point reflectors. This
results in low-amplitude responses that are easily confused with "base line noise" inherent with
testing parameters. However, it is the preferred test method for detecting plainer-type
discontinuities and lamination.

Portable ultrasonic equipment is available with digital operation and microprocessor controls.
These instruments may have built-in memory and can provide hard-copy printouts or video
monitoring and recording. They can be interfaced with computers, which allows further analysis,
documentation and archiving, much as with radiographic data. Ultrasonic examination requires
expert interpretation from highly skilled and extensively trained personnel.

Table 1 - Reference Guide to Major Methods for the Nondestructive Examination of Welds

Inspection Equipment Enables Advantages Limitations Remarks

Method Required Detection of

Visual Magnifying Surface flaws - Low cost. Applicable to Should always

glass cracks, porosity, Can be surface defects be the primary
Weld sizing unfilled craters, applied while only. method of
gauge slag inclusions work is in Provides no inspection, no
Pocket rule Warpage, under process, permanent matter what
Straight edge welding, over permitting record. other
Workmanship welding, poorly correction of techniques are
standards formed beads, faults. required.
misalignments, Gives Is the only
improper fit-up indication of "productive"
incorrect type of
procedures. inspection.
Is the necessary
function of
everyone who in
any way
contributes to
the making of
 the weld.

Radiographic Commercial X- Interior When the Requires skill X-ray inspection

ray or gamma macroscopic indications in choosing is required by
units made flaws - cracks, are recorded angles of many codes and
especially for porosity, blow on film, gives exposure, specifications.
inspecting holes, a permanent operating Useful in
welds, castings nonmetallic record. equipment, qualification of
and forgings. inclusions, When viewed and welders and
Film and incomplete root on a interpreting welding
processing penetration, fluoroscopic indications. processes.
facilities. undercutting, screen, a low- Requires safety Because of cost,
Fluoroscopic icicles, and burn cost method precautions. its use should
viewing through. of internal Not generally be limited to
equipment. inspection suitable for those areas
fillet weld where other
inspection. methods will
not provide the
assurance
required.

Magnetic Special Excellent for Simpler to Applicable to Elongated

Particle commercial detecting surface use than ferromagnetic defects parallel
equipment. discontinuities - radiographic materials only. to the magnetic
Magnetic especially inspection. Requires skill field may not
powders - dry surface cracks. Permits in give pattern; for
or wet form; controlled interpretation this reason the
may be sensitivity. of indications field should be
fluorescent for Relatively and applied from
viewing under low-cost recognition of two directions
ultraviolet method. irrelevant at or near right
light. patterns. angles to each
Difficult to use other.
on rough
surfaces.

Liquid Commercial Surface cracks Applicable to Only surface In thin-walled

Penetrant kits containing not readily magnetic and defects are vessels will
fluorescent or visible to the nonmagnetic detectable. reveal leaks not
dye penetrants unaided eye. materials. Cannot be ordinarily
and Excellent for Easy to use. used effectively located by usual
 developers. locating leaks in Low cost. on hot air tests.
Application weldments. assemblies. irrelevant
equipment for surface
the developer. conditions
A source of (smoke, slag)
ultraviolet light may give
- if fluorescent misleading
method is indications.
used.

Ultrasonic Special Surface and Very Requires high Pulse-echo

commercial subsurface flaws sensitive. degree of skill equipment is
equipment, including those Permits in interpreting highly
either of the too small to be probing of pulse-echo developed for
pulse-echo or detected by other joints patterns. weld inspection
transmission methods. inaccessible Permanent purposes.
type. Especially for to record is not The
Standard detecting radiography. readily transmission-
reference subsurface obtained. type equipment
patterns for lamination-like simplifies
interpretation defects. pattern
of RF or video interpretation
patterns. where it is
applicable.

Choices Control Quality

A good NDE inspection program must recognize the inherent limitations of each process. For
example, both radiography and ultrasound have distinct orientation factors that may guide the
choice of which process to use for a particular job. Their strengths and weaknesses tend to
complement each other. While radiography is unable to reliably detect lamination-like defects,
ultrasound is much better at it. On the other hand, ultrasound is poorly suited to detecting
scattered porosity, while radiography is very good.

Whatever inspection techniques are used, paying attention to the "Five P's" of weld quality will
help reduce subsequent inspection to a routine checking activity. Then, the proper use of NDE
methods will serve as a check to keep variables in line and weld quality within standards.

The Five P's are

1. Process Selection. The process must be right
for the job.
2. Preparation. The joint configuration must be
right and compatible with the welding process.
3. Procedures. The procedures must be spelled
out in detail and followed religiously during
welding.
4. Pretesting. Full-scale mockups or simulated
specimens should be used to prove that the
process and procedures give the desired
standard of quality.
5. Personnel. Qualified people must be assigned
to the job.

Information Sheet 6.1-2

WELDING BEADS
Learning Objectives:

After reading this information sheet, you MUST be able to:

1.) Identify different kinds of bead, and
2.) Determine the importance of different beads and its application.

Welding Beads

Like sewing up a seam, there are several ways to run a weld bead along a joint. Yet unlike
tailors, welders frequently need to perform their work in an awkward position. Gravity also plays
a role in how molten metal gets deposited between metal plates or pipe sections. If you're welding
overhead, for instance, you've got to move fast or the weld metal will end up on your face shield,
rather than in the joint. After preparing a joint for welding, selecting the appropriate rod (if stick
welding) and choosing the right machine settings, a welder must use a certain kind of hand
stroke (and the right speed) to get the bead down properly.

Generally speaking, torch manipulation is much the same whether you're feeding the weld pool
with a separate filler rod, or using a wire feed or stick electrode. Below you'll find a description of
the four most common bead types used both in the shop and field:

Stringer beads

This is a straightforward bead in which you either "drag" (pull) or push the torch across the joint
with minimal (if any) side-to-side movement. Dragging means the electrode is pointed back
towards the puddle, leading it. This enables maximum penetration and a robust-looking weld.

For heat-sensitive or thin metals, or when welding in the vertical-up position, welders "push" the
torch, which means pointing the electrode forward. (See photo above.) When welding vertical-up,
the molten metal wants to fall downward, so directing the heat away from the puddle allows the
weld to solidify quickly. The drawback to pushing is that penetration into the base metal is much
less than when dragging (pulling) the torch.

Stringer beads are generally not very wide and can be used in any welding position. Even though
you're moving in a straight line, it's still important to make sure you get "tie in" with the toe of
the weld on either side. Remember, the object of welding is not just to fill a joint with new metal.
It's critical to get fusion between the weld and the base metal. Sometimes, moving the torch
along slowly enough so the weld puddle flows over both sides of the joint is all it takes to achieve
good fusion. Other times a slight side-to-side manipulation is necessary, as illustrated below:
Again, the side-to-side manipulation is slight. If you move too far from side to side, you'd have a
weave bead. (See below.) Stringer beads are also used in hard facing, a surfacing operation that
helps extend the life of scoops, fenders, plows and other exterior metal parts on industrial
equipment. Here the beads are not meant to fuse with the base metal, however, but to create a
protective surface over it.

Weave Beads

For wider welds, you can weave from side to side along a joint. For a fat joint, weaving is the
fastest way to knock off a welding assignment. This is especially true in the case of groove welds
on thick stock. Weaves are also common on fillet welds.

There are different types of weaves, of course, and every welder has his or her favorite. Your
hand can perform a zig-zag, crescent or curly cue technique. Besides allowing a wider bead,
weaving is used to control heat in the weld puddle. Besides that, you'll usually want to pause on
each side of the weld to achieve good tie in and prevent undercutting of the edges. When you
move across the center of the joint, however, you'll want to hurry. Otherwise you may end up
with a high crown (i.e. a bulge in the middle). It's better to have a flat or just slightly convex weld
face when you weave.

A triangle weave is useful when you need to fill a steep pocket. In vertical-up welding, for
instance, this weave technique allows you to build a sort of shelf behind the puddle, which keeps
the molten metal from sliding downward.

To keep the puddle from overheating or expanding, you can try a semi-circle weave, with the
center point or your stroke crossing the front of the puddle (or just ahead of it). If you want more
heat in the puddle, weave the semi-circle (or crescent) back through the puddle, as shown in the
previous drawing.

Weaving in the overhead position can be a challenge, since gravity tends to pull the molten metal
out of the weld. Even with practice, laying down an overhead weave bead a half inch or wider can
be a tall order. But welders learn to do it, since weaving saves time when compared to stringer
beads.

Whip Motion

On open groove welds, a stick welder typically performs a whipping motion with his or her wrist
on the root pass, which is the first weld operation performed. The objective here is to fuse the
work plates together at the bottom with a flat bead of weld metal. The most common stick
electrodes for root passes on low-carbon steel are E6010 and 6011 "fast-freeze" rods.

Groove weld diagram (left) on a pipe joint with a keyhole created by welding (ostensibly) from the
top down.
The welder drives the electrode up through and along the gap. This is essential to achieving
complete penetration. You'll see a keyhole appear in the opening at the head of the puddle. (See
photo above right.) This is one of the most difficult strokes that welders learn. In addition to
watching the puddle, you also have to maintain the size of the keyhole. If it gets too big (i.e. more
than twice the diameter of the rod), then you won't be able to fuse the sides together. That's why
control of heat is crucial during a root pass.

In addition to proper joint design and welding machine settings, you can control the size of the
key hole with the frequency of your whip strokes. Before the keyhole expands beyond control,
you'll whip the rod a little upward and ahead of the weld. This action cools everything down and
keeps the keyhole size the same. It also allows the bead at the back of puddle to solidify. At that
moment, you whip back to the molten puddle and another drop of weld metal should fall off your
rod (if you're stick welding), creating your next dime.

All of this happens pretty quickly. The rate of whipping is determined by the level of heat you
observe in the weld. When you first start a weld, for instance, you may not be whipping at all
because there's not yet enough heat. By the time you reach the end of the weld, however, you
may be flicking your wrist at a steady clip because of the high heat flowing through the base
metal. The following video shows the technique:

A variation of the whip motion is called a J-weave. It's a combination of the crescent and whip
strokes, and is used on the second (aka "hot") pass of a V-groove joint. Here, you move your
E6010 or other fast-freeze electrode from one toe to the other, pausing briefly on each side, and
then whip the rod ahead and upward along one side of the joint for a moment. For this task,
more arc length is helpful. And just as you would on a root pass, after whipping ahead, you'll
whip back to the next open area on the left (or right) toe of the weld, and repeat the stroke.

"Walking the Cup"

On a root pass for pipe, welders often use a TIG torch for a more precise bead than in stick
welding. The process usually incorporates a specific hand stroke known as "walking the cup".
The cup in this case is the ceramic insulator surrounding the torch tip and the welder drags it
back and forth along the base metal on either side of the joint.