21 Straight-line graphs

Coordinates
To fix a point in two dimensions (2D), its position is given in relation
to a point called the origin. Through the origin, axes are drawn
perpendicular to each other. The horizontal axis is known as the x-axis,
and the vertical axis is known as the y-axis.
y
5

3
A
2

0
1 2 3 4 5 x

The x-axis is numbered from left to right. The y-axis is numbered from
bottom to top.
The position of point A is given by two coordinates: the x-coordinate
first, followed by the y-coordinate. So the coordinates of point A are
(3, 2).
A number line can extend in both directions by extending the x- and
y-axes below zero, as shown in the grid below:
y
4
D
3

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1

–2
C B
–3

–4

Points B, C and D can be described by their coordinates:

Point B is at (3, −3),
Point C is at (−4, −3),
Point D is at (−4, 3).

258
 Reading scales

Exercise 21.1 1 Draw a pair of axes with both x and y from −8 to +8.
Mark each of the following points on your grid:
a A = (5, 2) b B = (7, 3) c C = (2, 4)
d D = (−8, 5) e E = (−5, −8) f F = (3, −7)
g G = (7, −3) h H = (6, −6)
2 A = (3, 2) B = (3, −4) C = (−2, −4) D = (−2, 2)
Draw a separate grid for each of Questions 2−4 with x- and y-axes from
−6 to +6. Plot and join the points in order to name each shape drawn.
3 E = (1, 3) F = (4, −5) G = (−2, −5)
4 H = (−6, 4) I = (0, −4) J = (4, −2) K = (−2, 6)

Exercise 21.2 Draw a pair of axes with both x and y from −10 to +10.
1 Plot the points P = (−6, 4), Q = (6, 4) and R = (8, −2).
Plot point S such that PQRS when drawn is a parallelogram.
a Draw diagonals PR and QS. What are the coordinates of their
point of intersection?
b What is the area of PQRS?
2 On the same axes, plot point M at (−8, 4) and point N at (4, 4).
a Join points MNRS. What shape is formed?
b What is the area of MNRS?
c Explain your answer to Question 2b.
3 On the same axes, plot point J where point J has y-coordinate +10 and
JRS, when joined, forms an isosceles triangle. What is the x-coordinate
of all points on the line of symmetry of triangle JRS?

Exercise 21.3 1 a On a grid with axes numbered from −10 to +10 draw a hexagon
ABCDEF with centre (0, 0), points A(0, 8) and B(7, 4) and two lines
of symmetry.
b Write down the coordinates of points C, D, E and F.
2 a On a similar grid to Question 1, draw an octagon PQRSTUVW
which has point P(2, −8), point Q(−6, −8) and point R(−7, −5).
PQ = RS = TU = VW and QR = ST = UV = WP.
b List the coordinates of points S, T, U, V and W.
c What are the coordinates of the centre of rotational symmetry of
the octagon?

Reading scales
Exercise 21.4 1 The points A, B, C and D are not at whole number points on the
number line. Point A is at 0.7.
What are the positions of points B, C and D?
A B C D

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 On this number line, point E is at 0.4.
What are the positions of points F, G and H?
E F G H

0 1 2

259
21 STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS

Exercise 21.4 3 What are the positions of points I, J, K, L and M?

(cont) I J K L M

4 5 6 7
4 Point P is at position 0.4 and point W is at position 9.8.
What are the positions of points Q, R, S, T, U and V?
P Q R S T U V W

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Exercise 21.5 Give the coordinates of points A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H.

y y
2 4
A H
3
1 2 E
D
1

–2 –1 0 1 2 x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–1 G –2
–3 F
C B
–2 –4

The gradient of a straight line

Lines are made of an infinite number of points. This chapter looks at
those whose points form a straight line.
The graph below shows three straight lines.
y
4

0 x
–10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
–1

–2

–3

–4

260
 The gradient of a straight line

The lines have some properties in common (e.g. they are straight),
but also have differences. One of their differences is that they have
different slopes. The slope of a line is called its gradient.
The gradient of a straight line is constant, i.e. it does not change.
The gradient of a straight line can be calculated by considering the
coordinates of any two points on the line.
On the line below, two points A and B have been chosen.
y
4
A
3

0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1

–2
B
–3

–4

The coordinates of the points are A(2, 3) and B(−1, −3). The gradient is
calculated using the following formula:
vertical distance between two points
Gradient =
horizontal distance between two points

Graphically this can be represented as follows:

y
4
A
3

1
Vertical distance
0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1

–2
B
–3
Horizontal distance
–4

Therefore, gradient = 3 – (–3) = 63 = 2

2 – (–1)
In general, therefore, if the two points chosen have coordinates (x1, y1)
and (x 2 , y 2), the gradient is calculated as:
y 2 – y1
Gradient =
x 2 – x1

261
21 STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS

Worked example
Calculate the gradient of the line shown below.
y
4

0 x
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
–1

–2

–3

–4

Choose two points on the line, e.g. (−4, 3) and (8, −3).
y
4
(–4, 3)
3

0 x
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
–1

–2
(8, –3)
–3

–4

Let point 1 be (−4, 3) and point 2 be (8, −3).

y2 – y1 –3 – 3
Gradient = =
x 2 – x1 8 – (–4)
–6 1
= =–
12 2

Note: The gradient is not affected by which point is chosen as point 1 and which
is chosen as point 2. In the example above, if point 1 was (8, −3) and point 2
(−4, 3), the gradient would be calculated as:
y2 − y1 3 − ( −3)
Gradient = =
x 2 − x1 −4 − 8

= 6 = −1
−12 2

262
 The gradient of a straight line

To check if the sign of the gradient is correct, the following guideline is useful.

A line sloping this way will A line sloping this way will
have a positive gradient have a negative gradient

A large value for the gradient implies that the line is steep. The line on the
right below will have a greater value for the gradient than the line on the left
as it is steeper.

Exercise 21.6 1 For each of the following lines, select two points on the line and then
calculate its gradient.
a y
4

0 x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1

–2

–3

–4
b y
4

0 x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1

–2

–3

–4
263
21 STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS

Exercise 21.6 c y
(cont) 4

0 x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1

–2

–3

–4

d y
4

0 x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1

–2

–3

–4

e y
4

0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1

–2

–3

–4

264
 The equation of a straight line

f y
4

0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1

–2

–3

–4

2 From your answers to Question 1e, what conclusion can you make
about the gradient of any horizontal line?
3 From your answers to Question 1f, what conclusion can you make
about the gradient of any vertical line?
4 The graph below shows six straight lines labelled A−F.
y

C
D A E

0 x

Six gradients are given below. Deduce which line has which gradient.
1
Gradient = 2 Gradient is undefined Gradient = 2

Gradient = −3 Gradient = 0 Gradient = − 12

The equation of a straight line

The coordinates of every point on a straight line all have a common
relationship. This relationship when expressed algebraically as an
equation in terms of x and/or y is known as the equation of the
straight line.

265
21 STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS

Worked examples
a By looking at the coordinates of some of the points on the line below,
establish the equation of the straight line.
y
x y
5
1 4
4
2 4
3
2
3 4

1 4 4
5 4
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x 6 4
Some of the points on the line have been identified and their coordinates
entered in a table above. By looking at the table it can be seen that the only
rule all the points have in common is that y = 4.
Hence the equation of the straight line is y = 4.
b By looking at the coordinates of some of the points on the line, establish
the equation of the straight line.
y x y
8
1 2
7
6 2 4
5 3 6
4 4 8
3
2
1
0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Once again, by looking at the table it can be seen that the relationship
between the x- and y-coordinates is that each y-coordinate is twice the
corresponding x-coordinate.
Hence the equation of the straight line is y = 2x.

Exercise 21.7 1 In each of the following, identify the coordinates of some of the points
on the line and use these to find the equation of the straight line.
a y b y
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

0 0
266 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
 The equation of a straight line

c y d y
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 x 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x

e y f y
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x

g y h y
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x

267
21 STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS

Exercise 21.8 1 In each of the following, identify the coordinates of some of the points
on the line and use these to find the equation of the straight line.
a y b y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3

c y d y
6 8
5 7
4 6
3 5
2 4
1 3
2
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–1 1
–2
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–3 –1
–2
–3

e y f y
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3

268
 The equation of a straight line

2 In each of the following, identify the coordinates of some of the points

on the line and use these to find the equation of the straight line.
a y b y
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3

c y d y
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3

e y f y
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2
1
1

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x –1
–1
–2
–2
–3
–3

269
21 STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS

Exercise 21.8 3 a For each of the graphs in Questions 1 and 2, calculate the gradient
of the straight line.
(cont) b What do you notice about the gradient of each line and its equation?
c What do you notice about the equation of the straight line and
where the line intersects the y-axis?
4 Copy the diagrams in Question 1. Draw two lines on each diagram
parallel to the given line.
a Write the equation of these new lines in the form y = mx + c.
b What do you notice about the equations of these new parallel lines?
5 In Question 2, you have an equation for these lines in the form y = mx + c.
Change the value of the intercept c and then draw the new line.
What do you notice about this new line and the first line?

The general equation of a straight

line
In general the equation of any straight line can be written in the form:
y = mx + c
where m represents the gradient of the straight line and c the intercept
with the y-axis. This is shown in the diagram below.
y

Gradient ‘ m ’

0 x
By looking at the equation of a straight line written in the form
y = mx + c, it is therefore possible to deduce the line’s gradient and
intercept with the y-axis without having to draw it.

Worked examples
a Calculate the gradient and y-intercept of the following straight lines:
i y = 3x − 2 gradient = 3
y-intercept = −2
ii y = −2x + 6 gradient = −2
y-intercept = 6
b Calculate the gradient and y-intercept of the following straight lines:
i 2y = 4x + 2
This needs to be rearranged into gradient-intercept form (i.e. y = mx + c).
y = 2x + 1 gradient = 2
y-intercept = 1

270
 Equation of a straight line in the form ax + by + c = 0

ii y − 2x = −4
Rearranging into gradient-intercept form, we have:
y = 2x − 4 gradient = 2
y-intercept = −4
iii −4y + 2x = 4
Rearranging into gradient-intercept form, we have:
y = 1x−1 gradient = 12
2
y-intercept = −1
y+3
iv = −x + 2
4
Rearranging into gradient-intercept form, we have:
y + 3 = –4 x + 8
y = − 4x + 5 gradient = −4
y-intercept = 5

Equation of a straight line in the

form ax + by + c = 0
The general equation of a straight line takes the form y = mx + c;
however, this is not the only form the equation of a straight line can
take.
A different form is to rearrange the equation so that all the terms are
on one side of the equation and equal to zero and to write it so that
there are no fractions.

Worked examples
a The equation of a straight line is given as y = 1 x + 3 . Write this in the form
2
ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are integers.
Rearranging the equation so that all the terms are on one side produces
1
x − y + 3 = 0.
2

However, there is still a fraction in the equation and the question stated
that a, b and c are integers.
To eliminate the fraction, both sides of the equation are multiplied by two.
This gives: x − 2 y + 6 = 0
2 1
b The equation of a straight line is given as y = x − . Write this in the form
5 3
ax + by + c = 0 , where a, b and c are integers.
Rearranging the equation so that all the terms are on the same side gives:
2
x− y− 1 = 0
5 3
To eliminate the fractions, multiply both sides by 15 to give 6 x − 15 y − 5 = 0.

271
21 STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS

Exercise 21.9 For the following linear equations, calculate both the gradient and
y-intercept in each case.
1 a y = 2x + 1 b y = 3x + 5 c y=x−2
d y = 12 x + 4 e y = −3x + 6 f y = − 23 x + 1
g y = −x h y = −x − 2 i y = −(2x − 2)

2 a y − 3x = 1 b y + 12 x − 2 = 0 c y + 3 = −2x
d y + 2x + 4 = 0 e y − 14 x − 6 = 0 f −3x + y = 2
g 2+y=x h 8x − 6 + y = 0 i −(3x + 1) + y = 0

3 a 2y = 4x − 6 b 2y = x + 8 c 12 y = x − 2
d 14 y = −2x + 3 e 3y − 6x = 0 f 13 y + x = 1
g 6y − 6 = 12x h 4y − 8 + 2x = 0 i 2y − (4x − 1) = 0

4 a 2x − y = 4 b x−y+6=0 c −2y = 6x + 2
d 12 − 3y = 3x e 5x − 12 y = 1 f − 23 y + 1 = 2x
g 9x − 2 = −y h −3x + 7 = − 12 y i −(4x − 3) = −2y
y+2
5 a = 1x b
y−3
=2 c
y–x
=0
4 2 x 8
1
2 y – 3x 3y – 2 y–1
d =6 e = –3 f 2 = –2
2 x x
3x – y 6 – 2y –( x + 2 y)
g =6 h =2 i =1
2 3 5x

3x – y −x + 2y y−x
6 a =2 b 4
= y+1 c x+y =2
y
–(6 x + y) 2x – 3y + 4
d 1y = 1x e 2
= y+1 f 4
=4

7 a
y + 1 3y – 2
+ = –1 b
x
+ 1 =3
x 2x y + 1 2y + 2
–(– y + 3 x) –( x – 2 y) – (– x – 2 y)
c =1 d = –2
–(6 x – 2 y) 4+x–y

8 Write each of the following equations in the form ax + by + c = 0 where

a, b and c are integers.
1
a y = x+1 b y = 2x−2 c 3y = 3 x − 1
3 5 2 2
1 1 y+1 3 3
d −2y = x+ 3 e = x−1 f − y−4 = x
2 4 5

9 Write each of the following equations in the form ax + by + c = 0 where

a, b and c are integers.
y−1 y−2 2y + x 1
a x
−
3x
=1 b x− y
=2 c 3y = − 52x

− ( 2 x + 3 y) 2 3 ( x − 2 y) 2x x
d 3x
=3 e −4=0 f 5 y + − y = −1
x

272
 Parallel lines and their equations

Parallel lines and their equations

Lines that are parallel, by their very definition, must have the same
gradient. Similarly, lines with the same gradient must be parallel. So
a straight line with equation y = –3 x + 4 must be parallel to a line with
equation y = –3 x – 2 as both have a gradient of −3.

Worked examples
a traight line has equation y = 2 x + 4.
A straight 4 . Another
A straight line has equation
y = −2 x + 4.
4. E
Explain,
xplain, giving reasons, whether the two lines are parallel to
each other or not.
ey are not parallel as one has a gradient of 2, the other has a gradient of –2.
They
b raight line has equation 4 x – 2 y + 1 = 0.
A straight
other straight line has equation 2 x – 4 = 1.
Another
y
Explain,
plain, giving reasons, whether the two lines are parallel to each other or not.
Rearranging the equations into gradient-intercept form gives:
2x – 4
4x – 2y + 1 = 0 =1
y
2y = 4x + 1 y = 2x − 4
y = 2x + 1
2
With both equations written in gradient-intercept form, it is possible to see
that
hat both lines have a gradient of 2 and are therefore parallel.
c A straight
raight line A has equation y = −3x
3x + 6. A second line B is parallel to
line A and passes through the point with coordinates (−4,
( 10).
Calculate the equation of line B.
As line B is a straight line it must take the form y = mx + c.
As it is parallel to line A, its gradient must be −3.
Because line B passes through the point (−4, 10), these values can be
substituted into the general equation of the straight line to give:
10 = −3 × (−4) + c
Rearranging to find c gives: c = −2
The equation of line B is therefore y = −3x − 2.

Exercise 21.10 1 A straight line has equation y = x + 43 . Write down the equation of
another straight line parallel to it.
2 A straight line has equation y = −x + 6. Which of the following lines
is/are parallel to it?
a y=−x−2 b y=8−x
c y=x−6 d y=−x
3 A straight line has equation 3y − 3x = 4. Write down the equation of
another straight line parallel to it.
4 A straight line has equation y = −x + 6. Which of the following lines
is/are parallel to it?
a 2(y + x) = −5 b −3x − 3y + 7 = 0
1
c 2y = −x + 12 d y + x = 10
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21 STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS

Exercise 21.10 5 Find the equation of the line parallel to y = 4x − 1 that passes through
(0, 0).
(cont)
6 Find the equations of lines parallel to y = −3x + 1 that pass through
each of the following points:
a (0, 4) b (−2, 4) c − 5, 4 ( 2 )
7 Find the equations of lines parallel to x − 2y = 6 that pass through each
of the following points:
a (−4, 1) ( ) b 1, 0
2

Drawing straight-line graphs

To draw a straight-line graph only two points need to be known. Once
these have been plotted, the line can be drawn between them and
extended if necessary at both ends.

Worked examples
a Plot the line y = x + 3. y
8
To identify two points, simply choose y=x+3
two values of x. Substitute these 7
into the equation and calculate their 6
corresponding y values. 5
When x = 0, y=3 4
3
When x = 4, y = 7
2
Therefore two of the points on the line
1
are (0, 3) and (4, 7).
0 x
The straight line y = x + 3 is plotted below. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

b Plot the line y = –2 x + 4. y

8
When x = 2, y = 0
7
When x = −1, y = 6 6
The coordinates of two points on the 5
line are (2, 0) and (−1, 6). 4
Note that, in questions of this sort, it is 3
often easier to rearrange the equation 2
into gradient-intercept form first.
1

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–1
–2
y = –2x + 4
–3

274
 Graphical solution of simultaneous equations

Exercise 21.11 1 Plot the following straight lines:

a y = 2x + 3 b y=x−4 c y = 3x − 2
d y = −2x e y = −x − 1 f −y = x + 1
g −y = 3x − 3 h 2y = 4x − 2 i y − 4 = 3x
2 Plot the following straight lines:
a −2x + y = 4 b −4x + 2y = 12 c 3y = 6x − 3
d 2x = x + 1 e 3y − 6x = 9 f 2y + x = 8
g x+y+2=0 h 3x + 2y − 4 = 0 i 4 = 4y − 2x
3 Plot the following straight lines:
x+y y x y
a =1 b x+ =1 c + =1
2 2 3 2
d y+ x = 3 e
y x
+ =0 f
–(2 x + y)
=1
2 5 3 4
y – ( x – y) y
g = –1 h –1=0 i −2(x + y) + 4 = −y
3x 2x + 3 2

Graphical solution of simultaneous

equations
When solving two equations simultaneously, the aim is to find a
solution which works for both equations. In Chapter 13 it was shown
how to arrive at the solution algebraically. It is, however, possible to
arrive at the same solution graphically.

Worked example
a By plotting both of the following equations on the same axes, find a
common solution.
x+y=4 (1)
x−y=2 (2)

y
4
x y=4

x y=2
0 1 2 3 4 x
When both lines are plotted, the point at which they cross gives the
common solution as it is the only point which lies on both lines.
Therefore the common solution is the point (3, 1).

275
21 STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS

b Check the result obtained above by solving the equations algebraically.

x+y=4 (1)
x−y=2 (2)
Adding equations (1) + (2) → 2x = 6
x=3
Substituting x = 3 into equation (1) we have:
3+y=4
y=1
Therefore the common solution occurs at (3, 1) so x = 3, y = 1.

Exercise 21.12 Solve the simultaneous equations below:

i by graphical means,
ii by algebraic means.
1 a x+y=5 b x+y=7 c 2x + y = 5
x−y=1 x−y=3 x−y=1
d 2x + 2y = 6 e x + 3y = −1 f x−y=6
2x − y = 3 x − 2y = −6 x+y=2
2 a 3x − 2y = 13 b 4x − 5y = 1 c x+5=y
2x + y = 4 2x + y = −3 2x + 3y − 5 = 0
d x=y e 2x + y = 4 f y − 3x = 1
x+y+6=0 4x + 2y = 8 y = 3x − 3

Calculating the length of a line

segment
A line segment is formed when two points are joined by a straight line.
To calculate the distance between two points, and therefore the length
of the line segment, their coordinates need to be given. Once these are
known, Pythagoras’ theorem can be used to calculate the distance.

Worked example
The coordinates of two points are (1, 3) and y
(5, 6). Draw a pair of axes, plot the given 8
points and calculate the distance between 7
them. (5, 6)
6
By dropping a vertical line from the point 5
(5, 6) and drawing a horizontal line from a 3
4
(1, 3), a right-angled triangle is formed. The
3
length of the hypotenuse of the triangle is (1, 3) 4
the length we wish to find. 2
1
Using Pythagoras’ theorem, we have:
a 2 = 32 + 42 = 25 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
a = 25 = 5
The length of the line segment is 5 units.

276
 The midpoint of a line segment

To find the distance between two points directly from their coordinates, use
the following formula:
d= ( x1 − x2 )2 + ( y1 − y2 )2

Worked example
Without plotting the points, calculate the distance between the points (1, 3)
and (5, 6).
d = (1 − 5 ) 2 + ( 3 − 6 ) 2
= ( −4 ) 2 + ( −3) 2
= 25 = 5
The distance between the two points is 5 units.

The midpoint of a line segment

To find the midpoint of a line segment, use the coordinates of its end
points. To find the x-coordinate of the midpoint, find the mean of the
x-coordinates of the end points. Similarly, to find the y-coordinate of
the midpoint, find the mean of the y-coordinates of the end points.

Worked examples
a Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment AB where A is
(1, 3) and B is (5, 6).
The x-coordinate of the midpoint will be 1 + 5 = 3
2
The y-coordinate of the midpoint will be 2 6 = 4.5
3 +

So the coordinates of the midpoint are (3, 4.5).

b Find the coordinates of the midpoint of a line segment PQ where P is
(−2, −5) and Q is (4, 7).
The x-coordinate of the midpoint will be –2 + 4 = 1
2
The y-coordinate of the midpoint will be –5 + 7 = 1
2
So the coordinates of the midpoint are (1, 1).

Exercise 21.13 1 i Plot each of the following pairs of points.

ii Calculate the distance between each pair of points.
iii Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining the
two points.
a (5, 6) (1, 2) b (6, 4) (3, 1) c (1, 4) (5, 8)
d (0, 0) (4, 8) e (2, 1) (4, 7) f (0, 7) (−3, 1)
g (−3, −3) (−1, 5) h (4, 2) (−4, −2) i (−3, 5) (4, 5)
j (2, 0) (2, 6) k (−4, 3) (4, 5) l (3, 6) (−3, −3)

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Exercise 21.13 2 Without plotting the points:

i calculate the distance between each of the following pairs of points
(cont)
ii find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining the
two points.
a (1, 4) (4, 1) b (3, 6) (7, 2)
c (2, 6) (6, −2) d (1, 2) (9, −2)
e (0, 3) (−3, 6) f (−3, −5) (−5, −1)
g (−2, 6) (2, 0) h (2, −3) (8, 1)
i (6, 1) (−6, 4) j (−2, 2) (4, −4)
k (−5, −3) (6, −3) l (3, 6) (5, −2)

The equation of a line through

two points
The equation of a straight line can be deduced once the coordinates of
two points on the line are known.

Worked example
Calculate the equation of the straight line passing through the points (−3, 3)
and (5, 5).
The equation of any straight line can be written in the general form y = mx + c.
Here we have:

gradient = 5 – 3 = 2
5 – (–3) 8

gradient = 1
4
The equation of the line now takes the form y = 14 x + c.
Since the line passes through the two given points, their coordinates must
satisfy the equation. So to calculate the value of ‘c’ the x and y coordinates of
one of the points are substituted into the equation. Substituting (5, 5) into the
equation gives:
5 = 1 ×5+c
4
5= 5+c
4
Therefore c = 5 − 1 14 = 3 43
The equation of the straight line passing through (−3, 3) and (5, 5) is:
y= 1x+3 3
4 4

Exercise 21.14 Find the equation of the straight line which passes through each of the
following pairs of points:
1 a (1, 1) (4, 7) b (1, 4) (3, 10) c (1, 5) (2, 7)
d (0, −4) (3, −1) e (1, 6) (2, 10) f (0, 4) (1, 3)
g (3, −4) (10, −18) h (0, −1) (1, −4) i (0, 0) (10, 5)

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 Perpendicular lines

2 a (−5, 3) (2, 4) b (−3, −2) (4, 4) c (−7, −3) (−1, 6)

d (2, 5) (1, −4) e (−3, 4) (5, 0) f (6, 4) (−7, 7)
g (−5, 2) (6, 2) h (1, −3) (−2, 6) i (6, −4) (6, 6)

Perpendicular lines
The two lines shown below are perpendicular to each other.
y
4

3
A
2
B
1

–9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
–1

–2

–3

–4

Line A has a gradient of 2.

Line B has a gradient of − 12 .
The diagram below also shows two lines perpendicular to each other.
y
4

3
D C
2

–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
–1

–2

–3

–4

Line C has a gradient of 23 .

Line D has a gradient of − 23 .
Notice that in both cases, the product of the two gradients is equal to −1.
In the first example 2 × (− 12 ) = −1.

In the second example 23 × (− 23 ) = −1.

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This is in fact the case for the gradients of any two perpendicular lines.
If two lines L1 and L2 are perpendicular to each other, the product of
their gradients m1 and m 2 is −1.
i.e. m1m 2 = −1
Therefore the gradient of one line is the negative reciprocal of the
other line.
i.e. m1 = − m1
2

Worked examples
a i Calculate the gradient of the line joining the two points (3, 6) and (1, −6).
6 – (–6)
12
Gradient = 3 – 1 = 2 = 6
ii Calculate the gradient of a line perpendicular to the one in part i above.
m1 = − m12 , therefore the gradient of the perpendicular line is − 16 .
iii The perpendicular line also passes through the point (−1, 6). Calculate
the equation of the perpendicular line.
The equation of the perpendicular line will take the form y = mx + c.
As its gradient is − 16 and it passes through the point (−1, 6), this can be
substituted into the equation to give:
6 = − 16 × (−1) + c
Therefore c = 35 .
6
The equation of the perpendicular line is y = − 16 x + 35
6
.

b i Show that the point (−4, −1) lies on the line y = − 14 x − 2.

If the point (−4, −1) lies on the line, its values of x and y will satisfy the
equation. Substituting the values of x and y into the equation gives:
−1 = − 14 × (−4) − 2
−1 = −1
Therefore the point lies on the line.
ii Deduce the gradient of a line perpendicular to the one given in part i
above.
m1 = − m1 therefore m1 = − 11 = 4
2 −4
Therefore the gradient of the perpendicular line is 4.
iii The perpendicular line also passes through the point (−4, −1).
Calculate its equation.
The equation of the perpendicular line takes the general form
y = mx + c.
Substituting in the values of x, y and m gives:
−1 = 4 × (−4) + c
Therefore c = 15.
The equation of the perpendicular line is y = 4x + 15.

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 Perpendicular lines

Exercise 21.15 1 Calculate:

i the gradient of the line joining the following pairs of points
ii the gradient of a line perpendicular to this line
iii the equation of the perpendicular line if it passes through the
second point each time.
a (1, 4) (4, 1) b (3, 6) (7, 2) c (2, 6) (6, −2)
d (1, 2) (9, −2) e (0, 3) (−3, 6) f (−3, −5) (−5, −1)
g (−2, 6) (2, 0) h (2, −3) (8, 1) i (6, 1) (−6, 4)
j (−2, 2) (4, −4) k (−5, −3) (6, −3) l (3, 6) (5, −2)
2 Calculate the gradient of lines perpendicular to each of the following
straight lines.
a 2 y = 3 x + 2 b 4 x − 5 y = 10 c 1 y + 4 x − 3 = 0 d 2 y − 1 x = 1
2 3 2
3 The diagram below shows a square ABCD. The
he coordinates of A and B
are given.
y

C
D

B(10, 5)
A(4, 3)

0 x
Calculate:
a the gradient of the line AB
b the equation of the line passing through A and B
c the gradient of the line AD
d the equation of the line passing through A and D
e the equation of the line passing through B and C
f the coordinates of C
g the coordinates of D
h the equation of the line passing through C and D
i the length of the sides of the square to 1 d.p.
j the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment AC.
4 The diagram below shows a right-angled isosceles triangle ABC,
where AB = AC.
The coordinates of A and B are given.
y
C

B(9, 2)

0 x
A(–1, –2)

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21 STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS

Exercise 21.15 a Calculate:

i the equation of the line passing through the points A and B
(cont) ii the equation of the line passing through A and C
iii the length of the line segment BC to 1 d.p.
iv the coordinates of the midpoints of all three sides of the triangle.
b A perpendicular bisector of the line AB is a line which is at right angles
to AB and passes through its midpoint.
Calculate the equation of the perpendicular bisector of AB.

Student assessment 1
1 For each of the following lines, select two points on the line and
then calculate its gradient.
a a) y
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
b y
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2
–3
–4

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 Perpendicular lines

2 Find
a)the equation of the straight line for each of the following:
a y
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
b)
b y
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2
–3
–4

3 Write down the equation of the line parallel to the line y = − 23 x + 4

which passes through the point (6, 2).
4 Plot the following graphs on the same pair of axes, labelling each
clearly.
a x = −2 b y=3
c y = 2x d y = − 2x
5 Calculate the gradient and y-intercept for each of the following
linear equations:
a y = −3x + 4
b 13 y − x = 2
c 2x + 4y − 6 = 0

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21 STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS

6 Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations graphically:

a x+y=4 b 3x + y = 2
x−y=0 x−y=2
c y + 4x + 4 = 0 d x − y = −2
x+y=2 3x + 2y + 6 = 0
7 The coordinates of the end points of two line segments are given
below.
For each line segment calculate:
i the length
ii the midpoint.
a (−6, −1) (6, 4) b (1, 2) (7, 10)
8 Find the equation of the straight line which passes through each of
the following pairs of points:
i in the form y = mx + c
ii in the form ax + by + c = 0
a (1, −1) (4, 8) b (0, 7) (3, 1)
9 A line L1 passes through the points (−2, 5) and (5, 3).
a Write down the equation of the line L1.
Another line L2 is perpendicular to L1 and also passes through the
point (−2, 5).
b Write down the equation of the line L2 .
10 The diagram below shows a rhombus ABCD. The coordinates of A,
B and D are given.
y

C
D(0, 6)

A(4, 3) B(9, 3)

0 x
a Calculate:
i the coordinate of the point C
ii the equation of the line passing through A and C
iii the equation of the line passing through B and D.
b Are the diagonals of the rhombus perpendicular to each other?
Justify your answer.

284