INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGION (MODULE 4)

What I Know

Direction: Match Column A with Column B. Read each item carefully and use your notebook to write the
letter of the correct answer.

Column A Column B

___1. It is the Latinized version of Kongzi and the

Honorific Kong Fuzi both meaning “Master Kong. A. The Book of Changes

___2. These are a group of books which was regarded

As early Confucianism’s basic texts. B. Analects

___3. It is also known as the I-Ching, and is believe to

Have existed at the time of Confucius and is the oldest
Of the classics. C. Coming of Age Rites

___4. It is a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to

Confucius and his contemporaries, traditionally believed to
Have been written by Confucius’ followers. D. Rectification of Names

___5. According to Confucius, people must play their assigned

Roles in society which was called the zhengming or _________. E. Environmental Ethics

___6. Also known as the Five Classical Virtues, or Wuchang, these

Are the five most important Confucian ethics mentioned in the
Analects and the book of Mencius. F. Five Constants

___7. These are ceremonies held to signify that a young person

Has reached the marriageable age and could join the different
Activities of his/her clan as an adult. G. Authoritarianism

___8. An issue in Confucianism where women, being at the

Bottom of the Confucian hierarchy, are expected to display ideal
Behavior and accommodation. H. Female Subordination

___9. Another issue in Confucianism which encourages deference

To one’s superiors---ruler, father, teacher, or anyone older. I. Confucius

___10. Confucianism’s acceptance of people’s dominance of nature

Poses a threat to this religion’s selected issue. J. The Five Classics
What’s New

Directions: List down at least three (3) relationships you are involved in right now and identify the
power relations in these relationships by stating if you are a subordinate, superior, or equal position in
each relationship. Explain the pros and cons of the said relationships. Copy the table below in your
notebook to accomplish this task.

Relationships Power Relations Advantages/Disadvantages of

(Subordinate, superior, this relationship
Equal)

1.
2.
3.

What is It

CONFUCIANISM

Life and Times of Confucius

Confucius is the Latinized version of Kongzi and the honorific Kong Fuzi both meaning “Master
Kong.” He was born on September 28 on 551 B.C.E. Hence, it is considered a day of celebration in East
Asia—an official holiday in Taiwan (Teacher’s Day), and a day of cultural celebration in mainland China,
Hong Kong, and Singapore. Confucius was born in a small feudal state of Lu (now Shantung province) in
Qufu. His personal name was Qiu and his family name was Kong. He came from a noble family, but by
the time of his birth, they had already lost much of their wealth. His first teacher was his mother, and at
the age of 15 he set his heart upon learning, thus love of learning became one of the highest virtues in
Confucian ethics. He married at the age of 19 and had a son at the age of 20. At this point in his life he
had already served in minor government posts and had already gained a reputation as an all-around
scholar. When he was in his 30s he had already started a brilliant teaching career because of his mastery
of the arts of ritual, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and arithmetic. He was also familiar with
classical tradition, particularly in poetry and history. He is often considered as the first person to devote
his whole life to learning and teaching for the purpose of social transformation and improvement. He
held several government positions including as arbiter, assistant minister of public works, and minister
of justice in the state of Lu. Frustrated that his ideals and policies were brushed off by his superiors, he
soon left Lu. For 13 years, he wandered from state to state, trying to put his theories to practice. At 67,
he returned home to teach (where he gained more disciples) and to preserve his classical traditions by
writing and editing. He died in 479 B.C.E at the age of 73 and he left around 3,000 followers who
preserved and put his other teachings to writing. It is believed that his ideas were documented in writing
by a successor known as Mencius Confucius lived during a critical time in Chinese history called the
Warring States period (475–221 BCE) during which several states fought against each other in an
attempt to expand their influence over what is now China. It was out of this period that the China known
today emerged in the third century BCE under the unification of the Qin Empire. While several
important schools of thought emerged at this time, the ideas developed by Confucius had lasting impact
for China and the entire region. After his death, varying successors and adherents contributed to the
spread of the Confucian tradition. As with many great schools of thought, continued debate and
discussion about Confucius’ ideas have kept his teachings alive.

SACRED SCRIPTURES: THE CONFUCIAN CLASSICS

The Five Classics are a group of books which was regarded as early Confucianism’s basic texts.
This includes the Book of Changes, the Book of History, the Book of Poetry, the Classic of Rites, and the
Spring and Autumn Annals. The Analects is also considered an important source of Confucian teachings
since it contains a record of his conversations with his disciples. Let us now take a look at what these
classics are all about.

Confucius has often been considered as the author or editor of the Classics, but contemporary
scholarship has shown that even though many of these texts can be traced back to Confucius, they have
undergone a long period of development. Moreover, these Classics were burned during the reign of the
Qin dynasty and was restored only during the Han dynasty. It was Confucius’ followers who exerted
effort in writing and collating his teachings and philosophies.

Book of Changes
Also known as the I-Ching, the Book of Changes is believed to have existed at the time of
Confucius and is the oldest of the Classics. It focuses on short predictions following a type of divination
called cleromancy wherein six random numbers are picked and arranged under sixty-four hexagrams.

Book of History
Also known as the Book of Documents or Shangshu, the Book of History is conventionally
attributed to Confucius by early scholars. It is composed of speeches (or prose) of royalty and ministers
mainly from the Shang and Zhou dynasties.

Book of Poetry
The Book of Poetry, also known as the Book of Songs/Odes/Shijing, is a collection of three
hundred and five songs compiled around 600 B.C.E. which includes four sections of various themes such
as love, courtship, abandonment and dances. It also includes feast songs or state chants.

Classic of Rites
Originally the Three Li/Three Rites/San Li, the Classic of Rites is a compilation of ceremonial
rituals, administration, and social forms of the Zhou Dynasty. It is considered as a complete body of work
which includes the Ceremonials (I-li/Yili), an early manual of protocol for the nobility, describing such
occasions as marriages and funerals, sacrifices and even archery competitions.
Analects
The Analects, or Lunyu (“conversations” or “sayings”), is also known as the Analects of
Confucius. It is a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to the Chinese philosopher Confucius and his
contemporaries, traditionally believed to have been written by Confucius' followers. It is believed to
have been written during the Warring States period (475 B.C.E.-221 B.C.E.) and finalized during the
middle of the Han dynasty. At first it was considered as merely a commentary on the Five Classics, but 6
later on acquired tremendous significance that it has been classified as one of the Four Books along with
Great Learning, Doctrine of the Mean, and Book of Mencius. Among other important Confucian works, it
has become an influential canonical resource in Chinese and East Asian philosophy.

CONFUCIAN DOCTRINES/BELIEFS
Perhaps Confucius is more often celebrated for his Golden Rule: “Do not do unto others what
you would not have them do unto you.” Found in the Analects, this saying teaches the ethics of
mutuality and reciprocity. Thus, it requires people to treat others equal to themselves and in equally the
same manner as they would have wanted to be treated. Some of the most important Confucian
doctrines include the idea of Tian or heaven; human nature; rectification of names; the five constants;
filial piety; and ancestor worship.

Rectification of Names
Confucius believed that to return to the ancient Dao, people must play their assigned roles in
society. This was later called the rectification of names, or zhengming, The Five Relationships include: 1)
ruler-subject; 2) father-son; 3) husband-wife; 4) elder and younger brother; and 5) friend and friend. The
responsibilities originating from these relationships are shared and reciprocal. For example, a minister
owes loyalty to his ruler, and a child owes filial respect to the parent. In return, rulers must care for their
subjects, and parents must care for their children. The Five Relationships emphasize the upright sense of
hierarchy. Among friends, for example, seniority of age requires a certain deference. Zhengming helps
bring social order for it advocates the idea that every person has a particular role at a particular time in
life, and that by abiding to this particular role, one is able to fulfil one’s social duties and responsibilities,
thus creating social harmony.

The Five Constants

The Five Constants, also known as the Five Classical Virtues, or Wuchang, are the five most
important Confucian ethics mentioned in the Analects and the Book of Mencius. These include the
following: ren or benevolence; yi or righteousness; li or propriety; zhi or knowledge/wisdom; and xin or
fidelity. Ren, or benevolence, can be achieved by returning to li, or the traditional Chinese rituals. It
means following the social hierarchy patterned after family relationships. Ren can also be achieved by
extending one’s filial love for parents and siblings to fellow human beings. It can also be achieved by
avoiding envy or harm. Yi, or righteousness, can be achieved by having the moral disposition to do good,
which can only be possible after recognizing what is right and good. It can also be achieved through the
ability to feel what is the right thing to do. Li, or propriety, which is considered as the concrete guide to
human action and social order, can be achieved by following the guide to human relationships
(rectification of names, doctrine of the mean, The Five Relationships); it can also be achieved by
following the norms of ren, or righteousness. Zhi, or knowledge/wisdom, can be achieved by knowing
what is right and what is wrong, which is innate in people who are basically good according to Mencius.
Lastly, xin, or fidelity can be achieved by keeping one’s word and being faithful, for Kung Fuzi believed
that only people who 7 are faithful can be trusted with important tasks. Fidelity is also seen as the key to
nation-building.

Filial Piety as an Important Virtue

For Confucius, family relations provide a model for social behavior. Respect for elders, whether
your own or others, is emphasized, as well as kindness to your own children and juniors, including those
of others. These were said to be instructed by Mencius and have provided inspiration for generations of
Confucians. Filial piety is said to have provided China with a strong sense of solidarity not only in the
Chinese family, but also in Confucian social organizations and even among Chinese communities in
different parts of the world. Ancestor worship is a manifestation of filial piety, or respect for one’s
parents, which is directed toward older relatives and ancestors. The idea of ancestor worship is based
on the key Confucian idea that it is expected of children to respect and obey their parents in life, and to
continue remembering them after they have died through the proper observance of rituals. One way to
remember them is by worshipping ancestral tablets which can be kept at home. These ancestral tablets
contain the information regarding the place where the family originated and the names of the
ancestors. Another way to remember ancestors is to worship them in their graves. People occasionally
visit the graves of their loved ones, clean the graves, offer food and wine. The ancestors were believed
to have tasted the food before the whole family eat the meal being offered. Ancestor worship is an
expression of a union between the living and the loved one, clearly a manifestation of filial piety.

The concept of hun-po or soul is important in Chinese cosmology and early concept of dualism.
Accordingly, the human being is made up of two souls: an upper or intellectual soul (hun) which
becomes the spirit (shen) and climbs to the world above; and a lower soul (po), which becomes the
ghost and goes down with the body into the grave. Thus, ancestor worship is important because of the
belief that even the bodies of the dead ancestors possess souls which need to be worshipped and
revered.

WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES

The Book of Rites recorded the rituals practiced by the Chinese for many centuries. Some of
these rituals have been classified under Family Rituals, also known as the “Four Rites,” which are rituals
or ceremonies that characterize a person’s growth and maturity, namely: coming of age rites, marriage
ceremonies, mourning rites, and sacrificial rituals. Many of these rituals are no longer observed, but
they offer functional proof of the religious nature of Confucianism.

Four Rites
COMING OF AGE RITES are ceremonies held to signify that a young person has reached the
marriageable age and could join the different activities of his/her clan as an adult. Two important
coming of age rites among the Chinese are capping and hair pinning ceremonies.

Capping refers to doing the male teenager’s hair in a bun/coil and wearing a cap. This is a ritual
that male teenagers have to go through sometime between the ages of 15 and 20. In this occasion, a
male Chinese receives his formal hat and ceremonial gown, as well as his formal name. Also, a wine
libation (a drink poured out as an offering to the deity) is made and the young man is formally
introduced to his ancestors.

Hair Pinning refers to the gathering of a girl’s hair into a knot, and securing it using a hairpin or a
hairclip; often done by 16-year old women after engagement and before their wedding day.

MOURNING RITES often involve intricate practices, which include the following steps: First,
there should be public announcement of grief through weeping, and the wearing of white funeral
clothes by the family of the deceased. Mourning also constitutes the offering of symbolic goods like
money and food from the living to the dead, preparation and setting up of a spirit tablet, payment of
ritual experts, the playing of music and chanting of scriptures to accompany the corpse and to pacify the
spirit, the sealing of the corpse in a coffin, and the removal of the coffin from the community. There is
also a tradition of exerting effort to recover the deceased, which is being practiced to avoid false death.
They do this by trying to call or shout over the wandering soul through the person’s clothes, in case the
soul just lost its way back to the body of the person.

MARRIAGE CEREMONIES are an important aspect of Chinese culture since marriage is

considered as a central feature of society; through marriage, patience and love are cultivated to
promote the right virtue. Traditionally, a marriage is decided by the parents of the couple, with wealth
and social status as the primary considerations. Monogamy is preferred, which means married couples
should be loyal to their partners for the rest of their lives. Marriage rituals include giving of gifts and
following the necessary etiquettes, from marriage proposal to the wedding ceremony itself, in which the
groom and his family meet the bride at her home, after the bride sent the dowry to the groom’s house;
on the wedding day, rites include carrying the bride to the sedan and the couple leading the festivity at
the bridal chamber; on the wedding night, friends, and relatives are supposed to banter the couple; and
on the third day, the couple would go back to the bride’s parents’ home to pay respect.

SACRIFICIAL RITUALS are performed regularly by the descendants of the deceased ancestors.
Sacrifices are often given at festivals. One such festival is the Qingming Festival celebrated annually by
Chinese all over the world to honor their dead. Qing Ming means “clear and bright” which describes the
weather on that particular day of the year. It is observed by visiting the ancestor’s grave to clean and
repair it, and through offertories, such as food, fruit, wine, incense, or candles. Descendants of the
deceased normally bury their ancestors with belongings that they wanted to be transported to the spirit
world with the dead. During ancient times, some 9 royal families put bronze vessels, oracle bones, and
human or animal sacrifices in the grave. These were considered as things one may need in the spirit
world and as a form of continued filial piety. It is the oldest and most enduring Confucian ritual still
observed today.

SELECTED ISSUES
Certain issues arise when we try to reconsider the relevance of Confucianism and Neo-
Confucianism. One characteristic of the Confucian social order is the fixed and strict hierarchy, with the
higher partners being composed of men—fathers, husbands, and rulers exercising more right and
privilege over women who are placed in a subordinate position. Another issue related to hierarchy
would be authoritarianism, which was an influence of the philosophy of Legalism and which became the
guiding principle of the Chinese government during the Qin dynasty. Still, the issue of Confucianism’s
incompatibility with environmentalism is another aspect being analyzed by scholars.

Female Subordination
It is often said that a woman’s life under Confucianism can be summed up in three periods, also
known as the “Three Obediences:” obedience to her father while at home; obedience to her husband
when married; and obedience to her son when widowed. Women, being at the bottom of the Confucian
hierarchy, are expected to display ideal behavior and accommodation. They are expected to
demonstrate obedience before all other virtues and are not expected to act as independent beings.
Women lived separately from men by custom. Women were also assigned the role of providing a male
heir to ensure the continuation of the tradition that male children should perform the ancestral rites.
This also excuses the husband to take on secondary wives if the first wife failed to provide him with a
son, while women were not allowed to see other men other than their husbands and close male
relatives. In the “Five Relationships,” it is very clear that the relationship between husband and wife
should be based on male supremacy. In the Book of Changes, the male-female relationship is
represented in terms of the superiority of heaven over inferior earth. The patriarchal nature of
Confucianism is manifested in certain beliefs like preference for male children. Men are expected to
inherit the family names and property, and are responsible for the care of their parents, that is why
having male children is preferred. For one, women are the ones expected to give dowry to the family of
their groom when they get married, and among poor families, having female children has become a
burden rather than a blessing. This also paved the way for more cases of female infanticide and abortion
every year (although abortion is prohibited in Confucianism except in cases when the life of the mother
is at risk). Implementation of the one-child policy by the Chinese government in the 1970s and the 1980s
made it even worse for women. Some would say that despite the elevation of the status of women in
China during the time of communist rule, the one-child policy paved the way for the return of Confucian
values and made it once again trendy not to have girls. If the parents have 10 a daughter for a first born,
they would often try to have a son. If the first three children were girls, it is not unusual to keep the first
girl, give away the second girl, and abort the third girl. For critics, it is obvious that the more Confucian
the society became, the less freedom the women enjoyed.

Authoritarianism
Authoritarianism is another challenge that Confucianism still faces at present. Because
Confucianism stresses the hierarchy between relationships, this has reinforced top-down values and
hierarchical systems by encouraging deference to one’s superiors—ruler, father, teacher, or anyone
older. When Confucian values are used to suppress opposition, thwart fresh ideas to surface, or to
protect apathy, then Confucianism poses a serious threat to the development of society and the
flourishing of democracy. Confucianism has been criticized on the issue of father-son relationship,
especially on the aspect of allowing the bad behavior of a father and requiring the son to accept it when
this occurs. After all, Confucianism teaches that a father must be respected at all costs and a son must
obey his father no matter what. This suggests that children must not question the authority of their
parents and simply accept their subordinate status. When they become parents, the son will become a
father hence that is the time that he will enjoy a superior status over his son. Meanwhile, the daughter,
when she becomes a mother, will continue to be in an inferior position, this time to her husband.
Environmental Ethics
One more issue that Confucianism faces today is that of environmentalism. While it is true that
Confucianism advocates respect for the environment, its acceptance of people’s dominance of nature
poses a threat to the issue. The Analects mentioned the subordination of animals to social interests.
Some experts also say that when faced with the dilemma between maintaining social duties and the
environment, Confucianism would lead one to choose the former than the latter. Confucian logic would
give priority to defense of social duties over environmental protection.

What Role Does Confucianism Play Today?

Confucius is one of the world's most influential philosophers. Today, his philosophy continues to
influence large groups of people across Asia and throughout the world. Countries that show the most
significant imprint of Confucianism are China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Confucianism manifests itself
in the way children defer to their elders and parents (filial piety) and in the hierarchical structure within
offices among employees of different ages and levels of experience. Confucianism also plays a role in the
expectations people place upon government and upon its legitimacy.
Direction: Match Column A with Column B. Read each item carefully and use your notebook to write the
letter of the correct answer.

Column A Column B

___1. It is the Latinized version of Kongzi and the

Honorific Kong Fuzi both meaning “Master Kong. A. The Book of Changes

___2. These are a group of books which was regarded

As early Confucianism’s basic texts. B. Analects

___3. It is also known as the I-Ching, and is believe to

Have existed at the time of Confucius and is the oldest
Of the classics. C. Coming of Age Rites

___4. It is a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to

Confucius and his contemporaries, traditionally believed to
Have been written by Confucius’ followers. D. Rectification of Names

___5. According to Confucius, people must play their assigned

Roles in society which was called the zhengming or _________. E. Environmental Ethics

___6. Also known as the Five Classical Virtues, or Wuchang, these

Are the five most important Confucian ethics mentioned in the
Analects and the book of Mencius. F. Five Constants

___7. These are ceremonies held to signify that a young person

Has reached the marriageable age and could join the different
Activities of his/her clan as an adult. G. Authoritarianism

___8. An issue in Confucianism where women, being at the

Bottom of the Confucian hierarchy, are expected to display ideal
Behavior and accommodation. H. Female Subordination

___9. Another issue in Confucianism which encourages deference

To one’s superiors---ruler, father, teacher, or anyone older. I. Confucius

___10. Confucianism’s acceptance of people’s dominance of nature

Poses a threat to this religion’s selected issue. J. The Five Classics