E-Learning Material

on

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
PRACTICAL
of
1st/2nd semester of all Engineering Branches

E-Learning Material

Engineering Physics Practical

of
st nd
1 /2 semester of all Engineering Branches of
Diploma courses of SCTE&VT, Odisha
 Contents
SL. Page
NAME OF THE EXPERIMENTS
NO No.

To find the cross sectional area of a wire using a

1
screw gauge. 1

To find the thickness and volume of a glass piece

2
using a screw gauge. 6

To find volume of a solid cylinder using a Vernier

3
Calipers. 10

To find volume of a hollow cylinder using a Vernier

4
Calipers 18

To determine the radius of curvature of convex

5
surface using a Spherometer. 23

To determine the radius of curvature of concave

6
surface using a Spherometer. 29

To find the time period of a simple pendulum and

7
determine acceleration due to gravity 32

8 To determine the angle of Prism.

37

To determine the angle of Minimum Deviation by I ~ D

9
curve method. 41

To trace lines of force due to a bar magnet with

10
North pole pointing North and locate the neutral 46
points.
To trace lines of force due to a bar magnet with North
11
pole pointing South and locate the neutral points. 50

12 To verify Ohm’s Law by Ammeter – Voltmeter method.

53

57
13 Reference Books
 Introduction for the students

Just in the previous page( in the contents page), you saw the list of experiments you
have to perform in the Engineering Physics Lab course. Probably, you are not convinced
why you should perform these experiments.This is because these do not seem important to
many of you.But aren’t these important? Let us see!
It can be noticed that the first six experiments involve measurements of different
physical quantities using the instruments like 1. Slide calliper, 2. Screw Gauge, and 3.
Spherometer.First of all, one must understand the importance of accurate measurements in
the life of an engineer and you all have just started the journey of engineering. So, let us
begin with that.
In your school days, you have used scale to measure length, used meter tape to
measure height or to get your dress designed. However, in the stitching of your cloth if the
measurement is wrong by 0.5 cm, you won’t notice any difference. But, if there is a
mismatch of 1 inch (tight or loose by 1 inch), you will definitely get irritated.However,
suppose you are trying to plug in your charger pin to your mobile and in that, there is a
mismatch of 1 mm, you will feel like breaking the phone or the head of the manufacturer.
Isn’t it? Hence, it is very important to measure correctly and the scope for error (tolerance)
varies from nanometre to inch depending on the need.So let us start with our first experiment
i.e measurement using screw gauge/micrometer. The importance of the other experiments
will be discussed eventually.
If one asks about how small we can measure using an ordinary scale present in our
instrument box/geometry box, we can easily say it is one millimetre i.e 1/10th of one 1 cm.
So, the ‘least count’ of an ordinary scale is 1 mm. What if something is smaller than the
1mm? You can see it, but you cannot measure it using the scale you have. So, let us learn
how to measure something smaller now. You will be given a thin wire. How thin? - that you
will answer after performing the experiment.
Instruction to students while making lab report

1. Put page number, date and experiment number.

2. Write with the headings.
a. Aim of the experiment
b. Apparatus required
c. Theory (describe the instrument and theory related to the objective of
experiment)
d. Procedure
e. Observation and Tabulation (the table should be numbered)
f. Calculation
g. Conclusion
h. Precautions
3. Draw neat labelled diagram of the instrument as well as the required diagrams
described in the theory on the blank page of the lab notebook.
4. Tabulation should be done on the rolling side of the lab notebook.
5. At the end of each experiment, mention
a. Name
b. Registration No.
c. Semester
d. Branch
e. Section
6. Index of the lab notebook must be maintained with proper date.
7. Use pencil for drawing figures and making tables. Use pen for writing (preferably two
colours; do not use red pen)
LEARNING OUTCOMES OF EXPERIMENT 1 AND 2
The students can learn

 Different parts of the screw gauge.

 How to find out the distance between consecutive threads of a
screw gauge
 How to calculate the least count of a screw gauge.
 How to measure length using a screw gauge
 How to calculate area and volume of a given specimen.

Date:

EXPERIMENT NO. 1

To find the cross sectional area of a wire using a screw

gauge.
Aim of the Experiment:

To measure the cross-sectional area of a given wire using screw gauge.

Apparatus Required:

1. Given wire
2. Screw gauge
3. Geometry box
Description of Screw Gauge:

 Why the name

Screw gauge is a measuring instrument most commonly known as the micrometer
screw, used widely for precise measurement of small objects such as wire. The word
screw gauge is used because the operation of this device is based upon the principle of
a screw and it is used to measure the diameter of a wire .

Principle of screw gauge

 A screw gauge works on the principle of screw. This screw principle helps to convert
smaller distances into larger ones by measuring the rotation of the screw. It amplifies
the smaller dimensions and this converts into larger ones. When we rotate the screw,
there's a linear movement on the main scale.
 Screw gauge is also called a micrometre because it can measure very small lengths of
the order of 1 micro meter.
 When an accurately cut single threaded screw is placed inside a closely fitted nut
and rotated, in addition to the circular motion there is also a linear motion of the
screw along its axis. This distance moved by the screw in one complete rotation of
the screw is equal to the distance between its two consecutive threads. This distance
is called the pitch and it’s always constant.

Page 1
Theory:

 In figure 1, an image of a typical screw gauge is presented. With the ratchet, the circular
scale can be moved over the linear scale. The distance covered on the linear scale
with one complete rotation is called Pitch of screw gauge.
 In a micrometer screw, the pitch is usually 1 mm or 0.5 mm. It can be seen that the
circular scale also has divisions on it. In general, the number is either 50, 100 or 200.
 So, while rotating, one can estimate the distance travelled on the linear scale by noticing
the no. of divisions on the circular scale.
 The smallest distance we can measure by the screw gauge is called the least count of
the screw gauge which is given by
𝑃i𝑡𝑐ℎ
Least count =
=------cm (equation-1)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑i𝑣i𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐i𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

Figure 1.1: Schematic of a typical screw gauge

In general, the screw gauge has a least count of 0.001 cm.

Procedure:

 Standardize the linear scale. This means, measure the length of one division of the linear
scale using the scale in your geometry box/instrument box. Usually, 10 divisions is equal
to 1 cm or 0.5 cm. Accordingly, one division is 1 mm or 0.5 mm.
 Rotate the screw through, say, ten complete rotations and observe the distance through
which it has receded.
 Then, find the pitch of the screw, i.e., the distance moved by the screw in one complete
rotation.
 If there are n divisions on the circular scale, then distance moved by the screw when it is
rotated through one division on the circular scale is called the least count of the screw
gauge. It is given by equation1.
 Determine the least count.
 Put the wire in between the anvil/ stud and the spindle. Move the screw forward by
rotating the ratchet till the wire is gently gripped between the spindle and the anvil (as
shown in figure 1.2 and 1.3 )

Page 2
 Figure 1.2: Placing the wire for measurement

Figure 1.3: Observation of circular scale reading

 Note the division on the linear scale. Tabulate it as the initial circular scale reading
(ICSR).
 Now slightly loosen the screw. Remove the wire. Rotate the screw using the ratchet.
Keep track of the no. of complete rotation till the screw/spindle touches the anvil (a
sound can be heard).
 Note the no. of complete rotation (N) and the final circular scale reading (FCSR).
 Find the difference D = (ICSR~FCSR)
D = ICSR – FCSR (if ICSR>FCSR)
D = (ICSR + No. of total divisions on the circular scale) – FCSR;
( if ICSR<FCSR)
 Calculate pitch scale reading (PSR) = Pitch ×No. of complete rotation
 Calculate circular scale reading (CSR) = D × least count
 Here the circular scale reading is calculated by the difference in initial and final
reading for which zero error if any is cancelled.
 These data will be tabulated in the below format in the next page.

WORKING FORMULA

𝜋×𝑑2
A= 4 , A ⇒ Cross Sectional Area of the given wire
d ⇒ Mean or Average Diameter of given wire

Page 3
 TABULATION FOR MEAN DIAMETER (d) OF THE WIRE :
Sl. PITCH LC ICSR N FCSR Difference PSR= CSR = d= Mean d
No. D =I ~ F Pitch ×N D × LC PSR+CSR in cm
in cm in cm in cm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Observation and Calculation:

The length of the smallest division on the linear scale = cm

Distance moved by the screw when it is rotated through 10 complete rotations

=x = cm

Pitch of the screw = x /10 = cm

Number of divisions on the circular scale = n =

Least Count (L.C.) of screw gauge= x / (10 x n) = cm

The diameter (d) of the wire was found out to be cm
𝜋×𝑑2
The cross-sectional area of the wire = = cm2
4
Conclusion:
The cross-sectional area of the given wire was found out to be cm2.

Precautions:

Page 4
 1. The screw should always be rotated by ratchet to avoid undue pressure.
2. To avoid back-lash error in the screw, the screw should be moved in the same
direction.
3. The reading should be taken repeatedly at different places/orientation of the supplied
specimen.
4. View all the reading keeping the eye perpendicular to the scale to avoid error due to
parallax
5. While measuring, care should be taken such that no portion of the object under
measurement touches the U-shaped frame of the instrument.
6. The given body should be kept lightly between the gaps so that it can be removed
conveniently without disturbing the gap.

REVIEW QUESTIONS ON EXPERIMENT NO - 1

Q1. Why is the instrument named screw gauge?

Ans: The instrument is called a screw gauge, because it uses a screw to amplify a
very small movement so that it can easily be read.

Q2. Define pitch of the screw.

Ans:The distance covered on the linear scale with one complete rotation is called
Pitch of screw gauge

Q3. Define Least Count of the screw gauge.

Ans:The smallest distance we can measure by the screw gauge is called the least
countof the screw gauge.

Q4. How can you determine the number of complete rotation?

Ans: 360 degree rotation starting from the initial reading coming back to the same
reading.

Q5. Can you measure the radius of a hair by screw gauge? If not why?
Ans: Because it is very less than the least count of the screw gauge.

Q6. Between Slide callipers and screw gauge, which instrument will give more
accurate measurement and why?
Ans: Screw gauge is more accurate as it gives the reading upto three or four decimal
places as compared to slide calliper.

Q7. Can you measure the thickness of a plane paper using screw gauge? If yes
how? If not why?
Ans: Yes, by folding the paper to several times and after taking the reading dividing it
with the number of folds, will give the actual thickness of the paper.

Date:

Page 5
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2

To find out the thickness and volume of a glass piece

using Screw Gauge

Aim of the Experiment:

To measure the thickness and volume of the given glass piece using screw gauge.

Apparatus Required:

1. Supplied glass piece

2. Screw gauge/micrometer Screw
3. Instrument box
4. Graph paper

Theory:
In the case of regular shaped glass peace (for example circle, rectangle and
triangle), the area can be estimated using the measured parameters (e.g. length, breadth,
radius or height). However, in the case of irregular lamina, graph paper must be used for the
determination of area. Thickness is measured using the screw gauge. To find the thickness
of the glass plate, it is gripped between the tip of the screw and the anvil. The PSR and
CSR are noted as before.
The thickness of the glass plate is;
Thickness(t) = PSR + CSR
PSR= Pitch x N (no. of complete rotation)
CSR= Difference x Least count (L.C)
To find the Volume of glass plate (irregular lamina), find the thickness, t of irregular lamina
as before. Then place the lamina over a graph paper and trace its outline on the graph
paper. The area A of the lamina is taken from the graph paper.
The volume of the glass plate is calculated from the equation;
The volume of the glass piece = area ×thickness

Procedure:
 Measure the thickness of the screw gauge using the method described in the experiment
no.1. Only difference is instead of the wire you will be putting the glass piece. Tabulate
the observations.
 For measurement of area of the glass plate, put it on a graph paper. Draw its outline on
the paper using a sharp pencil. A typical picture is presented in figure 2.1.

Page 6
 1 2
3 4

Figure 2.1: The outline of the glass piece on a graph paper.

 Now remove the piece. First count the biggest square of area (type A) 1cm×1 cm. Note
down its number. You can write numbers on the respective squares for a better tracking
and ease of counting.
 Then, from the left over area, count the number of squares with area 0.5 cm×0.5 cm
(type B).
 Then, count the smallest squares of area 0.1 cm× 0.1 cm (type C).
 Now put the glace piece on another part of the graph paper and repeat the above
procedure.
 Tabulate the observations.

Observation :

TABULATION -1 FOR MEAN THICKNESS (d) OF THE GLASS PIECE:

Sl. PITCH LC ICSR N FCSR Difference PSR= CSR = d= Mean d
No. D =I ~ F Pitch ×N D × LC PSR+CSR in cm
in cm in cm in cm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Page 7
 TABULATION -2 FOR THE MEAN AREA OF THE IRREGULAR LAMINA:

Sl. No. of Area No. of Area No. of Area Area Mean

No squares comprising squares comprising squares comprising of the area in
of type the of type the of type the glass cm2
A squares of B squares of C squares of piece
type A in type B in type C in in
cm2 cm2 cm2 cm2
1

Calculation:

From the tabulation 1 , the thickness of the glass piece = d= cm

From the tabulation 2 , the area of the glass piece = A = cm2
Hence, the volume of the glass piece = area×thickness = A x d = cm3

Conclusion:

The volume of the given glass piece was found out to be cm3 by using a screw
gauge and graph paper.

Precautions

The precautions remain same as the ones in experiment no. 1 and the outline of the piece
on the graph paper must be made carefully

Page 8
 REVIEW QUESTIONS ON EXPERIMENT NO - 2

Q1. Explain the reason why the screw used in the screw gauge is known as a micrometre
screw.
Answer: It is known as a micrometre screw because it can measure distance correctly up to
a micrometre.(10-6m)

Q2. What is the principle of screw gauge?

Answer: When a screw moves in a fixed nut, the translatory motion of the screw is
proportional to the rotation given to the screw.

Q3. List the different types of motion possessed by a screw.

Answer: It possesses two motions, and they are:
(i) linear motion possessed by the axis
(ii) circular motion possessed by the surface

Q4. Define the pitch of the screw gauge.

Answer: The distance moved by the screw in one complete rotation is known as the pitch of
the screw gauge.

Q5. What is the value of the least count in commonly used screw gauge?
Answer: The least count in commonly used screw gauge is 0.001 cm.

Q6. How can the backlash error be avoided?

Answer: It can be avoided by applying slight applying lateral pressure on the screw and by
always turning in the same direction.

Q7. Which metal is used to make the screw and why?

Answer: The screw is made of gunmetal to avoid wear and tear after long use.

Q8. Define the least count of screw gauge.

Answer:The distance moved by the screw in one complete rotation is known as the least
count.

Q9. What is ratchet? Explain its utility.

Answer:Ratchet is referred to as the arrangement inside the milled head at the end of the
screw. It prevents the screw from undue pressure.
.

Page 9
LEARNING OUTCOMES OF EXPERIMENT NO. 3 AND 4:

 The student will learn about the principle of vernier.

 The student will learn about the operation of Slide Calliper.
 They will know the least count of slide calliper and will be able to
measure length, diameter etc.
 The student will know the formula for volume and surface of solid
and hollow cylinder.
 The student will learn about the application of Slide Calliper

EXPERIMENT NO. 3
Date:

To find out the volume of a solid cylinder using Vernier

calliper/ slide calliper

Aim of the Experiment:

To find the volume of a solid cylinder using a Vernier Calliper / Slide calliper

Apparatus required:

1. Given solid cylinder

2. Slide calliper/Vernier calliper
3. Instrument box

Theory:

Description of Vernier Calliper:

The Vernier calliper consists of two scales – main scale and Vernier scale. As the
Vernier scale slides over the main scale, it is also known as slide calliper. The main
scale and Vernier scale are divided into smaller divisions. The magnitude of the divisions
are different from each other. In the figure-3.1 below, a labelled Vernier calliper is
presented.

Page 10
 Fixed Jaws

Figure 3.1: A labelled Slide calliper

The main scale is graduated in cm and mm. It has two fixed jaws attached. The Vernier
scale also has movable jaws which is moved using the thumb screw.

Least Count:

The minimum measurement that can be measured using a Vernier calliper is called the
least count (LC) of the Vernier calliper.

LC = 1 main scale division — 1 vernier scale division= 1MSD — 1 VSD

Zero Error:

When the jaws are closed (touch each other), the zero of main scale (MS) should
coincide with the zero of Vernier scale (VS). Then, it is said that there is no zero error.

Fig. 3.2

Zero error is of two types.

Page 11
Positive Zero error:

If the zero of the VS is at the right of the zero of the MS, then the vernier calliper is said
to have positive zero error.

Positive Zero error = Vernier Coincidence × L.C

Fig. 3.3

Negative Zero error:

If the zero of the VS is at the left of the zero of the MS, then the vernier calliper is said to
have negative zero error.

Negative Zero error = (Total no. of division on the VS — VC) x L.C.

Fig. 3.4

The estimation of zero error is illustrated in the below figure.

Fig. 3.5

Page 12
 Figure 3.6:

Zero error should be subtracted/ added from the observed reading to get the
correct reading.

Actual Reading = Observed reading – ( Zero error) (for +ve zero error)

Actual Reading = Observed Reading + ( Zero error) (for -ve zero error)

Procedure:

1. Standardise the main scale.

2. Keep the jaws of Vernier Callipers closed. Observe the zero mark of the main scale.
It must perfectly coincide with that of the Vernier scale. If this is not so, determine the
zero error.
3. Determine the least count of the instrument.

Method -

1
10 MSD = 1 cm (say) ⇒1 MSD = cm = 0.1 cm
10

Notice that 10 VSD = 9 MSD

Page 13
 9
⇒ 1 VSD =
10 MSD = 0.9 × 0.1 cm = 0.09 cm

Least count = 1 MSD − 1 VSD = (0.1 – 0.09) cm = 0.01 cm

LC of slide calliper = 0.01 cm

4. Keep the solid cylinder length wise to determine height. Keep the jaw parallel to the
diameter of the cylinder. Gently tighten the screw so as to clamp the instrument in
this position.
5. Notice the reading on the main scale with which the zero of the Vernier scale
coincides. Note that as main scale reading (MSR).Position your eye directly over the
division mark so as to avoid any parallax error
6. If the zero of vernier scale does not exactly coincide with a line on the main scale,
then the reading on the left of the zero of vernier scale should be taken as MSR.
7. Look for exact coincidence of a vernier scale division with that of any main scale
division in the vernier window from left end (zero) to the right. Note its number,
carefully. Note the number as vernier coincidence (VC).
8. Calculate the vernier scale reading (VSR) = VC × LC
9. Determine the height using formula
Height = MSR + VSR
10. Use same method to determine the diameter of the cylinder.
11. Make repeated observations with different orientations/positions of the cylinder and
input the observation in tabular form.
12. Calculate the mean height and mean diameter.
13. Correct it for zero error if any.

Observations:
1 MSD = cm
Number of vernier scale divisions, N =
N vernier scale divisions = main scale divisions
1 VSD = cm
The least count of the given slide calliper = cm
The zero error of the given slide calliper is = cm

WORKING FORMULA :

𝜋×𝐷2×ℎ V= Volume of Solid Cylinder

V=
4 ,
D= Mean Diameter of Solid Cylinder

h = Mean Height or Mean length of solid cylinder

Page 14
 TABULATION - 1 FOR MEAN HEIGHT OR LENGTH OF THE SOLID CYLINDER:
Sl. Least MSR Vernier VSR= Observed Zero Actual Mean
No. count in cm coincidence VC x height error Height = Height
LC in (MSR+VSR) observed (h) in
(LC) (VC) cm in cm height±zero cm
error

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

TABULATION - 2 FOR MEAN EXTERNAL DIAMETER OF THE SOLID CYLINDER:

Sl. Least MSR Vernier VSR= Observed Zero Actual external Mean
No. count in coincidence VC x external error diameter external
cm LC in diameter =observed diameter
(L.C) (VC) cm (MSR+VSR) external (D)in cm
in cm diameter
±zero error

Page 15
Calculations:

The observed height or length of the given cylinder is = cm

The true height or length of the cylinder = observed height ± zero error =h = cm

The observed diameter of the given cylinder is = cm

The true diameter of the cylinder = observed height ± zero error = D = cm

𝜋×𝐷2×ℎ
Hence, the volume of the given solid cylinder = = cm3
4

Conclusion:

The volume of the given solid cylinder was found out to be cm3.

Precautions:

1. If the vernier scale is not sliding smoothly over the main scale, apply machine
oil/grease.
2. Screw the vernier tightly without exerting undue pressure to avoid any damage to it.
3. Keep the eye directly over the division mark to avoid any error due to parallax.
4. Note down each observation with correct significant figures and units.
4. Avoid undue pressure while keeping the object between the jaws. Also, the object
should not be held loose.
5. The procedure should be represented at least 10 times in different positions of the
cylinder since the cylinder may not be regular.

Page 16
 REVIEW QUESTIONS ON EXPERIMENT NO. 3

Q1. What is meant by least count of an instrument?

Answer: It is the smallest measurement that can be made with the given instrument

Q2. What is meant by least count of a vernier callipers?

Answer: It is the smallest length that can be measured with the instrument and it is equal to
the difference between a main scale division and a vernier scale division.

Q3. The least count of a vernier is 0.01 cm. What is the order up to which it can measure
length accurately?
Answer: It can measure accurately up to 10-2 cm.

Q4.What part of the vernier callipers is the vernier scale?

Answer: The sliding scale along the main scale is called vernier scale.

Q5.Which is the instrument you will use to measure the internal and external diameter of a
tube?
Answer: Vernier calliper

Page 17
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4:
Date:

To find the volume of a hollow cylinder using vernier

calliper/slide calliper

Aim of the experiment:

To determine the volume of a hollow cylinder using a Vernier Calliper/slide calliper.

Apparatus required

1. Given hollow cylinder

2. Slide calliper/Vernier calliper
3. Instrument box

Theory:

The theory remains same as in expt. No. 3. The theory is to be written again in the
lab report of a student.

Procedure:

 Measure the height and external diameter of the hollow cylinder with the cylinder held
between the lower jaws. Use the same method as described in the experiment 3.
 Measure the internal diameter of the hollow cylinder with the cylinder held with the upper
jaws.
 Take 10 observations with different orientation/position of the hollow cylinder while
determining height, internal diameter and external diameter. Tabulate them.
 Calculate the mean height, internal diameter and external diameter.
 Correct for the zero error if any.
 Calculate the volume of the hollow cylinder.

Observations:

1 MSD = cm

10 VSD = MSD

⇒ 1 VSD = MSD

Least Count = 1 MSD −1 VSD = cm

Zero error of the slide calliper = cm

Page 18
WORKING FORMULA :

𝜋×(𝐷2−𝑑2) X ℎ
V= 4 , V= Volume of Solid Cylinder

D= Mean External Diameter of Hollow Cylinder

d = Mean Internal Diameter of Hollow Cylinder

h = Mean Height or Mean length of Hollow cylinder

TABULATION -1 FOR THE MEAN HEIGHT OR LENGTH OF THE HOLLOW

CYLINDER

Sl. Least MSR Vernier VSR= Observed Zero Actual Mean

No. count in coincidence VC x height error Height=observed Height
cm LC in (MSR+VSR) height ± zero or
(LC) (VC) cm in cm error length
(h)
in cm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Page 19
TABULATION- 2 FOR THE EXTERNAL DIAMETER OF THE HOLLOW
CYLINDER:
Sl. Least MSR Vernier VSR= Observed Zero Actual Mean
No. count in coincidence VC x external error external External
cm LC in diameter diameter Diameter
(L.C) (VC) cm =observed (D)
(MSR+VSR) external
in cm diameter In cm

(+/-)zero error
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

TABULATION-3 :FOR THE INTERNAL DIAMETER OF THE HOLLOW

CYLINDER:
Sl. Least MSR Vernier VSR= Observed Zero Actual internal Mean
No. count in coincidence VC x internal error diameter = internal
cm LC in diameter observed diameter
(L.C) (VC) cm (MSR+VSR) internal (d) in
in cm diameter±zero cm
error
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Page 20
Calculation:
The observed height of the hollow cylinder = cm

The true height of the hollow cylinder = Observed height ±zero error = h = cm

The observed external diameter = cm

The true external diameter = D= Observed external Diameter ±zero error = cm

The observed internal diameter = cm

The true internal diameter = d = Observed internal Diameter ±zero error = cm

𝜋×(𝐷2−𝑑2) X ℎ
Hence, the volume of the hollow cylinder = V= = cm3
4

Conclusion:

The volume of the given hollow cylinder were found out to be cm3.

Precautions:

The precautions are the same as the ones in experiment no. 3

Page 21
 REVIEW QUESTIONS ON EXPERIMENT NO- 4

Q1.What is the principle of a vernier?

Answer: The vernier scale uses the alignment of line segments displaced by a small
amount to make fine measurements.
Q2.How is the least count of vernier callipers calculated?
Answer: Least count also known as the vernier constant is the difference between
one main scale division (1 mm) and one vernier scale division (0.9 mm). It can also
be calculated by dividing the smallest unit on the main scale by the total numbers on
the vernier scale.
Q3.Define Vernier constant.
Answer: Vernier constant is the difference between the smallest division of main
scale and the of Vernier scale.
Q4.What is parallax error and how can it be avoided?
Answer: Parallax is an effect where the direction and position of the object appear to
differ when viewed from different lines of sight.
Q5.What are the uses of vernier callipers?
Answer: The uses of vernier callipers are as follows:
Used in science labs
Used in steel industries
Used in aerospace industries
Used in automobile industries

Page 22
LEARNING OUTCOMES OF EXPERIMENT NO. 5 AND 6:

 The student will learn about the operation of Spherometer

 They will know the least count of Spherometer and will be able to
measure small curvature.
 The student will know the formula for radius of curvature of
concave/convex surfaces.

EXPERIMENT NO. 05
Date:

To determine the radius of curvature of convex surface

using a Spherometer
Aim of the Experiment:

To determine the radius of curvature of convex surface using a Spherometer.

Apparatus Required:

1. Spherometer
2. The curved piece of glass
3. Base Plate
4. Instrument box

Theory:

Description of Spherometer:

The working principle of the spherometer is that of a micrometer screw. It consists of

a metallic framework with three legs of equal length (tripod).The tips of the three legs form
three corners of an equilateral triangle. The spherometer also has a central leg which can be
raised or lowered through a threaded hole in the metal frame using the screw head. The
lower tip of the central screw, when lowered touches the centre of the triangle formed by the
three legs. The central screw also carries a circular scale. The circular scale is in general
divided into 50 or 100 equal parts. A small vertical scale marked in millimetres or half-
millimetres is fixed parallel to the central screw. This scale is called linear scale. This scale is
very close to the rim of circular scale but it does not touch it. This scale reads the vertical
distance which the central leg moves through the hole. This scale is also known as pitch
scale.

Page 23
 Figure 5.1 : A labelled spherometer

Pitch of the Spherometer:

The distance covered on the linear scale (vertical scale) by 1 complete rotation of the
circular scale is called PITCH of spherometer.

Least count of the Spherometer:

Least count of the spherometer is defined the minimum measurement that can be carried out
using it. In other words, it is the distance moved by the circular screw, when the circular
screw is rotated by one division on the circular scale.
Pitch
Hence, Least Count = =-------cm
Total number of divisons on the circular scale

Formula for radius of curvature:

2 ℎ
R= 𝑑
+
6ℎ 2

R= Radius of curvature of the spherical surface

d = Mean distance between consecutive legs of the Spherometer

h = Height through which the central leg is raised = Height of the Convex Surface

The given curved surface is a part of a full sphere. The radius of the sphere is called the
radius of curvature. A vertical section of the sphere is presented in the figure below.

Page 24
Figure 5.2 : Schematic vertical section of the spherometer legs and screw placed on a curved surface

Figure 5.3 : Radius of curvature for convex and concave surface

Procedure:

1. Note the value of one division on the vertical scale/pitch scale.

2. Note the total no. of divisions on the circular scale.
3. Determine the pitch and least count of the spherometer.
4. Place the spherometer on the base plate so that all the three legs touch its surface.
5. Lift the spherometer and put it on a plain paper, press it slightly to get the impression
of the three legs. Joint the markings to complete an equilateral triangle. Measure the
length of its sides, carefully and note them down in table1. Repeat the procedure with
two more orientations. Calculate the average distance between the two legs. Note it
as ′𝑑′
6. Then place the spherometer with the central screw raised and the three legs touching
the curved surface. Take care to place the legs in such a way that the legs are on a
horizontal plane.
7. Rotate the central screw gently till it touches the spherical surface. To be sure that
the screw touches the surface, one can observe its image formed due to reflection
from the surface beneath it.
8. Note the reading on the circular scale which touches the vertical scale/pitch scale.
Note it as initial circular scale reading (ICSR).
9. Remove the curved surface and slowly rotate the circular scale to move the screw
downward. Keep counting the no. of complete notations (N). Put it in table 2.

Page 25
 10. Note the reading on circular scale which touches the pitch scale. Note it down as final
circular scale reading (FCSR).
11. Find the difference D = I ~ F
i. If ICSR> FCSR , Then, D = I𝐶𝑆𝑅 − 𝐹𝐶𝑆𝑅
ii. If ICSR<FCSR, Then, D = (ICSR+ total no. divisions on circular
scale) – 𝐹CSR
12. Calculate Pitch Scale reading (PSR) using
PSR = Pitch × 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡i𝑜𝑛
13. Calculate Circular Scale Reading using
CSR = Difference×least count (LC)
14. The height h is the sum of PSR and CSR.
Calculate the radius of curvature.

Figure 11: impression of the three legs of the spherometer form an equilateral triangle.

Observation:
Total no. of divisions on the circular scale =
The distance covered on the linear scale with 10 complete rotation of circular scale =
cm
The distance covered on the linear scale with 1 complete rotation of circular scale =
cm
So, Pitch = cm
and LC = cm

Page 26
 TABULATION-1 : MEAN DISTANCE BETWEEN THE CONSECUTIVE LEGS:

Sl. No. Figure d1 in cm d2 in d3 in cm d=( d1+d2+ d3)/3 Mean 𝑑 in

No. cm in cm cm
1 I
2 II
3 III

TABULATION 2 FOR THE MEAN HEIGHT h OF THE CONVEX SURFACE:

Sl. PITCH LC ICSR N FCSR Difference PSR= CSR = h= Mean h

No. D =I ~ F Pitch ×N D × LC PSR+CSR in cm
in cm in cm in cm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Calculation:
The distance between the legs = 𝑑 = cm
The height of convex surface = h = cm

So, R = 𝑑2 = cm
+2
ℎ 6ℎ

Conclusion:
The radius of curvature of the convex glass piece was estimated to be cm.

Precautions:

1. The screw should not be rotated after the screw touches the curved surface.
2. The screw should be rotated in same direction.
3. The spherometer should sit on a horizontal plane of the curved surface.
4. The initial reading is to be taken on a higher surface so that to take the final reading
the central leg is always lowered.

Page 27
 REVIEW QUESTIONS ON EXPERIMENT NO -5

Q1. Define radius of curvature.

Ans: The radius of curvature is the radius of the sphere from which the curve glass was
cut.
Q2. Are the radius and radius of curvature of the spherical surface same?
Ans: No
Q3. Why the instrument is named as spherometer?
Ans: Because it is used to determine the radius of curvature of a spherical surface.
Q4.What is the radius of curvature of a plane surface?
Ans: Infinity.

Page 28
 EXPERIMENT NO : 6
Date:

To determine the radius of curvature of concave surface

using a Spherometer.
Aim of the experiment:

To determine radius of curvature of a concave surface using spherometer.

Apparatus Required:

1. Spherometer
2. The concave piece of glass
3. Base Plate
4. Instrument box

Theory:

The theory remains same as that of experiment no. 5. It should be written again in the Lab
report by the student.

Procedure:

1. Note the value of one division on the vertical scale/pitch scale.

2. Note the total no. of divisions on the circular scale.
3. Determine the pitch and least count of the spherometer.
4. Place the spherometer on the base plate so that all the three legs touch its surface.
5. Lift the spherometer and put it on a plain paper, press it slightly to get the impression
of the three legs. Joint the markings to complete an equilateral triangle. Measure the
length of its sides, carefully and note them down in table1. Repeat the procedure with
two more orientations. Calculate the average distance between the two legs. Note it
as ′𝑑′
6. Note the reading on the circular scale which touches the vertical scale/pitch scale
when the central leg touches the base plate. Note it as initial circular scale reading
(ICSR).
7. Now lift the spherometer. Keep it undisturbed (hold it with the metallic frame). Place it
on the concave surface. Make sure the legs form a horizontal plain.
8. Slowly rotate the screw downward. Keep counting the no. of complete rotations (N).
Put it in table 2.
9. Note the reading on circular scale which touches the pitch scale. Note it down as final
circular scale reading (FCSR).

Page 29
 10. Find the difference D = ICSR ~ FCSR
a. If ICSR> FCSR , Then, D = I𝐶𝑆𝑅 − 𝐹𝐶𝑆𝑅
b. If ICSR<FCSR,
Then, D = (ICSR + total no. divisions on circular scale) – 𝐹CSR
11. Calculate Pitch Scale reading (PSR) using

PSR = Pitch × No. of complete rotation

12. Calculate Circular Scale Reading using

CSR = Difference×least count(LC)
13. The height h is the sum of PSR and CSR.
14. Calculate the radius of curvature.

Working Formula:
2 ℎ
R= 𝑑
+ , d= distance between consecutive legs of spherometer
6ℎ 2

h= Height of concave surface

R= Radius of Curvature of Concave Surface

Observation:

Total no. of divisions on the circular scale =

The distance covered on the linear scale with 10 complete rotation of circular scale =
cm
The distance covered on the linear scale with 1 complete rotation of circular scale =
cm
So, Pitch = cm
and LC = cm
TABULATION-1 : MEAN DISTANCE BETWEEN THE CONSECUTIVE LEGS:

Sl. No. Figure No. d1 in cm d2 in cm d3 in cm d=( d1+d2+ d3)/3 Mean 𝑑

in cm in cm
1 I
2 II
3 III

Page 30
 TABULATION 2 FOR THE MEAN HEIGHT h OF THE CONCAVE SURFACE:

Sl. PITCH LC ICSR N FCSR Difference PSR= CSR = h= Mean h

No. D =I ~ F Pitch ×N D × LC PSR+CSR in cm
in cm in cm in cm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Calculation:

The distance between the legs = 𝑑 = cm

The height h = cm
2 ℎ
R= 𝑑
+ = cm
6ℎ 2

Conclusion:

The radius of curvature of the Concave glass piece was found to be cm.

Precautions: same as the ones in experiment no. 6.

Page 31
LEARNING OUTCOMES:

1. The student will be able to understand the concept of gravity.

2. The student will know the concept of simple harmonic oscillation
and simple pendulum.
3. The student will be able to estimate the value of ‘acceleration due
to gravity’.

EXPERIMENT NO. 7
Date:

To find the time period of a simple pendulum and

determine acceleration due to gravity.

Aim of the Experiment:

To find the time period of a simple pendulum and determine the acceleration due to
gravity.
Apparatus Required:
1. A solid metallic bob with a hook
2. A long, inextensible string
3. Meter Scale
4. A split cork
5. Slide Calliper
6. Stop Watch
7. Clamp Stand
8. Instrument Box

Figure 7.1

Page 32
Theory:
A simple pendulum is an idealized physical system which consists of a heavy point
mass suspended from a rigid support with a weightless, inextensible string . The system
oscillates under the influence of gravity and the air resistance is neglected. The real simple
pendulum consists of a heavy spherical bob suspended by a long string using a clamp stand
and split cork.

The expression for time period of a simple pendulum is given by,

𝐿
T = 2𝜋√
𝑔
2𝐿
Working Formula : g = 4π ,
𝑇2
g = Acceleration due to gravity
T = Time period of the simple pendulum= Time taken by the pendulum to complete
one complete oscillation, which can be the time taken by the pendulum to start at one
maximum, travel to the another and to come back to the same maximum.
L= Effective length of simple pendulum = The distance from the point of suspension
to the centre of gravity of the bob.
So, the effective length is = length of string (𝑙) + length of the hook (h) + radius of the
bob (r) =𝑙+ℎ+𝑟

Procedure:
1. Measure the diameter of the spherical bob using a slide calliper. Calculate its radius.
2. Then measure the height of the hook. This is done by measuring the (2r+h) and then
subtracting 2r.
3. Tie the thread to the hook and stretch the thread tightly along the scale and tied end
at its zero.
4. Put ink mark at fixed length like 30 cm, 35 cm..........75 cm.
5. Suspend the pendulum from the clamp stand by putting the thread inside the split
cork. Make sure the ink mark is at the bottom surface of the cork.
6. Hang the pendulum vertically, keep the thread parallel to the table edge. Draw a line
on the table edge parallel to the string.
7. Draw two more lines which should not be crossed so that the angular displacement
remains small.
8. Now, oscillate the pendulum in a vertical plane.
9. For a given effective length, note down the time taken for 20 oscillation using a stop
watch. Repeat it two more times for better accuracy.

Page 33
 10. Change the effective length and follow procedure point 9.
11. Plot L ~ T2 on a graph paper.

Figure 7.2 : typical plot between effective length and square of time period

12. Determine the slope of the graph.

13. Calculate the value of g.
Observation:

TABULATION -1 (FOR DIAMETER 2r OF THE METALLIC BOB)

No. L.C MSR VC VSR = Observed Zero Corrected Mean
of in cm VC×LC diameter Error diameter Diameter
obs. in cm MSR+VSR in cm in cm of bob in
in cm cm (2r)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

TABULATION -2 (FOR MEASUREMENT OF 2r+h OF THE METALLIC BOB)

Sl. L.C MSR VC VSR = Observed Zero Corrected Mean
No. in cm in cm VC×LC 2r+h in error 2r+h in 2r+h in
in cm cm in cm cm cm

Page 34
 Tabulation -3 (MEASUREMENT OF TIME PERIOD T AND L/T2 )

Sl. Length of Effective Time for 20 oscillations in sec T= T2 in L/T2 Mean L/T2
No string (𝑙) length t/20 in sec2 in in cm/sec2
t1 t2 t3 t=
in cm L= 𝑙+r+h sec cm/sec2
(t1 + t2 +t3)/3
in cm

Calculation:

Inverse of the slope of the graph = L/T2 = cm/sec2

From Tabulation - 3, L/T2 = cm/sec2
Mean L/T2 = cm/sec2
Hence, g = 4π2 = cm/sec2
𝑇2

Conclusion:
The value of acceleration due to gravity was estimated to be cm/sec2 or
m/sec2 by using a simple pendulum.

Precaution:
1. The oscillation should happen in a vertical plane.
2. The amplitude should be small.
3. Time period should be measured carefully.
4. Care must be taken so that the system does not get disturbed. In particular,
disturbance due to vibration or wind should be avoided.

Page 35
 REVIEW QUESTIONS ON EXPERIMENT NO- 7

Q1. What is the difference between Gravity and acceleration due to gravity?
Answer: Gravity is the force with which the body is attracted towards the centre of the
earth while acceleration due to gravity is the acceleration produced due to gravity

Q2. How does ‘g’ vary with height, depth or due to rotation of the earth about its axis?
Answer: It decreases with height, with depth and due to rotation of the earth.

Q3. Define simple harmonic motion?

Answer: It is the periodic motion in which acceleration is proportional to the displacement
and is always directed towards the mean position.

Q4. What is simple pendulum? Who discovered it?

Answer: simple pendulum is defined as a heavy mass suspended by a weightless,
inextensible and perfectly flexible string, Galileo discovered it.

Q5. What is Second’s pendulum?

Answer: Pendulum whose time period two seconds, is called seconds pendulum

Q6. Does the time period of a simple pendulum depend upon mass, size and material of
the bob?
Answer: No, the time period is independent of the mass, size and nature of the material
of the bob.
Q7. Can we use a conical or cylindrical bob instead of spherical one?
Answer: Yes: it can be used but spherical bob is always preferred because it is easier to
locate its centre of gravity.

Q8. How does ‘g’ vary from place to place on the surface of earth?
Answer. It is minimum at the equator, goes on increasing as we go towards the poles
and is maximum at the poles

Q9. What will be the weight of the body at centre of the earth?
Answer. The weight of the body will be zero there because ‘g’ is zero at the centre of the
earth.

Page 36
LEARNING OUTCOMES:

1. Students will be able to understand the concept of prism.

2. The student will learn about prism and the concept of refraction.
3. The student will be able to determine the angle of prism.

EXPERIMENT NO - 8
Date:

To determine the angle of Prism.

Aim of the experiment:

To determine the angle of the given prism.

Apparatus Required:

1. Drawing Board.
2. White sheet of paper
3. Fixing Pins
4. Needle point steel pins
5. Pencil
6. Scale
7. Protractor
8. A triangular prism.

Theory:

Prism is an optical element with polished and flat surfaces which refract light. The
surface should be angled. Two parallel surfaces do not constitute a prism. The conventional
geometrical shape of an optical prism is that of a triangular prism with a triangular base and
rectangular sides, and in general use of "prism" refers to this type. Prisms can be made from
any material that is transparent to the wavelengths for which they are designed. Typical
materials include glass, fluorite and plastic.
A prism can be used to disperse white light up into its constituent colours
(wavelength). Furthermore, prisms can be used to reflect or refract light, or to split light into
components with different polarization.

Page 37
 Figure 8.1: Image of a prism (left) and schematic of a prism (right)

In the left figure, the angle of prism is marked. In the right hand figure, the angle A
between the two refracting surfaces ABFE and ACDE is called the angle of prism.

When a parallel beam of light is incident on a prism as shown in the below figure, then
the angle of deviation is twice of the angle of prism. This principle is used to determine
the angle of prism.

Figure 8.2: Reflection of parallel beam from the prism surface

Procedure:

1. Spread the white sheet of paper on the drawing board. Fix it using fixing pins.
2. Draw two parallel lines on the paper. Place the prism symmetrically on the two lines.
Draw its outline triangle. Mark the vertices/corners as A, B, C
3. Put two pins on one of the parallel lines, say at P and Q. Make sure the pins stand
straight. See their reflection inside the prism from the sideAB and insert two more
pins at R and S which lie along the line made by the tips of the images of the pins at
P and Q. Avoid parallax error.

Page 38
4. Now put two pins on the other parallel line, say at E and F. See its reflections from
the side AC. Put two pins at G and H so that they lie in the same line as the images
of the pins at E and F.
5. Remove the prism and pins. Mark the tips of the pins at P, Q, R, S, E, F, G and H.
Join the line RS and GH.
6. RS and GH are the reflected ray. Extend the ray in the backward directions. Let them
meet at O. Measure the angle ROG using protractor. Note it down in table 1. That is
twice the angle of prism A.
7. Repeat the procedure from 2 to 6, for two more times.
8. Calculate the average 2A and then the angle of prism.

Observation:

Tabulation- 1: FOR ANGLE OF PRISM A

No. of Observations 2A in degrees Mean value of 2A in Angle of prism (A)

degrees in degree
1.

2.

3.

Conclusion:

The angle of prism was found to be degree.

Precaution:

1. Ray direction should be marked.

2. The position of the pin must be marked with circle immediately after removing the
pins.
3. The experiment table and board should be placed in a firm manner so that there is no
disturbance due to vibration.
4. The pins must be fixed straight.
5. Parallax error should be avoided.

Page 39
 REVIEW QUESTIONS ON EXPERIMENT NO-8

Q1. What is a prism? Mention two uses of prism.

Prism is a three-dimensional transparent solid object in which the two ends are identical.
It is the combination of the flat faces, identical bases and equal cross-sections. The
faces of the prism are parallelograms or rectangles without the bases. The bases of the
prism could be triangle, square, rectangle or any n-sided polygon. For example,
a pentagonal prism has two pentagonal bases and 5 rectangular faces.

Q2. Can we say that glass slab is also a kind of prism?

No, the surfaces of the prism must be angled. Hence, a glass slab is not a
kind of prism.

Q3. Define angle of prism.

Angle of prism is the angle between the two surfaces of the prism from
which the light enters the prism and from the light goes out after refraction.

Q4. What is the principle for determination of angle of prism?

When two parallel rays of light are incident on the two surfaces of a prism, the angle
between the two corresponding reflected rays is twice the angle of prism.

Q5. What are the laws of reflection?

There are two laws of reflections. First one is, the incident ray, the reflected ray and
the normal to the reflecting surface lie in the same plane. The second law says, the
angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

Q6. What is dispersion?

Dispersion is the separation of white light into its constituent wavelengths by a prism.

Q7. Define transparency with respect to a wavelength.

If the wavelength can pass through the optical object, then the optical object
is transparent with respect to that wavelength.

Page 40
LEANING OUTCOMES:
1. The student will learn about prism.
2. The student will learn about refraction at the surfaces of prism, Snell’s Law,
refractive index and angle of deviation.
3. The student will be able to determine the refractive index of prism material.
4. The students will learn about dispersion through a prism, angle of deviation
etc

EXPERIMENT NO. 9:

Date:

To determine the angle of Minimum Deviation by I ~ D

curve method.

Aim of the Experiment:

To determine the angle of Minimum Deviation of the material of prism by I ~ D curve method.

Apparatus Required:
1. Drawing board
2. Drawing Sheet
3. Fixing pins
4. 04 nos. of hair pins
5. Scale, protractor, pencil
6. Prism
Theory:
When light travels from one medium to another medium, it gets refracted and enters
the second medium at a different angle. The degree of bending of the light's path depends
on the angle that the incident beam of light makes with the surface of the prism, and on the
ratio between the refractive indices of the two media. This is called Snell's law.

sin i µ2
Mathematically, = = µ
sin µ1 2
𝑟

Where, i = angle of incidence

𝑟 = angle of refraction
µ1 = absolute refractive index of first medium
µ2 = absolute refractive index of second medium

µ21 = relative refractive index of second medium w. r. t the first medium

Page 41
 Fig. 9.1
When, light ray PQ is incident on the surface EF with angle of incidence i, it gets
refracted by an angle 𝑟1, and travels along QR.The ray QR again suffers refraction at the
surface EG, then emerges along RS with an 𝑒.
If the prism was not present, the ray PQ would have travelled along the direction PH
instead of RS.
The angle δ between PH and GS is called the angle of deviation.
The angle of deviation is minimum when the angle of incidence = angle of emergence,
i.e. i = 𝑒
At this condition, means, when δ =𝛿𝑚, the ray travelling inside the prism becomes parallel to
the base of prism.
As the angle of incidence is increased, angle of deviation δ decreases and reaches minimum
value. If the angle of incidence is further increased, the angle of deviation increase.The
angle of minimum deviation can be obtained from the graph between angle of incidence and
angle of deviation.
The refractive index of the prism µ material is given as

sin
𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚
( 2
)
µ = 𝐴
sin
(2 )
A = Angle of Prism
𝛿𝑚= Angle of Minimum Deviation
µ = Refractive Index of Prism
Procedure:
1. Fix the sheet on the drawing board with fixing pins, properly.
2. Draw a long straight line in the middle of the paper.

Page 42
3. Keep therefracting surface of prism on this line, draw its outline.
4. AB is the first refracting surface.
5. Draw a Normal N1 to AB. Draw the incident ray PO1 which makes an angle i1 = 30°
with the normal.

Fig.9.2
6. Put two pins on the incident ray at P1 and Q1. See their image inside the prism from
the other refracting surface.
7. Put two pins which lie in the same line as the images. Mark their position as R1 and
S1.
8. Remove the prism and the pins. Encircle all the tip of the pin. Draw the emergent ray
by joining R1 and S1.
9. Extend both P1Q1 and R1S1 so that they meet at T1.
10. Note down the angle of incidence and angle of deviation in table 1.
11. Now place the prism at another place of the line. Repeat the procedure from 3 to 10
for the angles of incidence = 35°, 40°, 45°, 50°, 55°, 60°.
12. Draw the graph between angle of incidence versus angle of deviation. The plot looks
like the below figure.

Figure 9.3: Representative plot of angle of deviation versus angle of incidence

13. Mark the angle of minimum deviation δm. Note the corresponding angle of incidence.
14. Use the formula to calculate the refractive index of the prism material.

Page 43
 Observation:
TABULATION-1: ( I~D AND DETERMINATION OF ANGLE OF MINIMUM

DEVIATION FROM GRAPH)

No. of observation Angle of incidence Angle of deviation Angle of minimum

in degree (i) in degree (D) deviation from
graph (✿𝑚 )
1. 30
2. 35
3. 40
4. 45
5. 50
6. 55
7. 60

Calculation:

The angle of minimum deviation was found to be 𝛿𝑚 = degree

Conclusion:
The angle of minimum deviation of the prism material was found to be .

Precaution:
1. Pins should be fixed perfectly vertical.
2. While fixing the pins in line with the refractive images of incident rays care should be
taken for the parallax error.
3. There should be some space between the pins.
4. Pins should not be disturbed during the experiment.
5. Same edge of the prism should be taken as vertex A for all the observations.
6. Clean both the faces AB and AC of the prism proper before taking the readings.

Page 44
 REVIEW QUESTIONS FROM EXPERIMENT NO. 9

Q1. Define refraction.

Ans: Refraction is the bending of light at the interface of two transparent optical
media.
Q2. Define angle of incidence and angle of refraction.
Ans: The angle between the incident ray and the normal to the refracting surface is
called angle of incidence.
The angle between the normal to the refracting surface and the refracted ray is called
angle of refraction.
Q3. Define absolute refractive index.
Ans: The ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to speed of light in a medium is called
as absolute refractive index of the medium.
Q4. Define relative refractive index.
Ans:When we measure speed of light in two different media, relative
refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1 is defined as the ratio of
speed of light in medium 1 to speed of light in medium 2.
Q5. What is the speed of light in vacuum?
Ans:3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
Q6. Define wave velocity?
Ans: The total distance covered by a wave in unit time is called wave velocity.
Q7. Is light a wave? If yes, what is its type?
Ans: Light has both wave and particle nature. Light is an electromagnetic wave.
Q8. Define angle of deviation in the case of refraction through prism.
Ans: In the absence of a prism, a light ray will continue in a straight line. However, in
the presence of a prism, the light ray will suffer refraction at the two surfaces of
prism.
The angle between the incident ray and the emergent ray after the two refractions at
the prism surfaces is called angle of deviation.
Q9. How does angle of deviation vary with angle of incidence?
Ans: The angle of deviation decreases with increase in angle of incidence, reaches a
minimum and then increases.
Q10. What are the conditions for minimum deviation?
Ans:When the condition of minimum deviation is satisfied, the angle of incidence is
equal to angle of emergence. And the refracted ray inside the prism is parallel to the
base of the prism.
Q12. What is the formula for refractive index in terms of angle of prism and angle of
minimum deviation?
Ans.
𝐴+𝛿
sin ( )
�
2
µ 𝐴
sin ( )
2
where A = angle of prism
𝛿𝑚 = angle of minimum deviation

Page 45
 LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. The student will get an idea about magnetic poles, magnetic field and the lines
of force.
2. The student will know about the geomagnetic field.
3. The student will be able to draw lines of force.
4. The student will know how to locate the neutral point.

EXPERIMENT NO. 10
Date:
Tracing of lines of forces due to a bar magnet with north
pole pointing geographic north pole of earth
Aim of the Experiment:
To trace lines of force due to a bar magnet with North pole pointing North and locate the
neutral points.
Apparatus Required:
1. Drawing board
2. Drawing Sheet
3. Pencil, scale
4. Bar magnet
5. Compass needle
6. Fixing pins
Theory:
A magnet has two poles – one south pole and a north pole. Like poles repel and unlike poles
attract each other.
Earth is a giant magnet. Earth’s magnetic field is defined by north and south poles
representing lines of magnetic force flowing into the Earth in the northern hemisphere and
out of Earth in the southern hemisphere. At the north and south poles, the force is vertical.
The force is horizontal at the equator.

Figure 10.12: The magnetic field associated with the earth and a bar magnet.

Page 46
The south pole of the magnet points to Earth’s magnetic north pole and the north pole of a
magnet points towards the magnetic South Pole of the earth.

Magnetic lines of forces are the closed imaginary curve starting from the North Pole and the
ending in the South Pole in a magnetic field such that the tangent drawn at any point on the
curve gives the direction of the resultant magnetic field at that point. The density of magnetic
field lines indicate the field strength in an area.

A neutral point of Magnet is a point at which the resultant magnetic field is zero. At neutral
point, the field due the bar magnet is equal and opposite of the Earth’s magnetic field. So, if
a compass needle is placed at this point, then it will tend to remain in the direction in which it
is kept.

Neutral points are located symmetrically with respect to the magnet on the equatorial of the
magnet when the North Pole points north.

Neutral points are located symmetrically with respect to the magnet on the axial line of the
magnet when its north pole points south.

Procedure:

1. Spread the paper on the drawing board. Fix it well.

2. Keep the compass needle in the middle of the paper. Mark the geographic north and
south indicated by the pointing arrow by putting dots next to the needle. Join the two
dots to draw a line and extend it.
3. Place the bar magnet in the middle of the paper. Trace its outline Keep the North
Pole (marked by a small hole, in general) of the magnet towards the geographic
north of Earth and the South Pole towards south.
4. Place the magnetic needle near the north pole of the magnet. Let its arrow rest.
5. Put two dot marks on the paper corresponding to the position of both end of the
needle. Place the needle at the subsequent position in such a way that one end of it
coincides with the previously marked dot.
6. Mark the other end with dot. Continue this till you reach the South Pole. Connect the
dots with smooth curves.
7. Then again place the needle at a different place near theNorth Pole. Continue the
procedure 4 to 6.
8. Continue the process till a series of curves/lines of force are obtained between the
two poles.
9. Draw lines of force on both the sides of the magnet, symmetrically.
10. Place the magnetic compass on the equatorial axis of the magnet. Move it slowly
away from the magnet. Check if the compass is experiencing any magnetic force.
This can be checked by rotating the compass and seeing if the arrow of compass is
pointing to a particular direction or random directions. At neutral point the arrow of
the compass rotates with rotation of the compass.
11. Locate the neutral points on both the sides of the magnet. Trace the outline of the
compass and put cross insides.
12. The picture looks like this.

Page 47
Figure 30.2: A representative picture of magnetic lines of force associated with the bar magnet with its
north pole pointing geographic north.

Observation:

Both the neutral points on either side should be generally equidistant from the centre
of Bar magnet

Conclusion:

 The magnetic lines of forces of a magnet were drawn with its north pole pointing
north.
 The lines of force do not intersect each other.
 The neutral points are located on the equatorial line of the magnet at a distance of
cm

Precautions:
1. Don’t rely on the painted arrows on the pointers in the compass to tell which pole is north
and which is south; they don’t all use the same convention. Make sure the pointers can
rotate freely.
2. Keep the bar magnet far away while determining the geographic north south/drawing the
axial line using the magnetic compass.
3. Thetable should be away from other magnet, magnetic material or electric circuit.
4. The position of magnet should not get changed.
5. The direction of lines of force should be marked.
6. The neutral point should be determined properly.

Page 48
 REVIEW QUESTIONS ON EXPERIMENT NO - 10

Q1. Define magnetic lines of force.

Ans: The imaginary lines drawn around a magnet in such a way that the tangent drawn at
any point of the line would show the direction of the field at that point. The density on field
lines i.e., the no. of lines per unit area represents the field strength in that area. The field line
originates from north pole and enter the south pole outside the magnet and the directs from
south to north pole inside the magnet. Two magnetic lines of force never intersect each
other.

Q2. Define neutral point in a magnetic field.

Ans: Neutral point is a point at which resultant magnetic field is always zero. The horizontal
component of earth’s field is balanced by the magnet’s field.

Q3. Why do not two magnetic lines of force do not intersect each other.

Ans: If two magnetic lines of force intersect at the point of intersection , then there would be
two tangents and hence, the direction of magnetic field would not be defined.

Q4. How do the magnetic lines of force look like in a uniform magnetic field?

Ans: They are represented as parallel lines.

Q5. Does monopole exist?

Ans: No, monopole does not exist.

Q6. What is the magnetic force between two magnetic poles?

𝜇0 𝑚1𝑚2
Ans: The magnetic force is 𝐹 = , where 𝜇 = permeability of free space, m , m -
4𝜋 0 1 2
𝑟2
pole strengths, r = distance between the two poles.

Q7. Why does the compass needle align itself in a particular direction?

Ans. Due to earth’s magnetic field

Q8. If a magnet is suspended in air via a light string, towards which direction its north pole
will point?

Ans: Towards the south pole of earth.

Q9. Can we get a north pole and a south pole by breaking a bar magnet?

Ans:No, we cannot.

Page 49
 EXPERIMENT NO. 11
Date:

Tracing of lines of forces due to a bar magnet with north

pole pointing geographic south pole of earth

Aim of the Experiment:

To trace lines of force due to a bar magnet with North pole pointing south and locate the
neutral points.

Apparatus Required:

1. Drawing board
2. Drawing Sheet
3. Pencil, scale
4. Bar magnet
5. Compass needle
6. Fixing pins
Theory:
For writing theory please refer experiment no. 10.
Procedure:

1. Spread the paper on the drawing board. Fix it well using fixing pins.
2. Keep the compass needle in the middle of the paper. Mark the geographic north and
south indicated by the pointing arrow by putting dots next to the needle. Join the two
dots to draw a line and extend it.
3. Place the bar magnet in the middle of the paper. Trace its outline. Keep the North
Pole (marked by a small hole, in general) of the magnet towards the geographic
south of Earth and the South Pole towards north.
4. Place the magnetic needle near the north pole of the magnet. Let its arrow rest.
5. Put two dot marks on the paper corresponding to the position of both end of the
needle. Place the needle at the subsequent position in such a way that one and of it
coincides with the previously marked dot.
6. Mark the other end with dot. Continue this till you reach the South Pole. Connect the
dots with smooth curves.
7. Then again place the needle at a different place near the North Pole. Continue the
procedure 4 to 6.
8. Continue the process till a series of curves/lines of force are obtained between the
two poles.
9. Draw lines of force on both the sides of the magnet, symmetrically.
10. The picture looks like this.

Page 50
 Figure 4: Magnetic lines of forces due to bar magnet with north pole pointing geographic south

11. Place the magnetic compass on the axial line of the magnet. Move it slowly away
from the magnet. Check if the compass is experiencing any magnetic force. This can
be checked by rotating the compass and seeing if the arrow of compass is pointing to
a particular direction or a random directions. At neutral point the arrow of the
compass rotates with rotation of the compass.
12. Locate the neutral points on both the sides of the magnet. Trace the outline of the
compass and put cross inside.

Observation:

Both the neutral points on either side should be generally equidistant from the centre
of Bar magnet.

Conclusion:

 The magnetic lines of forces of a magnet were drawn with its north pole pointing
south.
 The lines of force do not intersect each other.
 The neutral points are located on the axial line of the magnet at a distance of
cm

Precautions:

The precautions are same as the ones in experiment no. 10.

Page 51
 REVIEW QUESTIONS ON EXPERIMENT NO-11

Q1. How can you determine neutral point?

Ans. To determine the neutral point in the magnetic field of a bar magnet with its north pole
pointing geographic south of earth, the compass needle is slowly moved along the magnetic
axis. When the neutral point is reached, the needle rotates freely along with the rotation of
the compass and does not point in a particular direction.

Q2. Are the neutral points equidistant from magnetic poles?

Ans. Yes, the neutral points are equidistant from the magnetic poles.

Q3. Does the line joining neutral points coincide with the axis of the bar magnet?

Ans. Yes, the line joining the neutral points coincides with the axis of the bar magnet when
the north pole of the bar magnet is placed pointing towards geographic south of the Earth.

Q4. What happened to the magnet if the magnet is slightly rotated?

Ans. The magnet will come back to a position where the magnetic axis is along the north-
south direction of the earth, if it is free to do so.

Q5. Why two magnetic lines of force never intersect each other?

Ans. The magnetic lines of force never intersect each other because if they do so it would
imply two directions of magnetic field at the point of intersection.

Q6. Why we use very short magnetic needle but not a large compass needle?

Ans.The magnetic field around a bar magnet is not uniform. Hence, with a small magnetic
needle, the field strength around its ends will not be very different and will point along the
tangent to magnetic lines. However, that would not be the case with a large compass
needle. Hence, a proper tracing of magnetic field lines, use of small compass needle is
essential.

Q7. What do you mean by magnetic meridian and geographic meridian?

Ans.The magnetic meridian is an imaginary planepassing through the magnetic south and
north pole. A compass needle is parallel to the magnetic meridian.

The vertical plane passing through the geographic north and south pole of earth is called the
geographic meridian.

Page 52
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. The student will be able to define ohm’s law.
2. The student will know the concept of resistance, current, voltage, ammeter, voltmeter
and rheostat.
3. The student will know how to measure potential difference by voltmeter.
4. The student will be able to measure current by ammeter.
5. The student will know how to calculate resistance of a given conductor.

EXPERIMENT NO. 12
Date

Verification of the Ohm’s Law

Aim of the experiment:

To verify Ohm’s Law by Ammeter – Voltmeter method.

Apparatus Required:
1. A battery
2. Pieces of insulated copper wire
3. Sand paper
4. Ammeter
5. Voltmeter
6. Rheostat
7. Resistor
8. key
Theory:

Statement of Ohm’s Law: The potential difference ‘V’ across the two ends of a given
conductor in an electric circuit is directly proportional to the current ‘I’ flowing through it
provided the temperature is constant.
Mathematically, V 𝖺 I, So, V = IR
Here, R is the proportionality constant and is known as resistance.
The SI unit of resistance is Ohm. The notation for Ohm is Ω.
The resistance offered by a wire is dependent on the nature of material, the length(𝑙) of the
conductor and its cross-sectional area (A).

𝜌𝑙
𝑅=
𝐴
Here, 𝜌 (rho) is the resistivity of the material.

Page 53
 Figure 5: Circuit diagram for the verification of Ohm's Law

 In a circuit ammeter is connected in series.

 The voltmeter is connected in parallel across the points between which potential
difference is to be measured.
 A straight line graph obtained between V and I verifies the Ohm’s law.

Procedure:

1. Determine the least count of the ammeter and voltmeter by noting down its range
and the total no. of divisions on them.
2. Check for zero error. It should be adjusted prior to commencement of experiment.
3. Remove the insulation from the end of the connecting copper wires using sand
paper.
4. Connect the ammeter, battery, voltmeter, key and rheostat as per the circuit
diagram.
5. Keep the key open.
6. In the circuit, connect the positive terminal of the ammeter to the positive terminal
of battery.
7. Check the rheostat, adjust its slider and see whether the ammeter and voltmeter
readings are shown.
8. When there is a constant flow of current in the resistor, note down the current and
the corresponding potential difference.
9. Note down the values of potential difference in the voltmeter corresponding to the
step by step increase of the current and then by decrease of the current by
sliding the rheostat.
10. Calculate the resistance by taking the mean of potential Difference.
11. Plot a graph between the voltage and current with V on the X-axis. The slope of
the graph gives the inverse of the resistance

Page 54
 Fig.12.2

Observation:

TABULATION FOR V ~ I READING

Sl. No. Ammeter Reading Voltmeter reading (V) in volts V/I=R in Mean R
(I) in ampere Current Current Mean Ohm in Ohm
Increasing Decreasing
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Conclusion:

The ratio of V to I was seen to be constant in Tabulation - 1. The plot of V versus I passed
through the origin. Hence, the Ohm’s law is verified. The resistance as determined from the
graph was ohm.

Precautions:

1. Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may introduce in the
circuit.
2. The least counts of the ammeter and voltmeter should be estimated carefully.
3. The current should not be flown for a longer time, otherwise, it would increase the
temperature and in turn would change the resistance of the resistor.
4. Current beyond 2 Amperes should be avoided.

Page 55
 REVIEW QUESTIONS ON EXPERIMENT NO. 12

Q1: What is the nature of the V-I graph?

Ans: A straight line.

Q2. What happens to current, when potential difference increases?

Ans: Increases

Q4. Define the terms current, potential difference.

Ans:Time rate of change of electric charge.

Potential difference: The difference in electrical potential between two points.

Q5. What is the role of voltmeter and Ammeter?

Ans: A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference between
two points in an electric circuit. An ammeter is a measuring device used to measure the
electric current in a circuit.

An ammeter is a measuring device used to measure the electric current in a circuit

Q6. What is resistance?

Ans: Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit

Q7. Why the voltmeter is to be connected in parallel to circuit?

Ans:A voltmeter measures the potential difference of the circuit and it has high internal
resistance. When the voltmeter is connected in parallel with a circuit component, the amount
of current passing through the voltmeter is very less.

Q8. Why the ammeter is to be connected in series to circuit?

Ans: In a series connection, the current flowing through all the components of the circuit is
the same. Ammeter aims at measuring the current in the circuit, hence it is

Q9. What is the nature of V-I graph at variable temperature?

Ans: Non-linear

Page 56
 LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS

1. Laboratory manual on Engineering Physics of 1st semester, developed by DTET,

Odisha and S.C.T.E.V.T, Odisha
2. ISC Practical Physics (Class XI and XII), K. N. Sharma and M. N. Chanana, Kalyani
Publisher
3. Practical Physics (Class XI and XII), A. Sharma, Modern’s ABC

Page 57