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PSR (Module-3/Subject-1) : As Per ICAO DOC 10057

This document provides an overview of primary surveillance radar (PSR) used for air traffic control. It discusses key components of PSR including the antenna, transmitter, receiver, signal processing, and plot extraction. It describes the characteristics and functions of these components as well as how they relate to overall system performance. The objective is to introduce trainees to the ground infrastructure used for air traffic surveillance via PSR.

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PSR (Module-3/Subject-1) : As Per ICAO DOC 10057

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As per ICAO DOC 10057

2023
वायु यातायात सुरक्षा इलेक्ट्रॉनिक्ट्स कानमिक योग्यता आधाररत
प्रनिक्षण एवं मलू यांकि
Air Traffic Safety Electronics Personnel Competency-
Based Training and Assessment
योग्यता प्रनिक्षण
Qualification Training
निगरािी
“SURVEILLANCE”
PSR
(Module-3/Subject-1)

सी.ए.टी.सी. प्रयागराज
AAI/CNS/CBTA/Surveillance/PSR/QUALIFICATION03 CATC, PRAYAGRAJ
Ver.3.0
Training Quality Policy

“To develop the human

resources for the aviation
industry, ensuring conformity of
the processes, by adapting the
best practices within industry
and building higher skills and
standards in training.”

AAI/CNS/CBTA/SURVEILLANCE/PSR/QUALIFICATION03
Ver. 3.0 (2023)
Module AAI/CNS/CBTA/Surveillance/PSR/Qualification03/Ver.3.0
Version 1.0 Sh. B.SENTHILVEL, JT.GM (CNS), BIAL, BENGALURU
Compiled by
Version 1.0 1. Sh. B.SENTHILVEL, JT.GM (CNS), BIAL, BENGALURU
Vetted by 2. Sh. Amit Kumar Chaurasia, AGM (CNS), CATC Prayagraj
3. Sh. Govinda Kumar Gupta, SM (CNS), CATC Prayagraj
Version 2.0 1. Sh. Rajiv Badoni, Jt.GM (CNS),CATC Prayagraj
Compiled by 2. Sh. Amrit Shukla, SM (CNS), CATC Prayagraj
3. Sh. O.P. Sharma, SM (CNS), CATC Prayagraj
4. Sh. Ramesh Kumar Singh, SM (CNS), CATC Prayagraj
5. Sh. Iquabal Khan, Manager (CNS), CATC Prayagraj
6. Sh. Dal Bahadur Singh, Manager (CNS), CATC Prayagraj
Version 2.0 1. Sh. Rajendra Prasad, Jt. GM (CNS), CATC Prayagraj
Vetted by 2. Sh. S.P. Singh, AGM (CNS), CATC Prayagraj
3. Sh. Amrit Shukla, SM (CNS), CATC Prayagraj
4. Sh. Pravin Kumar Singh, SM (CNS), CATC Prayagraj
Period of vetting 09th Oct 2019 to 11th Oct, 2019
Ver. 2.0
Version 3.0 1. Sh. Imtiaz Ahmed, AGM(CNS), CATC, Prayagraj
Developed 2. Sh. Pravin Kumar Singh, AGM(CNS), CATC, Prayagraj
by 3. Sh. Dal Bahadur Singh, SM(CNS), CATC Prayagraj
Version 3.0 1. Sh. Pravin Kumar Singh, AGM (CNS), CATC Prayagraj
Vetted by 2. Sh. Dal Bahadur Singh, SM(CNS), CATC Prayagraj
Maintained By CDRC, CATC, PRAYAGRAJ
Version Number Modifications Made Date Date
Modified approved

AAI/CNS/CBTA/SURVEILLANCE/PSR/QUALIFICATION03
Ver. 3.0 (2023)
Preface

This “SURVEILLANCE” module conforms to the standards and recommended practices

of International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) vide Doc. 9868 (PANS Training) Part IV
Chapter 4 for ATSEP and Doc. 10057 (Manual on Air Traffic Safety Electronic Personnel
Competency- based Training and Assessment).

With pleasure, I authenticate this handout and make it available for imparting training
for the Initial Basic Course for ATSEPs at CATC and RTCs in AAI.

The course content has been approval by CHQ of AAI. It is hoped that the new recruits
and would be ATSEPs will find it informative, interesting and better in presentation.

I am sure that the trainees will carry a sense of pride in undergoing this basic course
module of ICAO standard.

This handout on “surveillance” introduces ground as well as airborne infrastructures used for
air traffic surveillance. In addition to primary and secondary radars this module covers the
emerging surveillance technologies MLAT.

This handout is intended to be kept up to date. It will be amended periodically as

new developments are made to aviation industry.

In the development and presentation of this module is as per ICAO Doc 10057, I would
like to appreciate the meticulous and excellent work done by the course developers.

Errors, if any or suggestions if brought to the notice of undersigned would be highly

commendable as it will serve to improve upon this module and contribute to our objective of
achieving excellence in the field of ATSEP training.

GM (CNS)/ Head of ATSEP training

CATC, Allahabad-211012

AAI/CNS/CBTA/SURVEILLANCE/PSR/QUALIFICATION03
Ver. 3.0 (2023)
Objective

After completion of their module, the

trainees would be able to:

Introduces ground as well as

airborne infrastructures used for
air traffic surveillance. In addition
to primary and secondary radars
this module covers the emerging
surveillance technologies MLAT.

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Table of Contents
1 ATC SURVEILLANCE ........................................................................................................................ 8
1.1 USE OF PSR FOR AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES ......................................................................... 8
1.1.1. Operational requirements of an en-route or an approach PSR ............................................... 8
1.1.2. Relation of key parameters of PSR to system performance .................................................. 10
1.2 ANTENNA ................................................................................................................................... 26
1.2.1. Antenna types, accuracy and problems ................................................................................. 26
1.3 Transmitters ................................................................................................................................. 40
1.3.1. Basic characteristics of a transmitter .................................................................................... 40
1.3.2. Signals at key point ................................................................................................................ 43
1.3.3. Generic Transmitter block diagram for both compressed and non-compressed System. .... 44
1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMARY TARGETS.................................................................. 45
1.4.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF TARGETS ................................................................................................... 45
1.5 RECEIVER .................................................................................................................................. 53
1.5.1. Basic characteristics of a receiver................................................................................................ 53
1.5.2. Basic elements of a generic receiver ........................................................................................... 68
1.5.3. Importance of STC and beam switching ...................................................................................... 75
1.6 SIGNAL PROCESSING AND PLOT EXTRACTION ............................................................ 77
1.6.1. Basic functions of a current radar signal processor............................................................... 77
1.6.2. Basic function of data processing .......................................................................................... 85
1.6.3 Describe the processing techniques to improve the quality of target reports using scan to scan
Information: ........................................................................................................................................... 87
1.7 PLOT COMBINING ................................................................................................................... 88
1.7.1. Basic function of plot combining ........................................................................................... 88
1.7.2. Describe the processing techniques to improve the quality of target reports using scan to
scan information .................................................................................................................................... 89
1.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMARY RADAR ...................................................................... 93
1.8.1. Basic function of Electromagnetism, propagation, signal detection, RF power generation
and distribution. .................................................................................................................................... 93
Topic 2: SMR ............................................................................................................................................... 96
USE OF SMR FOR AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES .................................................................................. 96
2.1.1. Operational requirements of SMR .............................................................................................. 96
2.1.2. Key parameters and necessity of achieving performances ......................................................... 97
2.2: RADAR SENSOR .......................................................................................................................... 102
2.2.1. Layout of the SMR...................................................................................................................... 102
2.2.2. Basic functions of the receiver/transmitter unit ....................................................................... 104
2.2.3. Operation of a sensor ................................................................................................................ 105
2.2.4. Basic functions of the antenna unit ........................................................................................... 108
Topic 3: TEST AND MEASUREMENT ................................................................................................. 110
3.1. Making measurements on PSR and SMR ...................................................................................... 110
Annexure .................................................................................................................................................... 112

Refer the chapter 1 of initial basic training module of “Surveillance”, before proceeding into this
module. In the referred chapter, the role and use of surveillance system for the air traffic
management.

1.1.1. Operational requirements of an en-route or an approach PSR

The most basic function of a surveillance system is to periodically provide an accurate estimate
of the position, altitude and identity of aircraft. Depending on the ATC application that a
surveillance system is intended to support, there will be other requirements of the system.

A surveillance system may be characterized in terms of the parameters listed below;

 Coverage volume – the volume of airspace in which the system operates to specification.
 Accuracy – a measure of the difference between the estimated and true position of an
aircraft.
 Integrity – an indication that the aircraft’s estimated position is within a stated
containment volume of its true position. Integrity includes the concept of an alarm being
generated if this ceases to be the case, within a defined time to alarm. Integrity can be
used to indicate whether the system is operating normally.
 Update rate – the rate at which the aircraft’s position is updated to users.
 Reliability – the probability that the system will continue operating to specification
within a defined period. Sometimes this is called continuity.
 Availability – the percentage of the total operating time during which the system is
performing to specification.

Other issues which need to be considered when designing a surveillance system for ATC are:

 The ability to uniquely identify targets.

 The impact of the loss of surveillance of individual aircraft both in the short (few
seconds) and long term
 The impact of the loss of surveillance over an extended area.
 Backup or emergency procedures to be applied in the event of aircraft or ground system
failure.
 The ability to operate to specification with the expected traffic density.
 The ability to operate in harmony with other systems such as the Airborne Collision
Avoidance Systems (ACAS) and Airborne Separation Assistance Systems (ASAS).
 The ability to obtain Aircraft Derived Data (ADD).
 The interaction between communication, navigation, and surveillance functions.

1. Coverage:

Coverage of a radar system is the three-dimensional volume of air space within which the

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system can meet the specified detection performance, accuracy and resolution values. The
coverage is expressed in terms of range, azimuth and altitude, flight level. The term coverage
does not only concern the detection capabilities of the radar but all the performance
parameters. Even if, it is found that the radar has perfect detection in certain area, the accuracy
of the displayed data may be so degraded that the system cannot be relied on. The operational
requirement, like en-route, upper airspace and approach function, is the deciding factor for
volume of airspace through which radar information is required.

 Required coverage: The required coverage is the reference volume of airspace within
which the radar is required to meet the specified performance. The required coverage is
normally derived from specified operational requirements (en-route/approach etc.) and
theoretical coverage volume.

 Actual coverage: The volume of airspace within which the system can achieve the
defined probabilities of detection and accuracy. The actual coverage may be better or
worse than the required or expected coverage and would normally be contained within
the established fringe envelope. The actual coverage should normally not be greater
than the established fringe envelope.

2. Range: The ability to determine range by measuring the time for the radar signal to
propagate to the target and back is probably the distinguishing and most important
characteristic of conventional radar. Ground-based radars can be made to determine the
range of an aircraft to an accuracy of a few tens of meters at distances limited only by the
line of sight, generally 200 to 250 NM.

3. Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the degree of conformance between the estimated or

measured value and the true value.

 Accuracy in position: The position accuracy is the accuracy with which the radar system
provides the true position of the aircraft at a given time. It is expressed in terms of
maximum positional errors, which are categorized as systematic errors, residual random
errors and jumps. The accuracy of the reference system has to be five to ten times higher
than the accuracy of the radar system.

 Accuracy in Time: Plot time stamping. Surveillance reports (plots) should be time
stamped at the radar site, either by absolute time stamp, or by time-in-storage. The
accuracy of this time stamping is determined by the difference between the reported
time of measurement and the actual time of measurement of the target position (mainly
a systematic error). As aircraft are normally moving when a radar position measurement
is taken, accurate reporting of the aircraft position requires reporting of measured range,
measured azimuth and time of measurement.

4. Resolution: The degree of resolution of radar information is defined as how well a radar
system can separate the echo signals from two or more targets in close proximity to each
other, in terms of;
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 Range
 Azimuth

5. Availability
Reliability and availability are very specific to the deployment of concern because they
depend on organizational factors, maintenance, telecoms infrastructure as well as hardware
and software. Availability is the probability that the required surveillance information will be
provided to the end- users. Availability as per Guidance Material on Comparison of
Surveillance Technologies (GMST) is given below for PSR.

Availability shall be > 99%, Reliability – MTBF for duplicated system shall be > 20000Hrs. The
major factors that affect the availability of the system are; Modular and fail soft transmitter,
reliance on single antenna, relies on mechanical machinery for antenna rotation and duplicated
receiver processing.

Performance Characteristics of PSR

Performance Characteristics of PSR (Typical values) as per Guidance Material on Comparison

of Surveillance Technologies (GMST) is given below;

 Range - S-band typically 60-80 NM and L-band 160-220 NM

 Accuracy - In range : 0.1 NM, In azimuth : 0.15 degrees
 Integrity - Range/Azimuth alignment can be assured through statistical comparison of
SSR & primary radar reports. Alternatively special primary test units may operate like a
SSR site monitor
 Resolution - 1 to 3 degrees in azimuth
 Update period - Between 4 & 15 seconds

1.1.2. Relation of key parameters of PSR to system performance

1. Ranging
Ranging is accomplished by measuring the time delay between the radar’s transmission and
detection of the target’s signal echo. Time is usually measured from the centre of the transmit
pulse to the centre of the received echo (centroid ranging), but occasionally from the leading
edge of the transmit signal to the leading edge of the echo (leading edge ranging).
R = (C Tp)/2
R = range to target (meters)
Tp = round-trip propagation time (seconds)
C = the propagation velocity ( nominally 3.0 x108m/s)

Range ambiguity: Ranges ambiguities occur when received echoes are attributed to the
wrong transmit pulses. In figure, E1 is the target echo caused by transmits pulse T1, E2 is
caused by T2, and so forth. Most systems initially assume that the propagation time to a
received echo starts at the latest transmit pulse.

Figure 1.1 Unambiguous Range

Thus if there are no next transmissions between a transmit pulse and its echo, the range report
is correct. This is known as unambiguous range and depend on spacing between transmitted
pulses. If the spacing between transmitted pulses is  PRI (also known as Pulse repetition
Interval), we say that the radar has an unambiguous range as given below -

c PRI
Ramb  .
2
If it is known that the target is in zone one, the systems ranges unambiguously.

Figure 1.2 Ambiguous Range

Any target for which the range zone is not known is ambiguous. The Target in the Figure b has a
propagation time greater than the time between transmitted pulses. This is a range zone two
target. Most radar initially reports this target’s range as R0 (true range). The process of
determining true range from apparent is called deghosting.

2. Angular Position (azimuth)

The azimuth position of targets is described by the angles between the target’s location and
some reference (usually North). They are measured by determining the antenna’s pointing
angles at the time a signal detection is made, on the presumption that signals detected always
originate from the direction of antenna’s beam at the time of detection. Under certain
conditions, this may not be true, and false angular position reporting may result. Results that
are more accurate are obtained by reading antenna position at the center of a detection
sequence. Azimuth is measured by an electro-mechanical systems of encoders connected to the
rotation mechanism of the Radar antenna.

3. Velocity measurement and discrimination

Target radial velocity is extracted from the Doppler frequency shift between the transmitted
signal and the received echo. Doppler shift is the frequency shift of the echo signal caused by
the target’s motion with respect to the radar.

The Doppler shift is used both to measure the velocity of targets and to resolve targets occurring
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at the same time but moving at different velocities. The latter use is the primary method of
discriminating moving targets from clutter.
By definition the Doppler shift is the difference between the frequencies of the received
and transmitted waves. A positive Doppler shift is from an inbound target and a negative shift
from a target outbound from radar.

If a target’s radial velocity with respect to the radar is much less than the velocity of propagation.
fd = (2fT VR) / C (Hertz)
Where fd =fR- fT is the Doppler shift (positive Doppler shift in case from targets approaching the
radar, negative in case from targets moving away from the radar)
fR = the frequency of the target echo (Hertz)
fT = the transmitted frequency (Hertz)
VR = the radial velocity difference between target and radar
C = the velocity of propagation

This target produces

a Doppler shift Only part of this target’s
velocity causes a Doppler shift

Figure 1.3 Doppler shift as a result of radial Motion

Only the radial component of velocity contributes to the Doppler shift.

4. Measurement accuracy
Accuracy is a measure of how far the reported target parameter is from the actual parameter,
shown in figure for range. Accuracy is normally expressed in absolute terms, such as meters
(range), degrees (angular position), and Hertz (Doppler shift).

Figure 1.4 True and measured range

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Two classes of errors occur. Continuous (but not necessarily constant) offsets from the true value
are called bias errors. Their causes are mis-calibrations, such as an erroneous time base (range)
and encoder misalignments. The other errors are noise errors, which are random target
parameter uncertainties caused by noise and other interfering signals contaminating the target
echo. Noise errors are expressed as the standard value in absolute terms (e.g. Meters for range).

5. Resolution
Resolution is the ability to separately detect multiple targets or multiple features on the same
target, as opposed to reporting multiple targets as a single detection. Targets are resolved in
four dimensions, although not necessarily by all radars i.e. range, horizontal cross- range
(azimuth), vertical cross-range (elevation), and Doppler shift. The range and cross-range
(azimuth) resolution dimensions are shown in the following figures.

 Range resolution: Range resolution is the ability to separate multiple target at the same
angular position, but at different ranges. Range resolution is a function of the radar’s RF
(radio frequency) signal bandwidth, with wide bandwidths allowing targets closely spaced
in range being resolved. To be resolved in range, the basic criterion is that targets must be
separated by at least the range equivalent of the width of the processed echo pulse.

Figure 1.5 Range and cross range (azimuth) resolution

Figure 1.6 Resolved and unresolved targets

Figure 1.7 Wide Processed pulse width

Figure 1.8 Narrow processed pulse width

The waveforms represent the echoes as a function of time (range). The pulses are shown after
reception and signal processing. Much Closer targets can be resolved by using a short pulse
as compared to a long pulse. A handy way of estimating range and range resolution is to
remember that one microsecond propagation time corresponds to a two-way range of 150
meters.
ΔR = C Tc/2 (meters)

ΔR = the range resolution (meters)

c = the velocity of propagation (meters per second)
Tc = the processed target pulse width (seconds)

A common misconception about radar waves is that the shape of the echo pulse can somehow
be used to resolve targets. Actually, little or no information is gained from the shape of the
echo pulse. Signals from targets and interfering signals are applied to a filter in the receiver
called the Matched filter. This filter passes a large fraction of the signal energy while
restricting the amount of noise energy passed, thus producing the maximum possible signal-
to – noise ratio. In doing so, it restricts the bandwidth of signals passed through it sufficiently
that pulse shape, along with whatever information it held (Which in most cases would still not
have been sufficient to tell anything useful about targets), is effectively lost. There is no way
to distinguish noise from target echo signal based on pulse shape alone nor is there a practical
way to resolve multiple otherwise unresolved scatterers by pulse width or shape.

 Enhanced range resolution: A paradox in the design of radar waveforms is that it is

desirable to simultaneously have wide transmitted pulses and wide transmitted bandwidth,
since wide pulses are good for target detection and wide bandwidths are good for range
resolution. Without pulse compression, the two desired conditions cannot be realized
simultaneously. Without compression, the transmitted and processed pulse widths are the
same. Pulse compression waveforms contains some form of modulation within the pulse,
(rather than a simple sinusoid) and their bandwidths are greater than the reciprocal of the
transmitted pulse width. Thus with pulse compression waveforms both conditions can be
met simultaneously.

Figure 1.9 Compressed Pulse width

A wide pulse is modulated to create a wide bandwidth and then transmitted. The echo
waveform is separated into parts based on the modulation, and each separate part delayed
such that they are made simultaneous in time. The component parts, which occur in time
sequence in the echo are summed at the same time, producing a narrow pulse of higher
amplitude. Thus the detection capability (long range) of the wider transmitted pulse called
the expanded pulse is available at the same time as the range-resolving capability of the
narrower processed pulse, called the compressed pulse.

 Angular and cross-range resolution: Cross-range is the linear dimension perpendicular

to the axis of the antenna, specified as azimuth (horizontal) or elevation (vertical) cross-
range. Cross-range resolution gives the radar the ability to separate multiple targets at
the same range. Resolution in cross-range is determined by the antenna’s effective
beam width. With narrow antenna beams resolving more closely spaced targets. The
criterion for cross-range resolution is that targets at the same range separated by more
than the antenna beam width are resolved. Those separated by less than a beam width
are not.

Figure 1.10 Angular and cross range resolution

Figure shows the principle of cross-range resolving with antenna beams, in this case with
scanning search radar. The upper portion of the figure shows the relationship between the
antenna beams and the targets. The lower portion shows the relative amplitudes of
numerous consecutive echoes from the targets as antenna scans by them.

Figure 1.11 Beam width and cross range resolution

6. Antenna Gain
The radio energy from the transmitter is concentrated in a preferred direction by the antenna.
The degree of concentration is the gain of the antenna. By definition, a lossless antenna which
radiates power equally in all directions is called isotropic, has a gain of unity, and its beam
pattern is a sphere.

Figure 1.12 Radiation Pattern

If the same transmitter were connected to an antenna with a gain of 100, the available power
would be distributed within a beam which occupies 1/100 of a sphere, and the power density
within the beam would be 100 times the power density for the same transmitter connected to
an isotropic antenna approximately.
Consider the antennas in figures as connected to identical transmitters and radiating to two
identical receivers at the same range. The receiver listening to the isotropic antenna detects a
certain amount of RF power. If the receiver listening to the high gain antenna is in that antenna’s
main beam, it receives more power by factor of the transmitting antenna’s gain. This power
must come from somewhere, and in directions other than the transmit main beam, the high gain
antenna produces less power than the isotropic. In the direction of the beam, the transmitter’s
power is effectively magnified by the antenna gain.

Using a high gain transmitting antenna gives the same received power with a less powerful
transmitter than is required using an isotropic antenna. A transmitter connected to an antenna
with a gain of 100 can achieve the same result with 1/100 power required if an isotropic antenna
were used. A receiver would sense the same power, as long as the ranges were the same, and

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could not discern whether it was receiving the higher power transmitter and isotropic antenna
or the lower power transmitter and high gain antenna.
Solid angle in space
G = Solid angle in the antenna’s beam
G = the antenna’s gain (dimensionless)
The power effectively radiated by the transmitter/antenna combination in the direction of the
main beam is called the effective radiated power or ERP. It is the product of the power delivered
to the transmit antenna and the gain of the antenna. It is the power which would have to be
radiated isotopically to produce the same effect as the given transmitter and antenna, in the
direction in which the gain is specified.

ERP = PTGT
ERP = the radar’s effective radiated power (Watts)
PT = the transmit power delivered to the antenna (Watts)
GT = the gain of the radar’s transmitter antenna

7. Pulse width
Pulse width is the length of time the illuminating power is ON for each transmission. Radar
transmitting amplifiers usually operate in saturation and most systems emit pulses which can be
approximated as rectangular. In systems without pulse compression, the width of the echo
pulses out of the signal processor is only slightly different from the transmitted pulse width.
With pulse compression, the two pulse widths are markedly different, with the processed pulse
width being less than that transmitted. Several pulse widths can occur in the system.

The amount of pulse compression, if present, is described by the parameter compression ratio
(CR), which is the ratio of the widths of the expanded and compressed pulses.
CR = TE / TC
TE = the illumination (transmitted) waveform pulse width, in seconds, for systems
having pulse compression. The subscript E is for expanded.
TC = the processed echo pulse width, in seconds, for systems with pulse
compression. The subscript C indicates compressed.
8. Pulse repetition frequency (PRF)

Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) is the average number of pulses transmitted per second by the
radar (Also known as pulse recurrence frequency). It is necessary to detect the pulse returning
from distant targets and also to allow them sufficient time to return before the next pulse is
transmitted.

Based on range and Doppler ambiguity criteria, radars are divided into three classes, according to
their sample rate, or PRF.

 Low PRF (LPRF) radars wait until echoes from the last reflected pulse arrive before pulsing
again, preventing range ambiguities. At their low rates, Doppler is badly under sampled.
Low PRF is therefore unambiguous in range but highly ambiguous in Doppler. It is used
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when long range is required and velocity need not be known. Typical PRF is 1-3 khz.
 High PRF (HPRF, also known as Pulse Doppler) radars High PRF is unambiguous in Doppler
but highly ambiguous in range. It is used when velocity measurement is prime concern,
range need not be known very accurately .Typical PRF >30 khz.
 Medium PRF (MPRF) radars is ambiguous in both range and Doppler. It is however, not
as ambiguous in range as high PRF, nor is it as ambiguous in Doppler as low PRF (it is said
to be moderately ambiguous in both range and Doppler). If the ambiguities can be
resolved by deghosting, this is a useful PRF class, and gives best opportunity to
simultaneously recover both the range and Doppler shift of targets. It is used extensively
in airborne multimode radars. Typical PRF is 3-30 khz.

The PRF is the number of illumination pulses transmitted per second. In some systems and
modes, the PRF is a constant; in others it varies. This PRF agility can be pulse-to-pulse, look-lo-
look, or scan- to-scan. Some systems use burst waveforms, where groups of pulses are
transmitted. The rate within and between the groups may change.

Figure 1.13 Typical PRF pattern used in Radar

PRF agility has several names and purposes. In moving target indicator (MTI) systems, the PRF is
varied to prevent sampling at integer multiples of the Doppler shit. If this occurs, the radar
senses a Doppler shit of zero and is blind to targets moving at these velocities (called blind
velocities). PRF variation to prevent blind velocities is called PRF stagger. PRF agility is also used
to prevent jammers from locking to the radar's pulse rate, which allows some types of deceptive
jamming not otherwise possible. Agility for this purpose is PRF jitter. Range and Doppler
ambiguities are often resolved (deghosted) with a variable PRF. This is also called jitter.

9. Pulse repetition interval (PRI)

The PRI is the time between the start of consecutive transmissions and is the reciprocal of PRF.
It is also called pulse period (T), pulse repetition time (PRT), and ranging interval.
PRI = 1 / PRF (seconds)

10. Peak power (PT):

Peak power is the RMS signal power from the transmitter during the time the pulse is “on”.

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11. Duty Cycle
The fraction of the total time that the transmitter is on is the duty cycle (DC).
For fixed PRFs and rectangular envelope pulses, duty cycle is-
DC = TE / PRI (dimensionless)
DC = TE *PRF
12. Average power
The power which a radar transmitter emits averaged over a long time is called average power.
This power is, in most cases, more important for the detection of targets than peak power.
Average power is, for pulses with rectangular envelopes, the peak power times the duty cycle.
PAVG = PT DC (Watts) PAVG = PTTE / PRI
PAVG = PTTE PRF
Where PT= Peak Power of transmitter
13. Pulse energy
Pulse energy is the energy in each transmitted waveform. It is peak power times expanded pulse
width, or average power times PRI.
WP = PTTE (Watt-seconds = Joules)
WP = PAvG PRI
WP = PAvG/PRF
Where WP= Pules Energy
14. Efficiency
The efficiency of a transmitter is the ratio of the average RF power out of the transmitter to
the total average input power (DC, AC, and RF drive).

15. Blind Speed

 Doppler shift: The Doppler effect used in radar is that changes the frequency of the
electromagnetic signal that propagates from the radar to a moving target and back to
the radar. If the range to the target is R, then the total number of wavelengths λ in the
two-way path from radar to target and return is 2R/ λ. Each wavelength corresponds to
a phase change of 2π radians.
The total phase change in the two-way propagation path is then-
2R
φ =2π × = 4πR/λ
λ
If the target is in motion relative to the radar, R is changing and so will the phase. The rate of
change of phase, which is the angular frequency
dφ 4πdR 4πvr
ωd = = = = 2πfd
dt λ dt λ

where vr = dR/dt is the radial velocity (meters/second), or rate of change of range with time
and where fd is the Doppler frequency shift
fd =2Vr/ λ
In a Radar the moving target is identified by observing this Doppler frequency shift associated
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with target echo. In CW Radar Doppler shift can be recovered directly by comparing the echo
frequency to that of illumination.

In a pulse radar the Doppler shift is not sufficient to produce a measureable frequency difference
between transmitted and received echo for a single pulse. The pulse time period is simply too
small as compared to the time period of the Doppler frequency (which is few hundred hertz for
most of the aircraft) to observe the small frequency change. In these systems the Doppler shift
is calculated by observing the change in the return echo signal phase for many successive
returns.

The phase of the echo signal from fixed targets remains constant in all the returns whereas it
changes for the moving targets returns. This fact is used to identify the moving target amongst
the fixed ones. However, there is a possibility that a target can move at such a specific speed
(called as blind speed ) that the phase change between the successive returns becomes exactly
a multiple of 360 degrees between the two pulses ( within one PRI).

On phase comparison of the return signals it would appear as if there is no phase difference i.e.
returns are from a stationary target.

This can be stated in two ways

1. When target moves at such a speed that a manner that it covers λ/2 distance towards Radar
in one PRI then it cannot be detected by Radar. The corresponding speed is called the blind speed.
2. Blind speed is that speed of target at which the Doppler frequency shift equals the PRF (or a
multiple of it) and Radar is not able to see target moving at such speeds.
Blind speed is given by the following expression:

Vn = n X λ/2 X 1/PRI = n X λ/2 XPRF

Figure 1.14 Example of a blind speed in an MTI radar. The target's Doppler frequency is equal to
the PRF.

 Delay Line Canceller: Pulse Radar Moving Target Indicator (MTI) deploys delay-line
canceller, which acts as a high-pass filter to separate the Doppler-shifted echo signals of
moving targets from the unwanted echoes of stationary clutter. The simple MTI delay-line
canceller (DLC) is a time-domain filter that rejects stationary clutter at zero frequency. It
has a frequency response function H (f) that can be derived from the time-domain
representation of the signals. The input to the delay line canceller can be written as
V1 = k sin(2πfdt −φ0 )
where fd = doppler frequency shift, φ0 = a constant phase equal to 4πR0/λ, R0 = range at time
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equal to zero, λ = wavelength, and k = amplitude of the signal.

The signal from the previous radar transmission is similar, except it is delayed by a time Tp =
pulse repetition interval, and is
V2 = ksin[2πfd (t −Tp ) −φ0 ]

Figure 1.15 Delay line canceller

The amplitude k is assumed to be the same for both pulses. The delay-line canceller
subtracts these two signals. Using the trigonometric identity we get the output from the delay-
line canceller is seen to consist of a cosine wave with the same frequency fd as the input, but
with an amplitude 2 k sin (π fdTp ).

Figure 1.16 Frequency response function of a single delay line canceller

The response of the single delay-line canceller will be zero whenever the magnitude of
sin(πfdTp ) is zero, which occurs when πfdTp = 0, ±π, ±2π, ±3π, . . . . Therefore –

This states that in addition to the zero response at zero frequency, there will also be zero
response of the delay-line canceller whenever the Doppler frequency fd = 2 vr / λ is a multiple
of the pulse repetition frequency fp. (The Doppler shift can be negative or positive depending
on whether the target is receding or approaching. When considering the blind speed and its
effects, the sign of the Doppler can be ignored-which is what is done here.) The radial
velocities that produce blind speeds are found as–

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Where vr has been replaced by vn the nth
blind speed. Usually only the first blind speed v1 is
considered, since the others are integer multiples of v1. If λ is measured in meters, fp in hertz,
and the radial velocity in knots, the first blind speed can be written -
v1 (kt) = 0.97 λ (m) fp (Hz) ≈ λ (m) fp (Hz)
Blind speeds can be a serious limitation in MTI radar since they cause some desired moving
targets to be canceled along with the undesired clutter at zero frequency.
Blind speeds can be a serious limitation in MTI radar since they cause some desired moving
targets to be cancelled along with the undesired clutter at zero frequency and there are four
methods for reducing the detrimental effects of blind speeds:

1. Operate the radar at long wavelengths (low frequencies).

2. Operate with a high pulse repetition frequency.
3. Operate with more than one pulse repetition frequency.
4. Operate with more than one RF frequency (wavelength).

16. Weather influence and polarization

Clutter is the term used to denote unwanted echoes from the natural environment. It implies
that these unwanted echoes "clutter" the radar and make difficult the detection of wanted
targets. Clutter includes echoes from land, sea, weather (particularly rain), birds, and insects.
When clutter is larger than receiver noise, different radar design methods need to be
employed for target detection. Let us discusses the techniques that allow the detection of
desired targets in the presence of weather.
 Rain clutter:
Rain attenuates and reflects radar signals. Problems caused by rain lessen dramatically with
longer wavelengths (lower frequencies) i.e. much less of an issue at L-Band than X-Band. Rain
is diffuse clutter (wide geographic extent) and travels horizontally with the wind have mean
Doppler velocity and spread.

Figure 1.17 Influence of rain drop

Reflectivity of Uniform Rain is dependent on both the radar frequency and the nature of
rain as shown in the following table. Rain reflectivity increases as f4 (or 1 / λ4) and is an
issue at S-Band and a significant one at higher frequencies.

Table 1 Reflectivity of rain w.r.t frequency

 Effect of Circular Polarization on Rain Backscatter: If we assume that raindrops are

spherical and the transmitted polarization is Right Hand Circular (RHC), then reflected
energy has opposite sense of Left Hand Circular polarization (LHC). As we discussed
earlier all antennas systems are reciprocal and here, it is configured to receive only
the sense of polarization that is transmitted (RHC). Then, rain backscatter will be
rejected (~ 15 dB). But most atmospheric targets are complex scatterers and return
both senses of polarization; equally (RHC & LHC) and target echo will be significantly
attenuated.

Figure 1.18 Phase change in rain drops

Circular polarization is often employed to reduce weather clutter in microwave air-
surveillance radars. Discrimination of a target located in the midst of rain results because the
echo from an aircraft (an asymmetrical scatterer) differs from that of a raindrop (a circularly
symmetric scatterer) when using circular polarization. This difference in scattering can be
used to enhance the echo from the target and suppress echoes from rain.

A circularly polarized wave incident on a spherical scatterer will be reflected as a circularly

polarized wave of opposite sense of rotation (when viewed in the direction of propagation)
and will be rejected by the same antenna that originally radiated it.

On the other hand, when a circularly polarized wave is incident on an asymmetrical target
such as an aircraft, it has been found experimentally that the reflected energy is more or less
equally divided between the two senses of polarization rotation.

The two senses of circular polarization are (1) right-hand circular, when the electric field
rotates clockwise when viewed in the direction of propagation and (2) left-hand circular, when
the electric field rotates counter clockwise. Since about half of the reflected energy is of the
same sense of circular polarization as that transmitted, it will be accepted by the antenna that
originally radiated it.
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The circularly polarized echo from spherical raindrops is of the opposite sense of polarization
(when viewed in the direction of its propagation) and will be rejected by the radar antenna;
but an aircraft will have a significant amount of its reflected energy with a polarization that is
accepted by the antenna. This then provides target-to-clutter enhancement.

Raindrops are seldom perfect spheres, especially when they are large. They deviate from a
sphere when their radius is greater than about 1 mm, and have a shape more like that of an
oblate spheroid with a flattened base (a hamburger bun). This particular raindrop shape,
which is quite different from that usually depicted by an illustrator or cartoonist, is a result of
aerodynamic forces as the drop falls.

The greater its deviation from a spherical shape, the less the echo signal will be rejected. Thus
circular polarization is limited in the amount of rain cancellation it can provide and becomes
less as the rain becomes heavier.

In addition to the non-spherical shape of raindrops, the ability to cancel rain echo using
circular polarization is limited by practical considerations. It is difficult to obtain an antenna
with pure polarization that does not accept energy from the orthogonal polarization. The
cancellation of an orthogonally polarized signal by an exceptionally well designed, well
maintained antenna might be limited to about 40 dB, a very good value. Most antennas are
not this good, and they can be even poorer because of the depolarizing effects of the nearby
environment. Depolarization is also introduced when propagating through rain located
between the radar and the target.

The various forms of depolarization that cause circular polarization to become elliptical
suggest that better rain cancellation might be achieved if the optimum form of elliptical
polarization were used rather than circular. With the optimum elliptical polarization,
cancellation in some regions of heavy rain might be increased by as much as 12 dB.

The radar cross section of aircraft is generally less with circular polarization than with linear
polarization.

17. Probability of detection

The probability of detection of the primary radar is defined as the ratio of the number of
detected PSR target reports to the expected number of PSR target reports. False plots (clutter,
"angels", etc.) must be excluded from the detected PSR target report count before
establishing this ratio. This is usually performed by a "surveillance processing" or “tracking”
function.

PD= (number of times a target detected)/ (expected number of target reports)

18. Relationship between false target rate and probability of detection

In a perfect system, there would be 100 per cent detection throughout the whole system
coverage and no false target reports. This ideal condition never exists in a real system. If there
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are no false targets, it is very likely that the system suffers from poor coverage and
probability of detection. Conversely, if the number of false targets is high, the system
coverage could be good with good detection of wanted targets but discrimination between
false and real targets would be poor, with the radar display cluttered with false targets.

Therefore, the specification of a radar system normally allows for a certain number of false
targets per antenna scan under specified operating conditions and the radar system is set up
to achieve this.

In practice, few systems achieve this requirement while maintaining the required probability
of detection, and the people responsible for the radar must set up the system to achieve a
compromise between good detection and low false target rate acceptable by the system.

19. Frequency diversity and frequency agility

In order to overcome some of the target size fluctuations many radars use two or more
different illumination frequencies. Frequency diversity typically uses two transmitters
operating in tandem to illuminate the target with two separate frequencies. The received
signals can be separately processed in order to maintain coherence.

With the multiple frequencies it is possible to achieve a fundamentally higher maximum

reach, equal probability of detection and equal false alarm rate. That is, if the probability of
detection and the false alarm rate are equal in both systems, then by using two or more
frequencies it is possible to achieve a higher maximum range. Frequency diversity is not
employed in RADARs used in AAI.

The carrier frequency can be changed by changing the frequency during the period of each
pulse one after the other. This change of frequency on pulse to pulse basis is called frequency
agility and most Radar uses it. Raytheon radar used four frequencies whereas ELDIS radar
have two model which uses two frequencies and four frequencies.
1. MDS
Minimum Detectable Signal (MDS): It is similar to the sensitivity of the radar receiver. The
measurement conditions for the RADAR receiver sensitivity are not standardized. These
depend on the manufacturer measurement and test requirements. The result of the
measurement itself is often referred to by the acronym MDS.

Minimum Detectable Signal (MDS) is a specific value of minimum receivable power (Prmin).
The minimum detectable signal is defined as the useful echo power at the antenna, which
gives at the output of the IF amplifier (just before detection), a signal which lies 3 dB above
the mean noise level. The MDS is generally expressed in dBm; typical values are between –
100 and –103 dBm.

But the actual value of MDS (or Prmin) depends on a number of factors and choices which are
ultimately related to the statistics of radar detection.

1.2 ANTENNA

An antenna is a device that acts as a transformer to provide a good match between the
feeding line as a local source of power and free space. If the antenna is not matched to free
space, power will be reflected back toward the transmitter, resulting in a loss in radiated
power.
1.2.1. Antenna types, accuracy and problems

Antenna performs the following essential functions:

 Act as a transducer and impedance match between the transmitter and the
propagation medium, and between the medium and the receiver
 Provide gain to concentrate the transmitted signal in a preferred direction
 Steer the transmitted power to the desired angular position
 Provide area (aperture) to intercept and capture received echoes
 Provide for effective reception over a small angular direction only and to move the
response to the desired direction (steer the receive beam).

Antennas are reciprocal. All parameters apply equally to transmit and receive; beam widths,
gains, side lobe levels, and so on. Antennas can be divided into several groups. Electrically
small antennas are those whose operating dimensions are less than resonant, usually less
than 1/4 wavelength. Resonant antenna dimensions are related to the wavelength, and they
function as resonant circuits to the wavelengths at which they operate. Electrically large
antennas are those whose principal dimension is large with respect to a wavelength. Resonant
and large antennas are used in radar.
Line antennas are much larger in one dimension than the other is. Wire antennas are of this
type. Aperture antennas are large compared to the wavelength in all dimensions, and their
areas are many square wavelengths.
Antenna Characteristics

The antenna properties in the free space are determined by the radiation pattern.
1.2.1.1 Antenna beams
For radar applications, normally two beam shapes are used, the Pencil beam and the Fan
beam.
A. Pencil Beam
Pencil beams are commonly used where it is necessary to measure continuously the angular
position of a target in both Azimuth and Elevation. It is axially symmetric.
Pencil beam may be generated with a metallic reflector surface shaped in the form of a
parabola of revolution with the em energy fed from a point source placed at the focus.

Figure 1.19 Pencil Beam

B. Fan Beam

When the Radar is used for Surveillance, a Fan Beam is used. Long range ground based radars
use a Fan beam pattern, Narrow in Azimuth and Broad in Elevation. In a Fan beam, one
dimension is broad while the other dimension is narrow.

A Fan beam can be generated with a parabolic reflector, shaped to yield proper ratio between
the Azimuth and Elevation beam widths.

Figure 1.20 Fan Beam

The Azimuth beam width selection for radar depends on two factors:
i) ‘The azimuth resolution’ required for the radar
ii) ‘The number of returns’ expected from a particular target in a scan

1.2.1.2 Omnidirectional Antenna

An antenna with the same gain in all directions is called an Omni Directional Antenna.

1.2.1.3 Directivity of an antenna

Directivity is the ability of an antenna to focus energy in a particular direction when
transmitting or to receive energy better from a particular direction when receiving.

To determine the directivity of an antenna, we need a reference antenna with which to

compare our antenna's performance.

Figure 1.21 Directivity of an antenna

1.2.1.4 Antenna Gain

For a transmitting or receiving antenna, Gain is an important characteristic of the antenna.

Antenna Gain (G) is a measure of the Power radiated in a particular direction by a Directive
Antenna to the Power which would have been radiated in the same direction by an Omni-
directional antenna with 100 % efficiency.

It is a relative measure of an antenna's ability to direct or concentrate radio frequency energy

in a particular direction or pattern.

The measurement is typically measured in dBi (Decibels relative to an isotropic radiator) or in

dBd (Decibels relative to a dipole radiator).

When a transmitting antenna with a certain Gain is used as a receiving antenna, it will also
have the same Gain for receiving.

1.2.1.5 Power Gain

The Power Gain signifies the ratio of radiated power in a given direction relative to that of an
isotropic radiator which is radiating the total amount of electrical power received by the
antenna.

1.2.1.6 Antenna Pattern

Most radiators radiate stronger radiations in one direction than in other. The Polar-
coordinated graph can be used in studying radiation pattern.
The Main Beam (Main lobe) is the region around the direction of maximum radiation (usually,
it is the region that is within 3dB of the peak of the main beam.
The Side Lobes are smaller beams and are away from the main beam. These Side Lobes are
usually radiation in undesired directions and cannot be completely eliminated.

Figure 1.22 Antenna pattern in a polar-coordinate graph

1.2.1.7 Beam Width

Antenna Beam Width is the Angular separation between the Half power points, the points
where the radiated power is 3dB down from the Maximum of the Main beam.

Figure 1.23 Beam Width

1.2.1.8 Cone of silence

A gap in coverage above a radar due to the limitations of the antenna performance at high
elevation angles is known as ‘Cone of Silence’. A radar is not designed to detect aircraft
directly above the radar antenna approx. an elevation of about 20°

Cone of Silence

Figure 1.24 Cone of silence

1.2.1.9 Difference between Azimuth and Elevation

Azimuth and elevation are angles used to define the apparent position of an object in the sky,
relative to a specific observation point. The observer is usually (but not necessarily) located
on the earth's surface.

Azimuth
Azimuth refers to the rotation of the whole antenna around a vertical axis. Azimuth is a
rotation around a vertical axis. It is the side to side angle.
The angle between the projected vector and a reference vector on the reference plane is
called the azimuth.

The Azimuth (az) angle is the compass bearing, relative to true (geographic) north, of a point
on the horizon directly beneath an observed object. As seen from above the observer,
compass bearings are measured clockwise in degrees from north. Azimuth angles can thus
range from 0 degrees (north) through 90 (east), 180 (south), 270 (west), and up to 360 (north
again).

Elevation
Elevation refers to the angle between the beam pointing direction, directly towards the
target, and the local horizontal plane. It is the up-down angle. Elevation is a vertical lift.

The elevation (el) angle, also called the altitude, of an observed object is determined by first
finding the compass bearing on the horizon relative to true north, and then measuring the
angle between that point and the object, from the reference frame of the observer. Elevation
angles for objects above the horizon range from 0 (on the horizon) up to 90 degrees (at the
zenith).

1.2.1.10 Types of Antennas

Different types of Antenna are used in Radar as per the requirements and applications.
a. Directional Antennas
One method of providing Antenna Directivity is to use Arrays of radiating elements.
The radiation pattern of an array is controlled by its shape and size and by the phase
relationship between the individual elements.

Important properties of Directional Antennas are:-

It concentrates the radiated power in the desired direction and thus reduces the total
radiated power required to provide a given field strength at the receiving point. A
directive receiving antenna has a better signal to noise ratio than a non-directional
antenna. Because it picks up only the noise signals coming from the direction of the
transmitter.

 Horn Antenna
Horn antenna or microwave horn is an antenna that consists of a flaring metal waveguide
shaped like a horn to direct em waves. Horns are widely used as antennas at UHF and
microwave frequencies above 300 MHz. They are used as feeders (called feed horns) for larger
antenna structures such as parabolic antennas.

Moderate directivity (gain), low SWR, broad band width and simple construction and
adjustments are some of the advantages of horn.

Figure 1.25 Horn Antenna

 Parabolic Antenna
The Parabolic dish antenna is the most frequently used one in radar. A dish antenna
consists of one circular parabolic reflector and a point source situated in the focal
point of the reflector. The point source is called ‘Primary Feed’ or ‘feed’.

Figure 1.26 Parabolic Antenna

The circular parabolic reflector is constructed of metal, usually a frame covered by metal mesh
at the inner side. The width of the slots of the metal mesh has to be less than λ/10. This metal
covering forms the reflector acting as a mirror for the radar energy. For this type of reflector,
all reflected rays will be parallel to the axis of the parabola which gives us ideally one single
reflected ray parallel to the main axis with no side lobes. The field leaves this feed horn with
a spherical wave front. As each part of the wave front reaches the reflecting surface, it is
shifted 180 degrees in phase and sent outward at angles that cause all parts of the field to
travel in parallel paths.

Figure 1.27 Parabolic Antenna radiation pattern

Parabolic Reflector Feed methods

The radiator that illuminates the Parabolic Reflector is called the Feed system. The Feed is
called the Primary Radiator and the Reflector is called the Secondary Radiator.
There are 2 types of Feed system
1) Horn Feed and 2) Dipole Feed.

(i) Horn Feed

When the power is fed to or from the aerial by a waveguide, it is called Horn
Feed.
In Horn Feed, the feed is a continuation of the waveguide. It is a short piece of
waveguide material formed so that its open end is positioned at the Focus of
the Reflector. The power radiated from its open end is directed towards the
reflector surface.
Similarly, the energy received from the reflector is focused at the open end of

the feed. The end of the feed is usually horn shaped and is sealed with a Mica
window. This is the most common type of feed used.

(ii) Dipole Feed

This consists of a small dipole with a parasitic or small plane reflector in front
to prevent direct forward radiation.

 Antenna With Cosecant Squared Radiation Pattern

The coverage of a simple fan beam is usually inadequate for targets at high
altitudes close to the radar. The simple fan beam antenna radiates very little
energy in this direction.

One technique for radiating more energy at higher angles is to employ a fan
beam with a shape proportional to the square of the cosecant of the elevation
angle.

Antennae with cosecant squared pattern are specially designed for air-
surveillance radar sets. These permit an adapted distribution of the radiation
in the beam and causing a more ideal space scanning.

The cosecant squared pattern is a means of achieving a more uniform signal

strength at the input of the receiver as a target moves with a constant height
within the beam.

One technique for radiating more energy at higher angles is to employ a fan
beam with a shape proportional to the square of the cosecant of the elevation
angle. The cosecant squared pattern is a means of achieving a more uniform
signal strength at the input of the receiver as a target moves with a constant
height within the beam.
The cosecant squared antenna has the important property that the echo
power received from a target of constant cross section at constant altitude is
independent of the target’s range from the radar.
The cosecant squared antenna may be constructed by:-
 The deformation of a parabolic reflector.

 A stacked beam by more horns feeding a parabolic reflector. A radiator is kept in the
focal point of a parabolic reflector and produces a relatively sharply bundled radiation
lobe.

To get the Cosecant Squared Pattern, a part of the radiated energy must be turned up. A
possible method for this one is, to bend the lower part of the reflector more intense.

Figure 1.28 Antenna with Cosecant Squared Radiation Pattern

1.2.1.11 Polarization
Polarization is an important parameter and consideration when selecting an antenna. When
choosing an antenna, it is an important consideration as to whether the polarization should
be linear or elliptical.
If the polarization is linear, is it vertical or horizontal? If circular, is it RHC or LHC polarization?
The Polarization of a microwave signal is regulated by the orientation of the primary feed.
The direction of the plane of the electric field of an em wave is taken to be the description of
its polarization.
Polarization is mainly divided into 2 types:-
1) Linear polarization and 2) Circular Polarization

1) Linear Polarization
Linear Polarization (LP) is the normal radar transmission that will cause an echo from anything
that has mass.
Linear Polarization:-
 Presents all reflected signals either moving or stationary.

 Selection provides the strongest possible return

 Allows the controller to inform pilots about observed precipitation areas

A linear polarized antenna radiates wholly in one plane containing the direction of
propagation.
Linear Polarization is of 2 types  Vertical and Horizontal
Linearly polarized antennas will work with circularly polarized antennas and vice versa.
However, there will be up to a 3 dB loss in signal strength.

a) Vertical Polarization
When the Electrical field is in the vertical plane, the signal is said to be Vertically polarized. An
antenna is said to be vertically polarized (linear) when its electric field is perpendicular to the
Earth's surface.
Vertical polarization is most often used when it is desired to radiate a radio signal in all
directions

Figure 1.29 Electric & Magnetic field components of an em wave

b) Horizontal Polarization
When the Electrical field is in the Horizontal plane, the signal is said to be horizontally
polarized. Horizontally polarized (linear) antennas have their electric field parallel to the
Earth's surface. The use of horizontal polarization would provide some discrimination against
interference from noise. Horizontal polarization is used in television broadcast.
Air Surveillance Radars with Horizontal Polarization achieve greater range than with Vertical
Polarization because of reflection coefficient of Horizontal Polarization.

2) Circular polarization (CP)

Circular Polarization (CP):-

 Altered radar pulses filter out returns from precipitation.

 It reduces or eliminates these echoes which obscure reflected radio energy from
aircraft.

 CP reduces target strength compared to LP

In a circular polarized antenna, the Electric field vector rotates with constant amplitude about
the axis of propagation in a circle making one complete revolution during one period of the
wave.

If the rotation is clockwise looking in the direction of propagation, the sense is called right-
hand-circular (RHC). If the rotation is counterclockwise, the sense is called left-hand-circular
(LHC).
A Circular polarized wave radiates energy in both the horizontal and vertical planes and all
planes in between. A Circular polarized wave can be produced by combining two equal
oscillating fields linearly polarized at right angles to one another and 90°out of phase.

A Circular polarized wave incident on a spherical scatterer (rain drops) is reflected as a

circularly polarized wave with the opposite sense of rotation and is rejected by the antenna
that originally transmitted it.

Figure 1.30 Circular polarization

With a complex target such as an a/c, the reflected energy is more or less equally divided
between the 2 senses of rotation so that some target echo energy is accepted by the same
radar antenna that transmitted the circularly polarized signal.

The direction of polarization is reversed on reflection from spherical rain droplets.

If same antenna is used for both transmitting and receiving, the antenna is not responsive to
the opposite sense of rotation and the echo will not appear at the Rx. But a target such as an
a/c will return some energy with the correct polarization as well as energy with the incorrect
polarization.
Circular polarization is most often used on satellite communications.

Circularly polarized antennas are normally more costly than linear polarized types since true
circular polarization is difficult to attain.

1.2.1.12 Waveguides Interface:

The waveguide is commonly used in radars where high microwave power is present and
where low losses are required. It is a hollow conducting "pipe" which propagates

electromagnetic waves bounded by the walls of the guide. Waveguides can have many
configurations, including rectangular, elliptical, circular, ridged, and double ridged.

Figure 1.31 Waveguides Interface

Wave guide interfaces: A waveguide flange is a connector for joining sections of waveguide,
and is essentially the same as a pipe flange—a waveguide, a hollow metal conduit for
microwave energy. The connecting face of the flange is square, circular or rectangular. The
connection between a pair of flanges is usually made with four or more bolts, though
alternative mechanisms, such as a threaded collar, may be used where there is a need for
rapid assembly and disassembly. Dowel pins are sometimes used in addition to bolts, to
ensure accurate alignment, particularly for very small waveguides.
 Pressurization: Waveguides are normally pressurized for two reasons. First to
prevent the external environment from contaminating the interior of the guide. If
the waveguide leaks, it is highly desirable that it leak outward, so that water and
other contaminants do not enter. When radar is to be inoperative for long periods
of time, it is especially important that the waveguide pressure be maintained.

Second, many gasses under high pressure are dielectrically stronger than the same
gasses low pressure, supporting higher voltages before arcing occurs. Pressure,
then, increases the power-handling capability of the waveguide. Dry air is usually
the gas used for pressurization unless the power handling requirements exceed
those available at reasonable pressures. In these cases, other gasses, such as sulfur
hexafluoride (SF6) are used.
 Dehumidifier for waveguide: The environment within a waveguide is under positive
pressure. This pressurization serves to ensure that the waveguide leaks out rather
than in and prevents vapor, dust and other particulates from entering the
waveguide. Particulates in the waveguide can cause reflection, which can be
measured as VSWR (voltage standing wave ratio) and cause signal loss or
attenuation. In most communication applications, a dehydrator will maintain a
clean, dry, particulate-free environment within the waveguide.

1.2.1.13 Antenna drive system

A simple antenna drive unit system is shown in the figure. The role of the antenna driving
system in a pulsed radar is to control the antenna movement. Depending on the application,
the antenna may be made to rotate, to scan over a certain angle or area, or to lock onto and
track a moving target. One type of antenna, the phased-array antenna, can be steered
electronically without any physical movement of the antenna.

Figure 1.32 Antenna drive system

Typically all the antenna drive systems will have motors, gears, reducers and other
mechanical assemblies to meet the revolution per minute required for the particular
radar. In addition it has a rotary joints to interconnect the fixed and ratating sections.
 Rotary joints: A rotary joint is the key component of any rotational radar system. It
is an electro- mechanical device that provides the critical interface between the
stationary and rotating sections of a radar system; allowing signals to be
transmitted back and forth between the antenna and ground components with little
or no distortion.

The rotating part of the joint must be either a circular waveguide or a coaxial line.
Most are coaxial, since the transitions from rectangular to circular wave guide are
bulky. Many rotary joints couple more than one signal. Multi-channel rotary joints
needed to co-locate both the primary and the secondary radars.

Most rotary joints use chock couplers for their sliding portions, so there does not to
be metal-to- metal contact. Dielectric seals between the sliding components also
provide seals for waveguide pressurization.

1.2.1.14 Azimuth encoding

An essential part of any antenna driving system for the azimuth measurement of the
antenna is position encoder. The position encoder constantly sends a signal from the
antenna to the rest of the radar system which accurately indicates the azimuth (the
orientation of the antenna in the horizontal plane). This allows the radar to correctly display
targets according to their directions.

An optical controlled “encoder” is mounted at the revolving part of the antenna. This
encoder produces “Azimut Change Pulses” (ACP's). These impulses are counted either in
the signal processing computer.

Figure 1.33 Azimuth encoding

The counter gets a reset by a so called Azimuth Reference Pulse (ARP) once per revolution.
The counting of the pulses will be start again at this moment. Therefore a definite bearing
position is determinable. It is a number of impulses usually between 4096 (this corresponds
to a precision of 0.087 degrees per impulse) and up to 16384 (this corresponds to a
precision of 0.02129 degrees per impulse). The direction of bearing information is usually
defined “clockwise”.

1.3 Transmitters
1.3.1. Basic characteristics of a transmitter
BASIC REQUIREMENTS
The radar transmitter produces the short duration high-power rf pulses of energy that are radiated
into space by the antenna. The radar transmitter is required to have the following technical and
operating characteristics:
a) The transmitter must have the ability to generate the required mean RF power and the
required peak power.
b) The transmitter must have a suitable RF bandwidth.
c) The transmitter must have a high RF stability to meet signal processing requirements
d) The transmitter must be easily modulated to meet waveform design requirements.
e) The transmitter must be efficient, reliable and easy to maintain and the life expectancy and
cost of the output device must be acceptable.

1. General block diagram of a radar

Figure shows a generic block diagram of a coherent transmitter. The elements of the transmitter
are described below.

Figure 1.34 General Block Diagram with PAT (Non compressed System)

 Waveform generator: The waveform to be transmitted is generated in this block, often at the
COHO frequency. Pulse width, pulse position, and any RF modulation are set in this block.
 Power amplifier (FPA): The illumination (Pulse) is amplified to the required level in this block.

RADAR Transmitter Types:

RADAR Transmitters can broadly be divided into two categories
a) Power Oscillator type (POT) b) Power Amplifier Type (PAT)

1. In POT transmitter an RF oscillator stage generate a very high peak power level which can be
transmitted straight away without needing any amplifier stage. Magnetron is the active
device used in these type of transmitters. The basic block diagram of a Radar using POT
amplifier is shown in figure 1.35

Figure 1.35 Power oscillator type Transmitter

2. In PAT transmitters RF generation is done at a very low power level (less than 1 watts typically)
& thereafter it is amplified using a power amplifier stage up to a suitable power level for
transmission. The basic block diagram of a Radar using PAT amplifier is shown in figure 1.35.
The basic RF generation produces a CW signal and this signal is pulse modulated and
amplified before transmission.
The signal from the same source is again used to detect the information (Doppler -phase
/frequency) in the received echo.
Such systems where the same source (which is used for transmission) is used for detection
also are called coherent RADAR systems. PAT Radar are falls into coherent Radar category.

Figure 1.36 Radar Tx diagram (Pulse compressed System)

Choices of microwave amplifying devices:

The first successful radars developed prior to World War –II employed the conventional grid-
controlled (triode or tetrode) vacuum tube adapted for operation at VHF, a relatively high frequency
at that time.

The magnetron oscillator, which triggered the development of microwave radar in World War-II, has
been one of the most widely used of radar transmitters, especially for mobile systems. The klystron
amplifier, introduced to radar in the 1950s, offered the system designer higher power at microwaves
than available from the magnetron. , Being an amplifier, the klystron permitted the use of more
sophisticated waveforms than the conventional rectangular pulse train. The klystron was followed by
the traveling-wave tube, a close cousin with similar properties to the klystron except for its wider
bandwidth. The 1960s was the availability of the crossed-field amplifier, a tube related to the
magnetron, there are several variations of crossed-field amplifiers, each with its special properties;
but they are all characterized by wide bandwidth, modest gain, and a compactness more like that of
the magnetron than the klystron or the traveling-wave tube.

Solid-state devices such as the transistor and the bulk effect and avalanche diodes can also be
employed as radar transmitters. They have some interesting properties as compared to the microwave
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vacuum tube, but the individual devices are inherently of low power. There is no one universal
transmitter best suited for all radar applications. Each power generating device has its own particular
advantages and limitations that require the radar system designer to examine carefully all the
available choices when configuring a new radar design.

The transmitter must be of adequate power to obtain the desired radar range, but it must also satisfy
other requirements imposed by the system application. The special demands of MTI (moving target
indication), pulse Doppler, CW radar, phased-array radar, EMC (electromagnetic compatibility), and
ECCM (electronic counter-countermeasures) all influence the type of transmitter selected and its
method of operation.
Based upon the type of devise used for amplification Microwave amplifiers can broadly be divided
into three groups
1. O type linear beam amplifying tubes such as klystron and TWTs.
2. M type cross field amplifying tubes such as Magnetron.
3. Solid state amplifying devices such BJT, FET, TEDs etc.

All the Radars used in AAI employ solid state amplifying devices except few surface
movement Radar which are still using magnetron.

1.3.2. Signals at key point

Signals at different stage and measurement

Many transmit parameters must be monitored during operation and tested during maintenance.
Most radar transmitters have built-in capability for supplying the necessary signals for testing and
monitoring. Fig.1.38 shows a typical transmitter test scheme.

Figure 1.37 Radar Transmitter test scheme

 Power
Transmit power is normally measured by sampling a fraction of the power output and using an
RF power meter. The directional coupler which samples the power is usually a fairly high
(numerically) ratio coupler and couples only a small fraction of the power (50 to 60 dB is typical).

Because amplitude accuracy is important, a dedicated coupler is often used for this
measurement.
Several corrections must be applied to the power meter reading to get the transmitter's true
power. First is the coupler ratio itself. Second is the loss in the cable from the coupler to the
transmitter power monitoring port. In most systems, the ratio given for the monitoring port
includes both the coupler and this cable. Any cables from the port to the meter must be
accounted for by the measurer. A way to avoid cable problems is to attach the power meter
sensor directly to the transmitter's power monitoring port.

Finally, the power must be corrected for the transmitter's duty cycle. Most power meters read
average power, but pulse transmitters are specified in Peak Power. The difference is the duty
cycle correction factor. A few meters read peak power directly. In this case the transmitter's
power output will be
PT(dBm) = PM(dBm) + DCcf(dB) + LC(dB)

PT = the transmitter’s peak power, PM = the power meter reading, LC = the loss from the monitoring
port to the meter sensor, DCcf(dB)= Coupling factor of Directional Coupler.
 Frequency
The frequency meters can measure CW signals accurately. Frequency measurement can best be
done at frequency generation stage where a CW signal is available. At the output of transmitter
the frequency measurement will be less accurate due to a pulsed signal and also due to frequency
modulation of the RF for pulse compression.

 Pulse width and shape

Waveform monitors sample RF signal from the transmitter, demodulate it, and display the
envelope on an oscilloscope. The choice of detector (demodulator) type is based on availability
and power level. One class of detector which is often used is the so- called square-law detector,
whose envelope output is proportional to the RF input squared. It has the advantage that RF
power out of the transmitter is shown as envelope voltage on the oscilloscope, since power is
proportional to voltage squared. If pulse width is to be measured at the pulse's half-power point,
it shows on the oscilloscope as half- voltage.

1.3.3. Generic Transmitter block diagram for both compressed and non-compressed System.
Transmitter block diagram description for both system already covered in topic 1.3.1.

* Klystron, Magnetron and Travelling wave tube based transmitter are not used in AAI.

1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMARY TARGETS

1.4.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF TARGETS

Radar Cross Section (RCS)

Radar cross section is the measure of a target's ability to reflect radar signals in the direction of
the radar receiver, i.e. it is a measure of the ratio of backscatter power per steradian (unit solid
angle) in the direction of the radar (from the target) to the power density that is intercepted by
the target.

The radar cross section of a target is the fictitious area intercepting that amount of power which,
when scattered equally in all directions, produces an echo at the radar equal to that from the
target.
Alternatively it can also be defined as:
Radar cross-section of an object is the area intercepting that amount of power which, when
scattered isotopically, produces an echo equal to that received from the object.
Since a sphere is generally accepted as a typical isotropic radiator (i.e. it radiates in all directions),
this definition is indicating the cross-section of a sphere which, if it replaced the target, would
produce the same response.
It can be seen that if there is some directivity in the target’s response, its radar cross-section will
be much greater than its actual physical cross-section or projected area.
An object reflects a limited amount of radar energy back to the source. The factors that influence
this include:
 the material of which the target is made;

 the absolute size of the target;

 the relative size of the target (in relation to the wavelength of the illuminating radar);

 the incident angle (angle at which the radar beam hits a particular portion of the target,
which depends upon the shape of the target and its orientation to the radar source);

 the reflected angle (angle at which the reflected beam leaves the part of the target hit; it
depends upon incident angle);

 the polarization of the transmitted and the received radiation with respect to the
orientation of the target.

While important in detecting targets, strength of emitter and distance are not factors that
affect the calculation of an RCS because RCS is a property of the target's reflectivity.
Most of the radar used in AAI are able to detect target having RCS of about 2 Sq. meter

The RCS of a target can be viewed as a comparison of the strength of the reflected signal from a
target to the reflected signal from a perfectly smooth sphere of cross sectional area of 1 m 2 as
shown in Figure 1.40.

Figure 1.38 Concept of RADAR Cross Section

The conceptual definition of RCS includes the fact that not all of the radiated energy falls on the
target and all the reflected energy is not towards the Radar. A target’s RCS (σ) is most easily
visualized as the product of three factors:

σ = Projected cross section x Reflectivity x Directivity.

Reflectivity: The percent of intercepted power reradiated (scattered) by the target.

Directivity: The ratio of the power scattered back in the radar's direction to the power that would
have been backscattered had the scattering been uniform in all directions (i.e. isotropically).

Figure 1.39 RCS vs Physical Geometry

Figures 1.41 and 1.42 show that RCS does not equal geometric area. For a sphere, the RCS, F =
πr2, where r is the radius of the sphere.

The RCS of a sphere is independent of frequency if operating at sufficiently high frequencies

where λ<<Range, and λ<< radius (r).

Experimentally, radar return reflected from a target is compared to the radar return reflected
from a sphere which has a frontal or projected area of one square meter (i.e. diameter of about
44 in).

Using the spherical shape aids in field or laboratory measurements since orientation or
positioning of the sphere will not affect radar reflection intensity measurements as a flat plate
would.
Spheres of 6", 14" or 22" diameter may be used instead of the larger 44" sphere, and the
reference size. Is 0.018, 0.099 or 0.245 m2 respectively instead of 1 m2.

Figure 1.40 Backscatter From various Shapes

In Figure 1.43, RCS patterns are shown as objects are rotated about their vertical axes (the arrows
indicate the direction of the radar reflections).

The sphere is essentially the same in all directions.

The flat plate has almost no RCS except when aligned directly toward the radar.
The corner reflector has an RCS almost as high as the flat plate but over a wider angle, i.e., over
±60°. The return from a corner reflector is analogous to that of a flat plate always being
perpendicular to collocated transmitter and receiver.

Figure 1.41 RCS Patterns

An aircraft target is very complex. It has a great many reflecting elements and shapes. The RCS
of real aircraft must be measured. It varies significantly depending upon the direction of the
illuminating radar.

Figure 1.42 Typical Aircraft RCS

Figure 1.44 shows a typical RCS plot of a jet aircraft. The plot is an azimuth cut made at zero
degrees elevation (on the aircraft horizon). Within the normal radar range of 3-18 GHz, the radar
return of an aircraft in a given direction will vary by a few dB as frequency and polarization vary
(the RCS may change by a factor of 2-5). It does not vary as much as the flat plate.

As shown in Figure 1.43, the RCS is highest at the aircraft beam due to the large physical area
observed by the radar and perpendicular aspect (increasing reflectivity). The next highest RCS
area is the nose/tail area, largely because of reflections off the engines or propellers. Most self-
protection jammers cover a field of view of +/- 60 degrees about the aircraft nose and tail, thus
the high RCS on the beam does not have coverage. Beam coverage is frequently not provided
due to inadequate power available to cover all aircraft quadrants, and the side of an aircraft is
theoretically exposed to a threat 30% of the time over the average of all scenarios.

Typical radar cross sections are as follows:

Missile 0.5 sq m; Tactical Jet 5 to 100 sqm; Bomber 10 to 1000 sqm; and ships 3,000 to 1,000,000
sq m. RCS can also be expressed in decibels referenced to a square meter (dBsm) which equals
10 log (RCS in m2).

Again, Figure 1.44 shows that these values can vary dramatically. The strongest return depicted
in the example is 100 m2in the beam, and the weakest is slightly more than 1 m2 in the 135°/225°
positions. These RCS values can be very misleading because other factors may affect the results.
For example, the phase differences, polarization, surface imperfections, and material type all
greatly affect the results. In the above typical bomber example, the measured RCS may be much
greater than 1000 square meters in certain circumstances (90°, 270°).

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE REDUCTION OF RCS

If each of the range or power equations that have an RCS (σ) term is evaluated for the significance
of decreasing RCS, Figure 1.43 results. Therefore, an RCS reduction can reduce the chances of the
aircraft being detected by the radar.

OPTICAL/MIE/RAYLEIGH REGIONS:
Figure 1.44 shows the different regions applicable for computing the RCS of a sphere.
The RCS σ of an object is partly dependent on the radar wavelength, and for simple shapes it is
possible to give the following guidelines:
1. For target sizes >> λ , the RCS is roughly the same size as the real area of the target. This
is known as the optical region because the RCS approaches the optical value.
2. For target sizes ~ λ ,the RCS varies wildly with changes in Wavelength ,and it may be
greater or smaller than the optical value.This is known as the resonance or Mie region.
3. For target sizes << λ the RCS ∝ λ-4 .This is known as the Rayleigh region after Lord
Rayleigh, who discovered that the scattering of light by particles in the atmosphere varies
as λ-4.

Figure 1.43 OPTICAL / MIE / RAYLEIGH REGIONS

Stealth aircraft and RCS

The RCS of a stealth aircraft is typically multiple orders of magnitude lower than a conventional
plane and is often comparable to that of a small bird or large insect. Stealth aircraft are designed
to avoid detection using a variety of, technologies that reduce reflection/emission of radar,
infrared, visible light, radio frequency (RF) spectrum, and audio, collectively known as stealth
technology. Stealth is the combination of passive low observable (LO) features and active
emitters such as low- probability-of-intercept radars, radios and laser designators.

These are usually combined with active measures such as carefully planning all mission
maneuvers in order to minimize the aircraft's radar cross-section. There are two different ways
to create invisibility: The airplane can be shaped so that any radar signals it reflects are reflected
away from the radar equipment. The airplane can be covered in materials that absorb radar
signals. The radar cross section (RCS) of a target not only depends on the physical shape and its
composite materials, but also on its subcomponents such as antennas and other sensors.

Doppler Shift

The Doppler frequency shift of the echo signal is widely used for separating a moving target's
echo signal from large, unwanted stationary clutter echoes. Doppler filtering allows echoes of
moving targets to be separated from those of stationary clutter even though the clutter might be
greater by many orders of magnitude. This is the basis for moving target indication radar (MTI),
pulse Doppler radar, and CW radar. In spite of limitations, Doppler filtering works well and can
provide far greater suppression of the clutter echoes than any other technique.

Since radar echoes from land usually are much larger than those from the sea, the use of Doppler
filtering to detect aircraft is more demanding over land than over the sea. In the absence of
ducted propagation or mountainous terrain, clutter usually does not extend more than a few
tens of miles when the radar is at or near the surface.

Airborne radars, however, can look down on extensive land or sea clutter and can experience
surface clutter at relatively long ranges compared to what is observed from land or ship-based
radars. When Doppler filtering is employed to detect moving targets in rain, the rain itself is
moving and the Doppler processor must be designed differently from a Doppler processor
designed for stationary clutter.

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1.5 RECEIVER
The receiver amplifies and filters incoming echoes and interference and prepares them for signal
processing. Radar’s receiver has four functions.
 Amplification function: Echo signals from the antenna typically have very low amplitudes,
ranging from perhaps - 20 dBm (0.01 mW) for a very close target to -100 dBm
(0.0000000001 mW) for a minimally detectable target (these values vary from system to
system. Before any use can be made of the signal, the receiver amplifiers must increase its
amplitude.
 Channel selection and out-of-channel filtering function: Target echoes share their frequency
band with signals from other radars and services. The receiver contains the filters, which
reject interfering signals occurring outside the band pass of the received target echoes.
 Matched filtering function: The signal competes with thermal noise generated in the receiver
itself. The matched filter's function is to admit the maximum signal with minimum noise to
maximize the signal-to-noise ratio. Matched filters can be derived for many kinds of
interference. In general, however, when the term “matched filter" is used, it refers to signals
in white noise.
 Demodulation function: Information in communication and radar is “carried" on an
electromagnetic wave whose frequency is higher than an independent of the information
rate. The removal of this "carrier wave" and the recovery of the signal's information is called
demodulation. Several kinds of demodulation are used, each recovering a different fraction
of the information available. One kind, I/Q demodulation, recovers all the information in the
signal.

1.5.1. Basic characteristics of a receiver

 General Description
The function of a Radar Rx is to detect the desired echo signals in the presence of unwanted
signals (noise, clutter etc.) and to separate wanted from unwanted signals and to amplify the
wanted signals to a level where target information can be displayed.
Radar receiver performs filtering, amplification and down conversion functions and then the
signal (IF) is digitized and sent to the signal processor.
The first few stages of the Rx are designed to obtain the required Signal-to-Noise ratio before
attempting to apply the Detection criterion and then extract the information about the targets
Good Rx design is based on maximizing the O/P Signal to Noise Ratio (S/N) with very little internal
noise. Also, sufficient Gain, Phase and Amplitude Stability, good Dynamic Range and Simplicity
are other factors of a Good Rx.
Super heterodyne Rx is normally used in Radar due to its good Sensitivity, Selectivity, High Gain
and Reliability.

Figure 1.44 The Block Diagram of a Simple Radar Rx

Protection must be provided against overload, saturation and burnout from nearby interfering
Txs. Timing and reference signals are required for proper extraction of target information. Now-
a-days Rxs are designed to minimize clutter by the application such as MTI radar. Rxs that must
operate with a Tx whose frequency can drift need Automatic Frequency Control.

Sensitivity Time Control (STC) is usually in the receiver front end. The input stage of the Receiver
is normally a Low Noise transistor Amplifier (LNA) and sometimes Mixer is used as the first stage
instead of LNA. The Mixer and Local Oscillator convert the RF signal to an Intermediate Frequency
(IF) and then amplified by the IF Amplifier.

The signal bandwidth of a Super heterodyne receiver is determined by the bandwidth of the IF
stage. For a pulse width of 1 us, the IF frequency normally is 30 or 60 MHz and with a 1us pulse
width, the IF bandwidth would be about 1 MHz.

The IF amplifier is designed as a ‘Matched Filter’ which maximizes the output peak signal-to-
mean-noise ratio. Thus the matched filter maximizes the detectability of weak echo signals and
attenuates unwanted signals.

Employs matched filter / pulse compression processing to maximize peak signal to mean noise
ratio and pass the data to signal processor for Doppler Filtering.

Approximately Rectangular pulse shapes are commonly used in radar. Receiver bandwidth B is
the inverse of the pulse width τ. ie;(B = 1/τ) or Bτ ≈ 1.

The ability of a Rx to discern (distinguish) a received signal from background noise depends on
the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N). The background noise is specified by an average value, called the

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Noise-Equivalent-Power’ (NEP). This directly equates the noise to a detected power level so that
it may be compared to the return.
The criterion for successful detection of a target is Pr > (S/N) NEP, where Pr is the power of the
return signal.

Minimum Discernible Signal (MDS)

The weakest desired signal the Rx can detect is called the “Minimum Discernible Signal (MDS)”.
Pr is a significant quantity in determining radar system performance.
Pr is usually denoted by ‘Smin’ and is called ‘Minimum Signal for Detection’.
i.e; Smin = (S/N) NEP
Smin is usually a small number and is expressed in watts. From the value of Smin, its Decibel
equivalent, MDS (Minimum Discernible Signal) can be defined as,
MDS = 10 Log (Smin/1mW)
The unit of MDS is dBm, where the ‘m’ stands for 1mW or sometimes, unit of MDS is denoted by
dB/1mW.
S/N sets a threshold for detection of the target.
If S/N = 1, then only returns with power equal to or greater than the background noise will be
displayed.

Noise is a statistical process and varies randomly. NEP is just the average value of the noise.
Sometimes noise exceeds the threshold set by the Rx. This will be displayed and appear to be a
legitimate (real) target, it is called a ‘False Alarm’.

If the S/N Ratio is set too high, then there will be few False Alarms, but some actual targets may
not be displayed (known as a ‘miss’).
If S/N Ratio is set too low, then there will be many False Alarms’ or a high ‘False Alarm Rate’
(FAR).
Some Rxs monitor the background and constantly adjust the SNR to maintain a ‘Constant False
Alarm Rate’ and are called “CFAR Receivers”.

RF Amplifier
A RF amplifier, is a tuned amplifier that amplifies high-frequency signals used in radio
communications.
The frequency at which maximum gain occurs in an RF amplifier is made variable by changing the
inductance or capacitance of the tuned circuit. An RF amplifier can tune over the desired range
of input frequencies.
A good receiver has at least one tuned RF amplifier stage ahead of the first mixer.

Low Noise Amplifiers are used at the input side of the Rx.
The main function of LNA is to amplify the received weak RF signals to acceptable levels without
adding noise, thus preserving the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the system at low power
consumption.

The function of the LNA is to take the extremely weak and uncertain signal from the antenna,
usually in the order of microvolts or under –100 dBm (note that in a 50 Ω system, 10 μV is -87
dBm and 100 μV equals -67 dBm), and amplify it to a more useful level, to about one-half to one
volt.

While providing this gain itself is not a major challenge with modern electronics, it is severely
compromised by any noise which the LNA may add to the weak input signal. This noise can
overwhelm any benefits of the amplification that the LNA adds.

Noise figure (NF), Linearity, Gain, Impedance matching, Stability, and Power dissipation are the
most important parameters to be considered in LNA design.

Typical Gain of an LNA is between 10 and 30 dB; some designs use cascaded amplifiers with a
low-gain, low-NF stage followed by a higher-gain stage which may have higher NF. LNA of
sufficient Gain must be used for achieving a better Sensitivity and good Dynamic Range.

Nonlinearity is another issue for the LNA, as the resultant harmonics and intermodulation
distortion corrupt the received signal and make demodulating and decoding more difficult GaAs
(Gallium Arsenide) FETs, CMOS or SiGe (Silicon Germanium) are preferred as Amplifiers at Higher
Radar frequencies and Bipolar Transistor Amplifiers at Lower frequencies.

Figure 1.45 LNA

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Functions of RF stage:
1. One function of the RF stage is to reduce the image frequency level into the mixer.
2. A function of the RF amplifier is to raise the signal level into the mixer so that the signal to
noise ratio is determined by the RF amplifier characteristics rather than those of the mixer.
3. A function of the RF amplifier is to regulate the signal level into the mixer to maintain a more
constant, near optimum, level. To achieve this regulation, the gain of the RF stage is
controlled by an automatic gain control system, or a manual gain control system, or both.
4. The RF tuned circuits, ahead of the mixer, help to reduce the level of the unwanted signal
into the mixer input and hence reduce the susceptibility of the mixer to cross-modulation.
5. If, by chance, a signal exists at or near the IF, the RF tuned circuits provide attenuation to that
signal.
6. The RF stage provides isolation to prevent signals from the local oscillator reaching the aerial
and causing interference by being radiated.

Mixer
The function of the Mixer is to convert the RF energy received to IF energy with minimum loss
and without spurious responses.

In the basic superhet "single-conversion" receiver, the incoming carrier RF signal is amplified by
one or more low-noise amplifier (LNA) stages, and then goes to a mixer. The mixer has two inputs:
the RF signal, and a local oscillator (LO). The LO is at a fixed offset from the desired signal to be
tuned, and can be set above or below the carrier frequency

Figure 1.46 RF stage with single Mixer

Mixing produces two outputs: one at the sum of the two signal frequencies, the other at their
difference (other sum/difference harmonics are also produced by the nonlinear mixing process,
but they are not of interest and are easily filtered). It is the presence of this fixed-difference
frequency output, called the intermediate frequency (IF), which makes the superhet design so
effective. This is because the IF is always at the same frequency, regardless of the specific
frequency being tuned. Since the IF frequency is always the same, the IF stage amplifier as well

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as subsequent demodulator can be optimized for performance at a single, known frequency.
The IF output of the mixer is next filtered to eliminate any artifacts (to the extent possible), and
then it goes to the next stages for further amplification and demodulation.

A double-conversion Mixer is used at higher carrier frequencies, such as above 500 MHz or 1 GHz,
to ease problems of signal filtering issues and noise, by optimizing achievable performance at
each stage; the carrier goes through a first-stage mixer/LO to bring it down to a first IF at around
50-100 MHz, and then is further down-converted via a second mixer/LO to a second IF.

Figure 1.47 RF stage with single Mixer

Silicon Point Contact Diodes and Schottky Barrier Diodes are normally used as Mixer elements.
These Diodes have Lower Noise Figure.
The most common mixer used is the Balanced Mixer.

A Double Balanced Mixer has Higher characteristics of Local Oscillator and mw signal Isolation,
Spurious Rejection, Harmonic Suppression, Greater Dynamic Range, Less Susceptibility to
overload and Less vulnerability to electronic interference.

A receiver with a Mixer as input stage will be less sensitive because of Mixer’s higher Noise figure.

Intermediate Frequency (IF)

Reasons for using IF in a Rx

Intermediate frequencies are used in a Rx for three general reasons.
1) At very high (gigahertz) frequencies, signal processing circuitry performs poorly. Active
devices such as transistors cannot deliver much amplification (gain) Ordinary circuits
using capacitors and inductors must be replaced with cumbersome high frequency
techniques such as strip-lines and waveguides. So a high frequency signal is converted to
a lower IF for more convenient processing.

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2) A second reason, in receivers that can be tuned to different frequencies, is to convert the
various different frequencies of the stations to a common frequency for processing. It is
difficult to build amplifiers, filters, and detectors that can be tuned to different
frequencies, but easy to build tunable oscillators. Super-heterodyne receivers tune in
different frequencies by adjusting the frequency of the local oscillator on the input stage,
and all processing after that is done at the same fixed frequency, the IF. Without using an
IF, all the complicated filters and detectors would have to be tuned in unison each time
the frequency was changed.

3) The main reason for using an intermediate frequency is to improve frequency selectivity.
In communication circuits, a very common task is to separate out or extract signals or
components of a signal that are close together in frequency. This is called filtering. With
all known filtering techniques the filter's bandwidth increases proportionately with the
frequency. So a narrower bandwidth and more selectivity can be achieved by converting
the signal to a lower IF and performing the filtering at that frequency.

Reasons for using Lower IF in a Receiver

In a Rx, the Lower IF Frequency is preferred

Use of the fixed lower IF channel gives the following advantages:-
1. For a given Q factor in the tuned circuits, the bandwidth is lower making it easier to achieve
the required selectivity.
2. At lower frequencies, circuit losses are often lower allowing higher Q factors to be achieved
and hence, even greater selectivity and higher gain in the tuned circuits.
3. It is easier to control, or shape, the bandwidth characteristic at one fixed frequency. Filters
can be easily designed with a desired band pass characteristic and slope characteristic, an
impossible task for circuits which tune over a range of frequencies.
4. Since the receiver selectivity and most of the receiver pre-detection gain, are both controlled
by the fixed IF stages, the selectivity and gain of the super-heterodyne receiver are more
consistent over its tuning range than in the TRF receiver.

IF Amplifier

The IF section of a radar receiver determines the receiver’s gain, signal-to-noise ratio, and
effective bandwidth. The IF amplifier stages must have sufficient gain and dynamic range to
accommodate the expected variation of echo signal power. They must also have a low-noise
figure and a band-pass wide enough to accommodate the range of frequencies associated with
the echo pulse.

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The most critical stage of a radar receiver’s IF section is the input, or first, stage. In a Receiver, IF
Amplifier stage is designed as a Matched Filter.

The IF amplifier is where most of the gain and much of the filtering occur. Typical IF amplifiers
have gains of up to 120 dB, which is high enough that special care must be taken to stabilize the
amplifier.

 IF filter design
The design of the IF filters involves the matched filter response of the transmit wave forth and
the maximum anticipated Doppler shift. In CW and pulse Doppler systems, the bandwidth of a
search receiver must simply be wide enough to accommodate the maximum Doppler shift.

Pulsed systems, whether low or medium PRF, extract range-resolving information from the echo
pulses and require sufficient receiver bandwidth to match the illumination waveforms. In
addition they must also accommodate Doppler shift.

 IF amplifier configurations and specifications

There are several approaches to IF amplifier design. Some amplifiers have fixed gain (few) and
some are voltage gain-controlled (VGC). Some have a linear response and some are log. Some IF
amplifiers distribute the filtering through out the amplifier and some use wideband amplifiers
and lump the filtering into a single circuit. Critical specifications include the following.

Gain, gain control, and gain control linearity: Most IF amplifiers have high gains and electronic
(voltage-controlled) gain control. Some amplifiers require very high gain control linearity (the
relationship between gain control voltage and gain). Multi-channel tracking receivers, have the
same gain control voltage applied to all the receivers, and they must each, over their gain control
range (90 dB or more), maintain the same gain within very tight tolerances. Maintaining identical
gains in multiple channels over wide gain control excursions is called gain tracking.

Automatic Gain Control (AGC)

AGC is a system which automatically varies the amplification of a receiver of electrical frequencies
with changes of signal voltage at the input. It is needed to maintain the signal level within an
acceptable range that would yield the best possible SNR at the receiver output.

The AGC works on two stages, the RF stage and the baseband stage. Automatic Gain Control or
AGC is a circuit design which maintain the same level of amplification for sound or radio
frequency.

If the signal is too low the AGC circuit will increase (amplify) the level and if is to high will lower
it to maintain a constant level as possible.

When AGC is enabled, the gain of RF stages as well as IF stages is reduced by means of an AGC
voltage. The AGC voltage is derived from an AGC detector, usually a peak voltage detector at the
output of the last IF stage.

A low pass filter is commonly used to give an AGC rise time.

Instantaneous Automatic Gain Control (IAGC)

Echo Signals are of varying strength. Strong echo signals will try to overload the IF Amplifier
resulting in Saturation of the IF Amplifier.

IAGC is used to reduce the saturation of radar Rx IF Amplifier. It is based on –ve feedback
controlling the gain of the IF Amplifier. IAGC acts like a pulse width filter permitting the target
pulses to pass and attenuating the longer pulses from clutter.

The time constant of IAGC is chosen so that short echoes from point targets suffer little or no
attenuation but echoes from extended clutter are reduced.

Logarithmic Amplifier

A Logarithmic amplifier consists of an Attenuator bridged by a series diode limiter and followed
by an Amplifier. It is a device whose output is proportional to the logarithm of the envelope of
the input stage.

In a Logarithmic Amplifier, the range of linear amplification does not end at a definite saturation
point, as is the case in normal IF amplifiers. A large signal does not saturate the logarithmic
amplifier; rather, it merely reduces the amplification of a simultaneously applied small signal.

Logarithmic Amplifiers are often used in MSSR Rx to achieve a Good Dynamic Range. The Dynamic
Range of a typical Logarithmic amplifier is about 70 - 80 dB.

Dynamic Range of an Rx

The Dynamic Range of a Radar Rx is the Ratio of the Maximum Signal that can be handled to the
smallest signal that can be detected (handle).

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When an LNA is inserted ahead of the Mixer stage, MDS will be reduced and Dynamic Range of
the Rx also will be reduced.

The problem of the Dynamic Range can be corrected and the original Dynamic Range can be
recovered by Reducing the Gain of the IF Amplifier. Staggered Prf also increases the Dynamic
Range of the Rx.

An Rx with a Dynamic Range of 70 - 80 dB is considered as a very good Rx.

A measure of the dynamic range of a receiver is its 1 dB compression point, which is the output
power at which the gain of the receiver is reduced one decibel by saturation.

The slope of the power-out / power-in curve is the receiver’s gain, and the 1 dB compression
point is shown. In many radar receivers, operation at this point results in too much distortion for
good performance, but it gives a means of comparing receiver performance.

Figure 1.48 Dynamic range

Matched Filter
The matched filter is an Optimal Linear Filter which processes a received signal to minimize the
effect of Noise. Hence, it maximizes the Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) of the filtered signal. A
matched filter is kind of an averaging filter.
Properties of a Matched Filter

Property (1): The spectrum of the output signal of a matched filter with the matched signal as
input is, except for a time delay factor, proportional to the energy spectral density of the input
signal.

Property (2): The output signal of a matched filter is proportional to a shifted version of the
autocorrelation function of the input signal to which the filter is matched.

Property (3): The output SNR of a matched filter depends only on the ratio of the signal energy
to the psd of the white noise at the filter input. In Signal processing, white noise is a random
signal with a constant Power Spectral Density (psd).

Property (4): The matched-filtering operation may be separated into two matching condition:
namely, spectral phase matching that produces the desired output peak at t = T and spectral
amplitude matching that gives the peak value its optimum SNR.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.49 Properties of a Matched Filter
a. Transmitted signal (square pulses)
b. At the receiver, the signal is distorted by a lot of noise.
c. After the matched filter the signal looks more like the transmitted signal

Applications of Matched Filter

The matched filter is very useful for detecting known waveforms in the presence of additive
noise.

1. Matched filters are commonly used in Radar, in which a known signal is sent out, and the
reflected signal is examined for common elements of the out-going signal. Pulse
Compression is an example of matched filtering. It is so called because impulse response
is matched to input pulse signals.

2. In telecommunications systems using pulse amplitude modulation, a matched filter,

matched to the shape of the pulse, can be used to estimate optimally the pulse amplitude,
since the height of the peak at the output of the matched filter is proportional to the
amplitude of the received pulse.

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Pulse compression
Pulse Compression process is a wave shaping process that is produced as a propagating
waveform is modified. It is a method which combines the high energy of a long pulse width with
the high resolution of a short pulse width. Pulse Compression technique is normally used in High
Power Radar.
The transmission of a long coded pulse and the processing of the received echo to obtain a
relatively narrow pulse is called Pulse Compression.
Range resolution for a given radar can be significantly improved by using very short pulses.
Unfortunately, utilizing short pulses decreases the average transmitted power, which can hinder
the radar’s normal modes of operation, particularly for multi-function and surveillance radars.
Since the average transmitted power is directly linked to the receiver SNR, it is often desirable to
increase the pulse width (i.e., increase the average transmitted power) while simultaneously
maintaining adequate range resolution. This can be made possible by using pulse compression
techniques.

Need of Pulse Compression?

Radar range resolution depends on the band width of received signal
The band width is inversely proportional to the pulse duration. So short pulses are better for
range resolution.
Received signal strength is proportional to the pulse duration. So long pulses are better for signal
reception.
To overcome these problems, High Tx power is not practical because of the following reasons:-
i) Requires high-voltage power supplies (in kv)
ii) May not be reliable
iii) Safety problems (both from high voltage & radiations)
iv) High power Txs are normally Bigger, Heavier and costly.

To achieve Pulse Compression, the following are to be done:--

a) Transmit a long pulse that has a bandwidth corresponding to a short pulse (for better
signal reception)

b) Must Modulate or Code the transmitted pulse---

i) to have sufficient bandwidth, B

ii) to provide the desired range resolution, ρ (for the required range resolution)
Pulse Compressor
The received echo is processed in the Rx by the compression filter. Digital pulse –compressors
are digital filters with finite impulse response (FIR-filters). The compression filters are Dispersive
Delay Lines with a delay, which is a linear function of the frequency. Dispersive Delay Lines are
SAW (Surface Acoustic Wave) devices which consists of Delay Lines and Summary Circuits.

The compression filter readjusts the relative phases of the frequency components so that a
narrow or compressed pulse with higher amplitude is produced. Pulse Compression is a method
which combines the high energy of a long pulse width with the high resolution of a short pulse
width. The radar therefore obtains a better maximum range than it is expected.
The matched filter (Compression filter) maximizes the ratio of the peak signal power to the mean
noise power.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Pulse Compression

Advantages of Pulse Compression Disadvantages of Pulse Compression

Lower Pulse power, Suitable for solid state amplifier Complex signal processing
Higher maximum range Bad minimum range
Good range resolution Range (time) side lobes

Methods of Pulse Compression

There are several methods of Pulse compression. One of the method is illustrated in the block diagram
given below.

The compression filters are Dispersive Delay Lines with a delay, which is a linear function of the
frequency. Dispersive Delay Lines are SAW (Surface Acoustic Wave) devices which consists of
Delay Lines and Summary Circuits
The compression filter allows the end of the pulse to catch up to the beginning and produces a
narrow output pulse with higher amplitude

Figure 1.50 Principles of a pulse compression filter

Modulations involved in Pulse compression are:

1) FM (frequency modulation) or 2) PM (phase modulation)
• Frequency modulated (FM) waveforms are the most widely used forms of Pulse
Compression. Non Linear FM waves are preferred in Pulse Compression as Side lobes are
more in Linear FM waves.

• Band width of a long pulse is less. By the FM or PM, the Bandwidth of the pulse increases,
which is required for the Pulse compression.

 Pulse Integration
Pulse Integration is a technique to address gains in Probability of Detection by using multiple
transmit pulses. The gain is achieved by adding radar returns from different successive pulse
periods in the receiving path (in signal processor)

Depending on the location of the pulse integrator in the Signal Processor, the pulse integration process
are divided into two types:
1) Coherent Integration (Pre-detection)
2) Non-Coherent Integration (Post-detection)

Fast Time Constant (FTC)

FTC is a High Pass Filter (HPF), which acts as a Differentiating circuit. By using FTC circuit, the
fluctuations of the clutter signals can be brought down to zero.

A Differentiating circuit will respond to Fast changing input such as Targets and blocks the slowly
moving input. Thus the target echoes can easily be detected.

Log FTC Rx

Apart from STC, another method of preventing clutter is Log FTC.

It incorporates Logarithmic i/p – o/p characteristics (which compresses the dynamic of clutter)
followed by a Fast Time Constant (FTC) circuit which acts as a High Pass Filter (HPF), which
removes zero frequency component.
Log FTC will provide a Constant False Alarm Rate (CFAR) at the Rx o/p.
Unlike STC, Log FTC is independent of Range. Like STC, Log FTC does not improve S/N ratio.

Detection
The process of differentiating the targets from noise in a Rx is called Detection or the portion of
the radar Rx which extracts the modulation from the carrier is called Detection.

A Detector stage normally lies between the IF Amplifier and the Data Processor.
A crystal Diode follows the IF Amplifier which is also known as ‘second detector’ or
‘Demodulator’. The Demodulator extracts the signal modulation from the RF Carrier. The
combination of IF Amplifier, second detector and video amplifier act as an Envelop Detector to
pass the pulse modulation (envelop) and reject the carrier frequency.

In radars where the Doppler shift of the echo signal to be detected, the envelop detector is
replaced by a ‘Phase detector’.

The combination of IF Amplifier and Video Amplifier provides sufficient amplification or Gain to
raise the level of the input signal to a magnitude where it can be displayed on a screen or be the
input to a digital computer for further processing.

Target detection is degraded by:-

i) Clutter ii) Changes in propagation of radio waves and
iii) Intentional/unintentional jamming.

Phase Detector
• Phase Detector converts the Phase Difference that exists between the COHO and the Echo
signals (IF) into Amplitude.

• Phase Detector acts as a Mixer where the reference signal from COHO and the IF echo signal
both are fed and mixed.

• Its output is proportional to the Phase difference between the two input signals.

Quadrature Phase Detector

• It is a device whose video output signal amplitude depends on the phase differences of input
signals (IF signal and COHO).

• It comprises two phase detectors (I and Q). In one of them, the signal from COHO is phase
shifted by 90°.

• It prevents decreasing sensitivity on account of so called Blind phases.

Logarithmic Detector
• It is a device whose video output is proportional to the logarithm of the envelope of the IF
input.

• Logarithmic detector is useful in maintaining a Constant False Alarm Rate (CFAR) in the
presence of variable intensities of noise, rain clutter, sea clutter etc.

• It is frequently used in Mono pulse Radar to extract fine angular position of a resolvable target.

• A well designed Logarithmic Detector may have a Good Dynamic Range of about 80 dB.

1.5.2. Basic elements of a generic receiver

The function of a radar receiver is to amplify, filter, Downconvert, and digitize the echoes of the
radar transmission in a manner that will provide the maximum DISCRIMI- nation between desired
echo signals and undesired interference. All radar receivers operate on the superheterodyne
principle. Through this architecture, the receiver filters the signal to separate desired target
signals from unwanted interference.

Figure 1.51 General configuration of Radar receiver

After modest RF amplification, the signal is shifted to an intermediate frequency (if) by mixing
with a local- oscillator (lo) frequency. More than one conversion stage may be necessary to reach
the final if without encountering serious image- or spurious-frequency problems in the mixing
process. The superheterodyne receiver varies the LO frequency to follow any desired tuning
variation of the transmitter without disturbing the filtering at if. This simplifies the filtering
operation as the signals occupy a wider percentage bandwidth at the if frequency. These
advantages have proven to be so significant that competitive forms of receivers have virtually
disappeared.

In conventional antenna systems, the receiver input signal is derived from the duplexer, which
permits a single antenna to be shared between transmitter and receiver. In active array systems,
the receiver input is derived from the receive beam- forming network. Active array antennas
include low-noise amplifiers prior to forming the receive beams; although these are generally
considered to be antenna rather than receiver components.

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The block diagram shown includes sensitivity time control (STC) attenuation at the RF input.
Alternatively adjustable RF attenuation may be used.

Either form provides increased dynamic range above that provided by the analog- to-digital (a/d)
converters. The STC attenuator is followed by an RF amplifier, often referred to as a low-noise
amplifier (LNA). This amplifier provides sufficient gain with a low noise figure to minimize the
subsequent degradation of the overall radar noise figure by subsequent components. If sufficient
gain is provided in the antenna prior to the receiver, it may be possible to eliminate this gain
stage. The RF filter provides rejection of out-of-band interference, including rejection at the RF
image frequency. After down conversion to if, a bandpass filter provides rejection of unwanted
signals and sets the receiver analog-processing bandwidth. Additional gain is provided at if to
overcome losses and raise the signal level required for subsequent processing and to set the
correct signal level into the a/d converters. An if limiter provides graceful limiting of large signals
that would otherwise overload the a/d converters.

The two dominant methods of digitization, if sampling and analog i/q demodulation with
baseband a/d conversion, are included for illustration in figure, though in general, receivers will
not include both techniques. Prior to the availability of afford- able digital signal processing.

The stable local oscillator (STALO) block provides the local oscillator frequencies for down
conversion in the receiver and up conversion in the exciter. For true coherent operation, the stalo
is locked to a low frequency reference, shown by the reference oscillator in figure that is used as
the basis for all clocks and oscillators such as the coherent local oscillator (COHO) within the
receiver and exciter. The clock generator provides clocks to the a/d converters and the direct
digital synthesizer and provides the basis for the signals that define the radar transmit and receive
intervals.

The direct digital synthesizer in figure is used to generate the transmit waveforms at an if
frequency prior to up conversion to the RF output frequency. Filtering in the exciter is required
to reject aliased signals from the direct digital synthesizer and unwanted mixer products. RF gain
is typically required to provide a sufficient drive level to the transmitter or phased array antenna.

Almost all modern radar systems use digital signal processing to perform a variety of functions,
including pulse compression and the discrimination of desired targets from interference on the
basis of velocity or the change in phase from one pulse to the next. 0reviously, pulse compression
was performed using analog processing with dispersive delay lines, typically surface acoustic-
wave (saw) devices. Analog pulse compression has largely been replaced by pulse compression
using digital signal processing.

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1. Demodulator: The demodulator translates the signal and interference from the intermediate
frequency to its information (or base-band) frequencies. Three types are commonly used in
radars: envelope, synchronous, and I/Q. An envelope demodulator recovers the amplitude of the
signal plus interference. A synchronous demodulator recovers a composite of the signal- plus-
interference's amplitude and phase angle. An I/Q demodulator recovers two values which totally
describe the amplitude and phase of the signal plus interference.

A. Envelope demodulator
An envelope demodulator recovers only the amplitude of the signal. Envelope demodulation
discards the phase of the signal and thus any Doppler information it may contain.

Figure 1.52 Envelope Demodulator

B. Synchronous demodulator
A synchronous demodulator, compares the signal to a reference oscillator COHO) such that the
result is the amplitude of the signal times the cosine of the phase between it and the COHO.
Synchronous demodulation has three problems.
a) First, it does not recover enough information about the signal to tell whether the Doppler
shift is positive or negative.
b) Only those components of the signal which are in-phase with the COHO are recovered; those
at 90° phase (the quadrature components) are lost. This results is a reduction in signal-to-
noise ratio of 3 dB from that which would be available if all components of the signal were
recovered.
c) Signal of certain phases, known as blind phases, are lost in synchronous demodulation.
These are signals whose phase with respect to the COHO are ±90°, the cosine of which are
zero.

Figure 1.53 Synchronous Demodulator

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C. I/Q demodulator
An I/Q demodulator, recovers all components of the signal, gives sufficient information to
discriminate between positive and negative Doppler, and has no blind phases. It is two
synchronous demodulators, one comparing the signal to the COHO and the other comparing the
signal to the COHO shifted 900.

Figure 1.54 Demodulator

Sensitivity Time Control (STC)

Point targets (those completely contained within the radar's resolution cell) at short ranges
produce far more echo power at the receiver than at long ranges (proportional to R-4). Large
targets at close ranges may saturate receivers with gains set for weak targets at long ranges. STC
varies the gain of the receiver with time, setting it low when the transmitter fires and gradually
increasing it so that full gain is available for echoes from long ranges. With STC, receiver output
power is proportional to input power, and gain is a function of the time elapsed since the last
transmitted pulse. STC is primarily a search radar technique.

Figure shows a typical STC gain curve. Note that if the STC increases the power gain by a factor
of 16 (12 dB) for each doubling of time after the transmitted pulse, the range dependence of
signal power output from the receiver vanishes. This particular STC curve, known as R 4STC,
causes a constant radar cross-section target to produce a constant receiver output power
regardless of its range. Some systems use R2STC where the gain increases by a factor of 8 (9 dB)
for each range doubling, or R2STC where the factor is 4 (6 dB) per range doubling. R3 STC is

Figure 1.55 Effect of R4 STC on equal RCS

appropriate in area clutter and R2 for volume clutter and chaff.

The Programmed Control of the Rx Gain to maintain a constant Echo Signal Strength is called
Sensitivity Time Control.

STC is used to reduce large echoes from close-in clutters. STC is a time variation of Rx Gain. At
the end of the transmission of the radar pulse, the Rx gain is made low so that large signals from
nearby clutters are attenuated.

Echoes from nearby targets are also attenuated, but they will usually be large enough to exceed
the threshold and be detected. The Rx gain increases with time until maximum sensitivity is
obtained at ranges beyond which clutter echoes are expected.
PIN Diodes are used in STC circuits

Action of PIN Diode in STC

STC is achieved by varying the bias of PIN Diode according to the inverse 4th power of range. In
the Reverse Bias state, the PIN Diode has a High Fixed Resistance. Because of this, it has no effect
on microwaves in a Reverse Biased state. When the PIN Diode is Forward Biased, it Conducts and
works as a Variable Resistor. This property of the PIN Diode makes it to work as a Switch or
Attenuator. One or two PIN Diodes are connected across the transmission line leading the RF I/P
power to the Rx. When the Tx is radiating, the PIN Diodes short circuit the transmission line,
thereby protecting the Rx.

GTC (Gain Time Control)

The receiver equipment includes a system which eliminates the replies whose levels are too low
in the nearby zone or which are received due anomaly signal propagation in the space.
This system works by only validating replies if they exceed a threshold volt varying with time.

What is GTC?
The receiver sensitivity is altered using Gain-Time Control (GTC). GTC is a direct method of
manually adjusting the receiver gain based on the fact that the power at a receiver will be
attenuated by 6dB for every doubling of the range.

In other words the sensitivity is reduced as the range to the target reduces.

GTC is a system which eliminates the replies whose levels are too low in the nearby zone or which

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are received due anomaly signal propagation in the space. However the end effect of using GTC
is that, detected signals below a certain threshold will be suppressed.

Beam Switch
The Beam Switch in an Rx is used for selecting the desired antenna feed horn (receiving beam) as
a function of range. At short ranges, the Auxiliary (High) beam is selected. At longer ranges, the
Main (Low) beam signal is selected. PIN Diodes mounted in a strip line assembly provide the
signal selection function. They are controlled by a Range Gate, which is derived from the main
counter of the Signal Processor. One PIN Diode is forward biased to cut off the signal from one
beam, while another PIN Diode is reverse biased to allow the signal from the second beam to
pass.

Beam switching

Surface clutter can be decreased by raising the antenna beam in elevation and not illuminating
the clutter. This technique can be applied only if the targets of interest (e.g., aircraft) are at a
higher altitude than the clutter. Tilting an antenna beam upward reduces coverage at long range
and low altitudes. A better technique is to use two beams in elevation, with one pointing higher
than the other does. Most civil air-traffic control radars use this method to reduce unwanted
echoes from cars and trucks.

In the ARSR-3 long range (nominally 200 NMI) air-traffic control radar, the gain of the upper beam
is 16 dB less along the horizon than the gain of the lower beam along the horizon. The radar signal
is transmitted on the lower beam and received only on the higher beam at short range so that
surface clutter at short range is illuminated with less energy. After the pulse travels beyond the
range of expected surface targets (typically 50 NMI in the ARSR-3), the receiver is shifted to the
low beam to allow detection of aircraft at long range.

Many two-dimensional search radars with reflector antennas use multiple feeds. Airport
Surveillance Radar model 9 has two feeds. The two feeds produce two beams, one aimed at the
horizon (the lower beam, upper feed) and one aimed upward (the upper beam, lower feed). The
upper radar feed is matched to the reflector and illuminates its entire surface.

It is at the reflector’s focus, and produces a beam of maximum gain and minimum beam width,
which is pointed approximately horizontally. This beam both transmits and receives. The lower
feed is below the reflector focus and illuminates most of the reflector. It creates a beam, which
is slightly lower in gain and pointed, slightly upward, so that it is lower edge does not touch the
ground. It only receives. At short ranges where clutter is likely, the upper beam (lower feed) is

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fed to the receiver. At longer ranges, the lower beam is used. This is a clutter-suppression
technique found in many 2-D search radars.

Figure 1.56 Low and High beam

Figure 1.57 Co-mounted ASR and MSSR antennas

1.5.3. Importance of STC and beam switching

The finite dynamic range of radar receivers means that they can be saturated by large clutter
signals, with the result that target echoes can be prevented from being detected even though
they might be larger than clutter. Several methods have been used to minimize the effect of large
clutter but they have no subclutter visibility in that they do not enhance the target-to-clutter
ratio. They are useful, however, in preventing saturation or overload of the receiver, automatic
processor, automatic tracker, or display.

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The fourth-power relationship between the received echo-signal power and range means that
clutter echoes at close ranges will be large and can saturate a radar receiver. A solution is to
reduce the receiver gain at short ranges where the clutter echo signals are large, continually
increase the gain as the pulse travels out in range, and finally operate at maximum gain
(maximum sensitivity) at ranges beyond which clutter is expected. This is called sensitivity time
control (STC). It has also been called swept gain. STC is used in air-traffic control radars to reduce
nearby clutter from birds and insects as well as from land. The rate at which the gain is changed
with time depends on the nature of the environment.

It will be different, for example, when the radar is looking over water or desert than when the
radar is looking over rugged or mountainous terrain. An air-surveillance radar might have more
than one STC gain-versus-time characteristic that can be selected depending on the type of
clutter the radar encounters. The variation of gain with range might be as R2 for rain, R3 or R4
for surface clutter, to R7 over water at long range (as in a civil marine radar for targets below the
lowest interference lobe).

Even without the presence of clutter, STC can be used to compensate for the large change in the
magnitude of the received target echo signal as a function of range. The change of target cross
section with range has been said to overshadow other causes of echo variation.

The use of STC causes the sensitivity of a 2D air-surveillance radar with a cosecant-squared
antenna elevation radiation pattern to be reduced for targets at high angles and short range since
the gain is lowered in these directions just as it is at low angles and long range. This can cause
echoes from aircraft at short range and high altitude to be too weak to be detected. By modifying
the cosecant- squared antenna pattern to direct more energy at the higher angles, it is possible
to see these close- in aircraft even with STC applied.

Multiple-elevation-beam (stacked beam) 3D radars can have a separate STC variation with range
to match the clutter conditions found as a function of elevation angle.

STC usually cannot be used with pulse Doppler and other radars that have PRFS high enough to
result in ambiguous range echoes. It can also cause degradation to pulse compression radars that
employ very long uncompressed pulses, such as required with solid-state transmitters.

1.6 SIGNAL PROCESSING AND PLOT EXTRACTION

1.6.1. Basic functions of a current radar signal processor
 MTI and Pulse Doppler radar
At one time there was a significant difference in the type of transmitter and the signal processing
techniques used for MTI and pulse Doppler radar. In the early days of MTI radar, a magnetron
oscillator was commonly used as the transmitter. A pulse Doppler radar, on the other hand,
usually used a high-power amplifier transmitter such as the klystron. Both MTI and pulse Doppler
radars now use a high-power amplifier of some sort. The MTI radar originally used analog delay-
line cancellers and the pulse Doppler radar used analog filter banks. Both now use digital
processing and an MTI radar can use a filter bank.

Thus the equipment differences between the two are no longer significant enough to distinguish
one from the other. The basic difference between an MTI and a pulse Doppler radar is the PRF
and duty cycle that each employ. Another significant difference is that the pulse Doppler radar
generally receives much more clutter than an MTI radar because of the fold over in range of
clutter echoes due to range ambiguities as a result of high PRFS.

 Digital MTI processing

MTI RADARs due to their low PRF are prone to “blind speed”. The various methods to reduce the
blind speed problem in an MTI radar involved in varying the PRF or using multiple PRFS. But in
the analog era this mandated the use of multiple analog delay lines which were analog acoustic
devices. Sophisticated MTI Doppler filters were difficult to implement with analog methods, so
it was rare for an MTI radar to employ more than two analog delay lines in a delay-line canceller.

The rapid development of digital technology, however, allowed the delays to be obtained by
storing digital words in a memory for whatever length of time was required. This greatly
increased the options open to the radar signal-processing. Digital Doppler filters with many delay
lines are now practical so that sophisticated filters can be readily obtained when a large number
of pulses are available for processing.

Thus the theoretical aspects of MTI Doppler filters, which were only of academic curiosity when
analog delay lines were all that was available, now can be implemented using digital methods. In
addition to making practical the design of more sophisticated filters, the advantages offered by
digital MTI processing include:

 Compensation for "blind phases," which cause a loss due to the difference in phase between
the echo signal and the MTI reference signal. This is achieved by use of I and Q processing (in-

phase and quadrature), something that was always known to be of value for MTI processing,
but which was not convenient to implement with analog methods.
 Greater dynamic range can be obtained than was possible with acoustic delay lines.
 Unwanted changes in the delay times of acoustic delay lines due to temperature changes are
eliminated by the accurate timing of digital methods.
 There is no problem in making the delay time in the digital memory synchronous with the
radar's PRF, something difficult to do with acoustic delay lines.
 The flexibility offered by digital methods allows signal processors to be readily obtained with
many different filter characteristics. Digital processors can be made re-programmable.
 Digital MTI is more stable and reliable than analog MTI, and requires less adjustments during
operation in the field.

 I and Q processing and recovery of signals

Effective utilization of I and Q processing of digital MTI processing is shown in the following figure.
Where, (a) Example of a blind speed in an MTI radar.

The target's Doppler frequency is equal to the prf. (b) Example of the effect of a blind phase in
the I channel, and (c) in the Q channel. (d) The I channel of another special example of a blind
speed. The PRF is twice the doppler frequency and the phase of the sampling is such that there
is no response at all since the sampling is at the zeros of the doppler frequency. Nothing is
detected. (e) The Q channel for the example of (d) in which the sampling is at the positive and
negative peaks of the doppler frequency so that there is complete recovery of the signal. Blind
Phases, I and Q Channels

Figure 1.58 I and Q processing of digital MTI processing

The block diagram of an MTI radar that was discussed earlier had a single-phase detector and
filter channel. With a single phase detector and single processing channel, there is a loss when
the doppler-shifted signal is not sampled at the peak positive and negative values of the sine
wave. When the phase between the Doppler signal and the sampling at the PRF results in a loss,
it is called a blind phase. A blind phase is different from the blind speed discussed previously. It
will be recalled that a blind speed occurs when the sampling pulse appears at the same point in
the doppler cycle at each sampling time, as in (a). (b)Illustrates the loss due to a blind phase.

The sampled signals in this particular example are all of the same amplitude and with a spacing
such that when pulse a2 is subtracted from pulse a1 the result is zero. When pulse a3 is
subtracted from a2, however, there is a finite output; but when a4 is subtracted from a3 the
result is zero, and so on. Thus in this particular case, half of the signal energy is lost.

The other half of the signal energy can be recovered if a second identical processing channel is
used and there is a 90° phase change of the COHO (reference) signal that is applied to its phase
detector. This second channel is called the Q, or quadrature, channel. The original channel is
called the I or in- phase channel. If the coho signal in the I channel is sin 2πf if t , the COHO in the
Q channel is cos 2πfif t .

The result of the 90° phase change in the Q channel is shown in (c). Those pulse pairs that had
zero output in the I channel now have a finite residue in the Q channel. Likewise those pulse pairs
which
had a finite residue in the I channel now have zero output in the Q channel. What was lost in the
I channel is recovered in the Q channel, and vice versa. The combination of the I and Q channels
results in a uniform output with no loss.

Another very special case of a blind phase is when the PRF is twice the doppler frequency (this is
not a blind speed) and the phase of the PRF is such that the samples occur whenever the doppler
signal in the I channel passes through a zero crossing, (d). There is no output in this case. In the
Q channel, (e), where the phase of the PRF is shifted 90°, the doppler signal is sampled whenever
it is at a positive or a negative peak. The maximum signal is obtained. Again, what was lost in one
channel is recovered in the other channel.

 Block Diagram of digital MTI signal processor

The block diagram of a digital MTI signal processor with I and Q channels is shown below. The signal
from the IF amplifier is split into two channels. The phase detectors in each channel extract the
Doppler-shifted signal.

In the I channel the Doppler signal is represented as Ad cos (2πfd t +φ0 ) and in the Q channel it is the
same except that sine replaces the cosine.

Figure 1.59 block diagram of a digital MTI signal processor with I and Q channels

The analog-to-digital (A/D) converter then digitizes the signals. A sample-and-hold circuit usually is
needed ahead of the A/D converter for more effective digitizing. Sample and hold is often on the same
chip as the A/D converter. (Some A/D converters, such as the flash type, do not require a sample and
hold.)

The digital words are stored in a digital memory for the required delay time(s) and are processed with
a suitable algorithm to provide the desired Doppler filtering. The magnitude of the Doppler signal is
obtained by taking the square root of I2 + Q2. This digital output might be subject to further
processing.

There are several methods for implementing an A/D converter, depending on the speed and number
of bits required. Since there are two channels (the I and the Q), sampling in each can be at one-half
the Nyquist rate, which generally makes the implementation of the A/D converters simpler. (The
Nyquist rate is twice the signal bandwidth.)

 Third Generation MTD for the ASR

The Moving Target Detector (MTD) is an example of an MTI processing system that takes advantage
of the various capabilities offered by digital techniques to produce improved detection of moving
targets in clutter. The MIT Lincoln Laboratory for the airport-surveillance radar (ASR) originally
developed it, a 60-nmi radar found at major airports for control of local air traffic. The introduction of
the MTD represented an innovative and significant advance in radar detection of aircraft in the
presence of clutter.

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The first operational air-traffic control implementation of the MTD concept was for the ASR-9, a radar
employed at the major airports of the United States and elsewhere in the world. It utilized the basic
philosophy of the second generation Lincoln Laboratory MTD and significant extensions by
Westinghouse.

Overview of the MTD signal processing adapted in the ASR-9 is given below.

MTD signal processing

MTD uses various techniques for detection of target in extreme conditions and the various concept
associated with these techniques are detailed below.

1. Range- azimuth cells: The complete coverage area of the radar is divided into a number of
smaller area cells called as range azituth cells as shown below .

block diagram of a digital MTI signal processor with I and Q channels

Figure 1.60 block diagram of a digital MTI signal processor with I and Q channels

The MTD processor divides the 60 +13/16-nautical mile radar range into 1/16-nautical mile intervals
i.e. 973 RANGE CELLS and the azimuth into 1.406250 intervals i.e. 256 parts. So the total range-
azimuth cells are 973 x 256 = 249088. The exact number of range -azimuth cells depends upon the
radar design and different manufacture of radars may use a different value. Each of these cells has its
own adaptive thresholds.

2. Clutter mapping.

In modern Radar clutter mapping is done to record average level of clutter coming from the entire
coverage area. This is done on range azimuth cell basis i.e. the clutter map contains one word for each
range-azimuth cell. This is done in a recursive manner so that the clutter map is adaptive and can
account for slow changes in the environment like rain, clouds, snow etc.
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Each clutter map word stores the integrated value of the output of the zero velocity filter output
from one range-azimuth cell for the last eight antenna scans.

On each scan, the detector adds or subtracts one eighth of the difference between the map value
and the current filter value. This keeps large changes in the current filter value from rapidly changing
the stored map value.

About 10 to 20 scans are required to establish steady clutter values. As weather moves into the area,
or as changing propagation conditions result in changing ground clutter levels, the clutter map changes
accordingly.

The MTD uses this clutter map to detect targets on crossing trajectories, with zero radial velocities,
that would be lost using conventional radar processing techniques.

3. Constant False Alarm Rate (CFAR):

If the detection threshold it is too high, targets may go undetected; if the detection threshold is too
low, too many false alarms will occur. The mean level of the noise, as well as the system gain, may
vary over a wide range. Consequently, the outputs of the doppler filters must be continuously
monitored to maintain an optimum threshold setting.

Several methods are used to establish the detection threshold. The simplest is to use a manually
operated potentiometer or a long time constant averaging circuit to set a constant threshold. This can
be quite effective in some types of systems, but suffers where widely varying interference is
encountered. Figure xx shows the effect of using a constant threshold where the residual interfering
signals vary widely in amplitude. In this case, the interference is clutter residue. There is no setting of
this threshold, which will detect both targets without also detecting clutter.

Figure 1.61 Detection with a fixed threshold

Figure 1.62 Detection with an adaptive threshold

More widely used schemes for setting the detection threshold sense the average interference level
and set the threshold so that a relatively constant number of false alarms occur per unit of time. This
method is called adaptive threshold, or constant false alarm rate detection (CFAR). It produces a
threshold, which "follows" the contour of the interference, as shown.

4. I & Q processing: I and q processing has already been discussed in para xxxx

5. Doppler filter banks: In signal processing, a filter bank is an array of band-pass filters that
separates the input signal into multiple components, each one carrying a single frequency sub-
band of the original signal. One application of a filter bank is a graphic equalizer, which can
attenuate the components differently and recombine them into a modified version of the
original signal.

The magnitude of the Doppler frequency of an echo signal is detected by different Doppler Filters.
The radar’s operating band is divided into narrow sub-bands. Ideally there should be no overlap in
sub-band frequency characteristics. The noise bandwidth of the Doppler filters is small compared to
that of the radar’s total bandwidth, which improves the SNR.

Velocity estimates can be made by monitoring the power out of each filter. If a signal is present in a
filter, the target's velocity range is known.

These Doppler filters can be implemented either as hardware by resonance filters, or after the
digitization of the received signals as a software routine.

The effectiveness of the various filter variants is often dependent on the magnitude of the Doppler
frequency. Therefore, all filter variants are used in parallel and then the best filter result is selected.
The overall system is therefore similar in structure to a matched filter. The aim is to produce the
greatest possible difference between the useful signal and the interfering signals and the noise floor.

The digital representations of returns over several pulse repetition times (PRTS) and the Doppler filters
process them together so that pulse-to-pulse rate changes in target return amplitudes (representing
apparent Doppler frequencies) can later be calculated.

The Doppler filters improve the signal-to-noise ratio because the Doppler filters add or integrate a
series of target returns (or hits) at their frequency. This cause return signals to progressively
accumulate at the output of the filter, while random frequency noise accumulates at the filter outputs
at a much slower rate.

Coherent Integration

In Coherent Integrator, the Integrator is inserted between the Matched Filter and Amplitude Detector
(before the Detector)
The Signal Processor samples the returns from each transmit pulse at a spacing equal to the range
resolution of the radar set and adds the returns from N pulses. After it accumulates the N pulse sum,
it performs the amplitude detection and threshold check.

Figure 1.66: Coherent Integrator inserted in a Signal Processor

Eg;- If we are interested in a range of 75 Km and has a range resolution of 150m, the signal processor
would form 75000/150 = 500 samples for each pulse. The signal processor would then accumulate
(add) each of the 500 samples in 500 summers.

After the signal processor has summed the first N pulses, it would begin dropping older pulses off of
the accumulator, as new pulses arrive. Thus the signal processor will add the returns from the most
recent N pulses.
In Analog signal processors, the integration (summation, accumulation) is accomplished by Filters. In
Digital signal processors, the Integration is accomplished by Fast Fourier Transformation (FFTs).

The noise on each pulse is zero-mean and Gaussian. The noise samples from each pulse are
uncorrelated. The noise out of the Coherent Integrator has the same statistical properties of the noise
out of the matched filter from the IF Amplifier. Hence the output of the Coherent Integrator can be
considered as the return from a single pulse whose Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) is N times the SNR
provided by the radar range equation.

The Non-Coherent Integrator is placed after the amplitude or square law detector as shown in Figure
1.67. The name non-coherent integration derives from the fact that, since the signal has undergone
amplitude or square law detection, the phase information is lost. The non-coherent integrator
operates in the same fashion as the coherent integrator in that it sums the returns from N pulses
before performing the threshold check. In older radars the pulse integration was implemented via the
persistence on displays plus the integrating capability of a human operator.

Figure 1.63 Non-coherent Integrator

A second implementation is termed an m-of-n detector and uses more of a logic circuit rather than a
device that integrates. Simply stated, the radar examines the output of the threshold device for n
pulses. If a detect is declared on any m of those n pulses the radar declares a target detection. This
type of implementation is also termed a dual threshold detector.

1.6.2. Basic function of data processing

 Plot processing
The principal role of the plot processor is to combine primary plots from the various primary radar
channels or sources into a single best estimate plot. The plot processor may also incorporate a range
of other functions to improve the quality of the primary radar plot.

A typical modern primary radar will generate plots from some or all of the following:
 each radar channel can produce plots
 multi-pulse can produce plots from each of the pulses (e.g. short and long pulses)
 frequency diversity produces plots from each of the frequencies (frequency diversity can be
implemented within one channel or utilizing two channels).
 separately processed high and low beams.

In general the combination of information from all these sources is best carried out at plot level.
Combining data earlier in the system usually involves loss of information, particularly, if carried out
before coherent integration. Plot combination can be carried out in a general purpose computer which
permits full control of the characteristics of the combination process. Typically, the plot combination
will include a weighted average of position of the related plots modified by other parameters such as
the energy level.

Plot Extractor

Plot Extraction is sometimes called Hit Processing.

The plot extractor takes the output of the signal processor i.e. the hits generated across the
beamwidth and declares a plot position which may also include course and radial speed information.
Plot extraction ranges from a simple position declaration to advanced hit processing, which takes the
output of an MTI filter bank and generates plots taking account of amplitude information and Doppler.

As the antenna scans past any one target, there may be threshold crossings at one or more Doppler
filter outputs, in several inter pulse periods, different CPIs and perhaps in adjacent range resolution
cells. The function of the hit processor is to correlate all threshold crossings, grouping together all
those which appear to come from the same target (can be 100 items for one target). More modern
plot processors generally employ a sophisticated correlation process- Centre of Mass Correlation.

The hit processor can make an assessment of plot energy based on the hit amplitude distribution
across the beamwidth. This plot energy parameter is a valuable discriminator between targets and
angels and is normally passed to the plot processor.
Hit processing functions are:
 Declare detection (given false alarm rate)
 Declare centroid position
 Declare radial speed
 Declare energy/amplitude (for removing angels)

Centre of Mass Correlation

More modern plot processors generally employ a sophisticated correlation i.e. retrieving of the centre
of mass correlation. The correlator first assembles the hit pattern including azimuth over a prescribed
area of range azimuth cells. These are then grouped in range and then in azimuth. The plot position is
computed by algorithms, which determine the centre of mass of the signal processor output. This
method makes better use of the signal information and provides more accurate positional
declarations.

Figure 1.64 Centre of Mass Correlation

1.6.3 Describe the processing techniques to improve the quality of target reports using scan to scan
Information:
Discussed latter in topic 1.7.2

1.7 PLOT COMBINING

1.7.1. Basic function of plot combining

The plot combiner combines primary and secondary radar plots. In this respect it has to be
distinguished from the plot processor which combines only primary plots (amongst other functions).
If primary and secondary plots combine directly, then it is a good indication of the validity of the plots.
It is therefore normal practice to forward combined plots directly for data transmission to the user.
The plot combiner can then be designed to investigate un-combined plots in more detail.

It is then possible to carry out a refined angel and plot analysis. The plot density approach for the
elimination of angels can be applied but based on a reduced population of plots (i.e. after plots which
combine with the SSR have been removed). This improves the quality of the plot density filtering
process. Plots which have low energy and exceed a prescribed density in a given sector are eliminated.

The plot combiner often incorporates a scan to scan correlator to act as final mechanism to remove
false or second time around returns. Typically this involves a three point correlator (i.e. data is
correlated over three scans) to eliminate false plots. In this approach the plot data is transmitted with
unmodified plot positions.

Figure 1.65 Basic function of plot combining

 Sliding window
The most common method of correlating hits to form a plot report is known as the sliding window
process. The detected hits for each pulse repetition period are inserted as „1”s in the stored range
cell dimension. For ATC radars, the range cells are typically 1/16 of a nautical mile (ca 0.8
microseconds). A number of results for previous pulse intervals are stored - typically results from
8 - 16 PRTs may be stored (depending upon the Dwell Time) - this represents the window size (N).

A window is applied at each range cell, to count the number of hits that are present in the window
at the same range. Due to a degree of uncertainty regarding the precise range cell in which a hit will
be declared, it is normal practice to include hits in adjacent range cells. The number of hits found in
the window is used as the target detection criterion.

The plot combiner formats the data ready for transmission through the radar data network. The
European standard radar data format Asterix, is normally adopted for (new) systems although the
plot combiner may be required to provide additional formats for legacy systems. A dual channel
feed is normally provided to the main radar data network. It is important that the peak loads on the
link do not cause overloads. Under these conditions, the plot combiner may send a priority message
warning of potential loss of data.

The plot combiner usually has a direct link to the onsite engineering monitor display. For analysis
purposes, this monitor can be provided with access to discarded data as well as operational output.
Finally the plot combiner may be required to output status information to the control and
monitoring system. This information can include such parameters as primary and secondary plot
load, combination rate and rejected plot counts.

1.7.2. Describe the processing techniques to improve the quality of target reports using scan to
scan information

Local Tracking
Radar target reports shall be transmitted either in the form of plots or tracks. A track is a superset of
a plot, containing additional data generated by a local tracking system at the radar site. The local
tracker attempts to update the track by forming a weighted average of the current reported position
from the radar and the last predicted position of the target from the tracker. Each plot is checked
against the tracked targets and if certain criteria are fulfilled the plot is associated with a tracked
target. Any plots that are not associated with a tracked target may be used for acquisition of new
tracks.

The radar tracker seeks to determine which plots should be used to update which tracks. The first step
in the process is to update all of the existing tracks to the current time by predicting their new position
based on the most recent state estimate (e.g. position, heading, speed, acceleration, etc.) and the
assumed target motion model (e.g. constant velocity, constant acceleration, etc.).

Having updated the estimates, it is possible to try to associate the plots to tracks.

Figure 1.66 Plot estimation

1) By defining an “acceptance gate” around the current track location and then selecting:
 the closest plot in the gate to the predicted position, or
 the strongest plot in the gate

2) By a statistical approach that choose the most probable location of plot through a statistical
combination of all the likely plots. This approach has been shown to be good in situations of high
radar clutter.

Once a track has been associated with a plot, it moves to the track smoothing stage, where the track
prediction and associated plot are combined to provide a new, smoothed estimate of the target
location.

Having completed this process, a number of plots will remain unassociated to existing tracks and a
number of tracks will remain without updates. This leads to the steps of track initiation and track
maintenance.

Track Initiation

Track initiation is the process of creating a new radar track from unassociated radar plots. When the
radar tracker is first switched on, all of the initial radar plots are used to initialize new tracks. Track
initiation is the process of creating a new radar track from unassociated radar plots. When the radar
tracker is first switched on, all of the initial radar plots are used to initialize new tracks.

Once the radar tracker is running, only those plots are used to create a new track that couldn't be used
to update an existing one.

Figure 1.67 Process of creating a new radar track from unassociated radar plots

Typically a new track is given the status of tentative until plots from subsequent radar updates have
been successfully associated with the new track. Tentative tracks are not shown to the operator and
so they provide a means of preventing false tracks from appearing on the screen – at the expense of
some delay in the first reporting of a track.

Track Smoothing

The role of the track-smoothing function is to take the current known state (i.e. position, heading,
speed and possibly acceleration) of the target and predict the new state of the target at the time of
the most recent radar measurement. It is a computing step to improve the estimate of the tracks
position as well as to revise the errors in the former prediction. The latest track prediction is combined
with the associated plot to provide a new, improved estimate of the next target state.
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There are a wide variety of algorithms, of differing complexity and computational load that can be
used for this process. These algorithms are realized in special filters.

All of these filters work in two steps:

 prediction, and
 correction.
The observed position of the target is recorded for the last two or more scans. Then, the smoothed
parameters (often called innovations) are computed for position, velocity and acceleration. Using
these values, the predictions for position and velocity are computed.

Figure 1.68 Process of track smoothing

Track Maintenance

Track maintenance is the process in which a decision is made about whether to end the life of a track.
If a track was not associated with a plot during the plot to track association phase, then there is a
chance that the target may no longer exist (for instance, an aircraft may have landed or flown out of
radar cover).

Alternatively, however, there is a chance that the radar may have just failed to see the target at that
update, but will find it again on the next update. Common approach to deciding on whether to
terminate a track include:

 If the target was not seen for the past M consecutive update opportunities (typically M=3 or
so)
 If the target was not seen for the past M out of N most recent update opportunities

Figure 1.69 Process of track maintenance

 Definitions:
The following quantities define detection:
 Probability of Signal (PS): This is the probability that on any given single test of signal-plus-
interference and threshold, the result will be a threshold crossing if a target was present.
 Probability of Detection (PD): This is the probability that for any given evaluation of signal- plus-
interference and a threshold, the result will be a detection if a target was present.

The difference between Ps and PD is that Ps is for the evaluation of a single signal echo or detection
trial, and PD is the result of many consecutive signal echoes processed together (a look or dwell) or
is the final result of a compound detection trial.

 Probability of Noise (Pn): This is the probability that interference (noise in this case) alone will cross
the threshold, for a single test.
 Probability of False Alarm (PFA): False alarm probability is the probability that interference alone
will cross the threshold for a look or compound test. Pn and PFA are related in the same way as are
Ps and PD.
 False Alarm Number (FAN): The number of tests per false alarm is the FAN.
 False Alarm Time (FAT): The mean time between noise threshold crossings (false alarms).
 False Alarm Rate (FAR): FAR is the average number of false alarms per second. It is the product of
PFA and the number of tests per second.

1.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMARY RADAR

1.8.1. Basic function of Electromagnetism, propagation, signal detection, RF power generation and
distribution.

Frequency band
As with other services in the electromagnetic spectrum, radars frequencies are confined to certain
bands by international agreement. Radars usually employ very high power transmitters and are
confined to prevent interference with other services. The International Telecommunication Union
(ITU) administers this portion of the EM spectrum.

Several alphabetic band designation systems exist, and two are in common usage. The historic letter-
coded bands were developed before and during World War II. The newer sequential letter bands
system is somewhat replacing the traditional scheme, but most radar engineers still use the earlier
designation.

Figure 1.70 Frequency band

Radar performance and frequencies
The above figure gives the details of the bands of radars and wavelengths. The frequency band in
which they operate affects radar parameters and performance. Likewise, largely the radar’s mission
and specifications determine the band chosen for a particular radar.

The following discussion is intended to show how the choice of frequency band determines radar
performance and how the mission of a radar affects the choice of frequency.

 Bandwidth: The bandwidth of the transmitted signal determines, among other things, the range
resolution and frequency agility capabilities of the radar. Large bandwidths are available only in the
higher frequency bands.
 Antenna: Monostatic radars use a single antenna for both transmit and receive. Gain is the
important transmit parameter, and effective area is the critical parameter for receive. Gain and
effective area are tied together for all antennas by the following relationship.

G = antenna gain, AE= effective area (square meters), X = wavelength (meters)

Note: That for a given antenna gain, low-frequency antennas are larger (have more receive
aperture) than high frequency. Search radars must examine a volume of space in search of
targets. The time required to examine this volume is the scan time and is set by, among other
things, the beam widths of the antenna. To prevent scan times from becoming impractically
long, search beam widths cannot be too narrow. Beam width and gain are related, in that
high gains result from narrow beams and vice versa (Ch. 9). Thus scan time considerations
force an upper limit of about 20,000 (43 dB) or so on the gain of search antennas. Low
frequencies are therefore favored for long-range search applications, because of the larger
effective area associated with a given gain, allowing more effective capture of echoes.
 Transmitter: In general, more radio frequency power can be produced at low frequency than
at high. The physical size of radio frequency devices is a linear function of wavelength. Thus
at low frequencies (long wavelengths), the device elements are larger, allowing them to
handle more voltage and current, and thus higher power. Low frequencies are therefore
favored for long-range radars from the standpoint of the transmitter.
 Receiver: Traditionally, it has been possible to design less noisy and thus more sensitive
receivers at low frequencies than at high, giving low frequencies the advantage for long
range radars. Modem microwave technology has somewhat reduced this advantage. On the
other hand, it is possible to design higher bandwidth receivers at higher frequencies. From
the standpoint of the receiver, there is no clear choice between high and low frequencies.
 Propagation: Except for special cases (over-the-horizon, for example) signal propagation
clearly favors low microwave frequencies over all other bands. There is less atmospheric
signal absorption low frequencies. In precipitation, the low frequency advantage is dramatic.
A given raindrop has over three orders of magnitude more scattering cross-section at X-Band
(10 GHz) than at L-Band (13 GHz), producing far more clutter and signal scattering
(attenuation) at the higher frequency. Conversely, there is more atmospheric and galactic
noise in the lower bands, particularly at frequencies lower than microwave.
 Targets: If the illumination wavelength is short with respect to the target extent the target
tends to behave as an array of optical reflectors, the overall RCS of which can fluctuate over
several orders of magnitude. These fluctuating targets can be difficult to detect and track.
To wavelengths which are comparable to the target extent, resonance effects cause RCS to
be sensitive to frequency. Very large RCS is possible, however, and the fluctuations tend to
be much less severe than at shorter (optical) wavelengths. If the wavelength is long
compared to target extent, targets are Rayleigh scatterers, and have small, non-fluctuating
RCS. Each region (optical, resonant, and scattering) has pluses and minuses, and the choice
of frequency depends on the radar's mission.
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Air traffic control radars and their band of frequencies

For comparing the frequency band of operations both the historical and new notations of the
frequency band are given below. L, S and K band are widely used in the civil aviation. The different
types of radars used in the air traffic control are given following the figure.

Figure 1.71 Air traffic control radars and their band of frequencies

The following radars are commonly used in Air Traffic Management (ATM):
 En Route Radars: En-route radar systems operate in L-Band usually. These radar sets initially
detect and determine the position, course, and speed of air targets in a relatively large area
up to 250 nautical miles (NM). They transmit pulses with high power, broad bandwidth and
an intra pulse modulation often. Due to the curvature of the earth the achievable maximum
range is limited for targets flying with low altitude. These objects disappear very fast behind
the horizon. In Air Traffic Management (ATM) long-range surveillance radars like the Air
Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR) works in this frequency band. Coupled with a Monopulse
Secondary Surveillance Radar (MSSR) they use a relatively large, but slower rotating
antenna. The designator L-Band is good as mnemonic rhyme as large antenna or long range.
 Air Surveillance Radar (ASR): Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) is approach control radar used
to detect and display an aircraft's position in the terminal area. These radar sets operate
usually in S band / E-Band, and are capable of reliably detecting and tracking aircraft at
altitudes below 25,000 feet (7,620 meters) and within 40 to 60 nautical miles (75 to 110 km)
of their airport.
 Surface Movement Radar (SMR): The Surface Movement Radar (SMR) scans the airport
surface to locate the positions of aircraft and ground vehicles and displays them for air
traffic controllers in bad weather. Surface movement radars operate in (K, Ku, Ka) or J / K
band and uses an extremely short pulse-width to provide an acceptable range-resolution.

Topic 2: SMR
Surface movement Radar is a high sensitive Primary Radar. It is specifically designed to detect
all principal features on the surface of an airport, including aircraft and vehicular traffic, and to
present the entire image on a radar indicator console in the control tower.

USE OF SMR FOR AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES

Surface movement radar (SMR) is used to detect aircraft and vehicles on the surface of an
airport. It is used by air traffic controllers to supplement visual observations. It may also be
used at night time and during low visibility to monitor the movement of aircraft and
vehicles. Uses of SMR is as following -

 Radar monitoring of traffic on the maneuvering area.

 Routing instructions to surface traffic using the radar-displayed information, to avoid
points of traffic congestion and select aircraft routes to maintain traffic flow.
 Issuance of instructions to hold short at intersections to avoid traffic conflicts.
 Information that a runway is clear of other traffic, particularly in periods of low
visibility.
 Assistance in timing of runway operations to improve runway utilization while avoiding
conflicts with departing and arriving aircraft.
 On request, guidance information to an aircraft uncertain of its position.
 Guidance information to emergency vehicles.

2.1.1. Operational requirements of SMR

Typical operational requirements that are met by SMR system are given below

1. Area Coverage Performances

The Area Coverage is defined as the area of the aerodrome in which surveillance is provided.
According to the ICAO Documents, the SMR is intrinsically able to cover a radial area beginning
from 100 m up to 6000 m slant range coverage from radar site.

 Minimum slant range 100 m

 Maximum slant range 6000 m
 Azimuth 360 deg

2. Altitude Coverage
The Altitude Coverage, defined as the altitude over the coverage area up to which the
surveillance is required to be provided, (according to ICAO Manual of A-SMGCS), is greater
than 500 feet above airport level.
3. System Accuracy The SMR accuracy is: Range accuracy: < 4 m
Azimuth accuracy: 0.067 deg
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4. Resolution
The SMR resolution is:
 Azimuth Resolution: 7.7 m @ 1.0 km - 12 m @ 1.5 km
 Range Resolution: 6 m
5. Reliability
SMR System MTBF (Mean Time Before Failure) shall be higher than 20000 hours.
6. Maintainability
Maintainability is the measure of the ability of an item to be retained in or restored to specified
condition when maintenance is performed by personnel having specified skill levels, using
prescribed procedures and resources in accordance to the prescribed maintenance and
repair level. Electrical design and packing shall assure an MTTR (Mean Time To Repair) less
than 60 minutes. In particular Rack Assembly and TXRX Assembly MTTR is less than 45
minutes. The system is provided with the Built In Test Equipment relative to hardware and
software parts capable to check the correct operation on-line and off-line.
7. Availability
Intrinsic availability >99.99
Operational availability >99

2.1.2. Key parameters and necessity of achieving performances

1. Typical parameters of SMR w.r.t Antenna group
Antenna type End-fed Slotted Waveguide array
Frequency band X-band
Gain > 34 dB
Polarization Circular with ellipticity < 2
3-dB Elevation Lobe < 18 ±2 deg
3-dB Azimuth Lobe <
0.45 deg Sidelobes
Within ± 10 deg < -27 dB
Outside ± 10 deg < -30 dB
Vswr < 1.20
Maximum transmitted peak power 50 kW
Maximum transmitted mean power 50 W
Operational wind speed Up to 120 knots
Antenna rotation rate 60 ±5% RPM
Pulses per revolution 16384 ACP/rev. (antenna clock pulse/revolution)
+ 1 ARP (azimuth reference pulse)

2. Typical parameters of SMR w.r.t transceiver

 Transmitter
TX frequencies 9375 (range: 9345 - 9405) MHz
9490 (range: 9460 - 9520) MHz
Modulator Solid State (MOSFET)
Nominal magnetron peak power 25 kW
Peak power at output flange > 17kW
Pulse Width 40 ± 10 nsec
Pulse Repetition Frequency 5000 Hz
PRF Stagger 0.6 %
Frequency bands 9.330 - 9.420 GHz
9.440 - 9.540 GHz
 Receiver
FREQUENCY BANDS 9.33 - 9.42 GHz — 9.44 - 9.54 GHz
IF AMPLIFIER

Type Logarithmic
Dynamic Range > 75 dB
Receiver Overall Dynamic Range >
105 dB (including STC)
Low Noise Front End < 4.5 dB
Low Noise Amplifier Module < 2 dB
Intermediate Frequency 60 MHz
IF filter 3 dB Bandwidth < 27 MHz

3. Detection Performances
A probability of detection Pd = 95.0% and a false alarm probability Pfa=10 -6 on a 1 m2 radar
cross section target is reached (according to the ICAO Manual of SMGCS) in weather conditions
ranging from clear to 16 mm/h of rain within the entire covered area. Range calculations
(performed according to the above ICAO conditions and using the Blake method modified by
Burton), assess that the SMR has a free space detection capability greater than 6000 m in free
space, taking into account also the atmospheric attenuation. This performance is evaluated in
standard operating mode where the frequency diversity operation capability is taken into
account.
4. Factors influencing the key parameters
 Update rate
Antenna Rotation speed comes from the required maximal information renewal time. As
targets in the coverage volume of Airport are at close proximity to each other, moves at
relatively high speed with respect to antenna instantaneous position executing sharp turns, it
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is important to have a high refresh rate for better situational awareness and avoid any mishap
thereby.
 PRF
The PRF determines the maximum range of the radar i.e. the rate at which pulses may be
transmitted, therefore is determined by the longest range at which target are expected.

PRF is governed by two conflicting factors. The first is the maximum range required, since it is
necessary not only to be able to detect the pulses returning from distant targets, but also to
allow them sufficient time to return before the next pulse is transmitted. From this point of
view, it is seen that PRF should be as small as possible in order to have longer ranges.

On the other hand, the greater the number of returned echoes from a target in a particular
radar scan, the greater will be the probability of distinguishing this target from noise by using
the process of integration since the antenna scans significantly fast in many radars, it is
necessary that the PRF should be large to enable several returns from a single target during a
radar scan.
Hence the PRF chosen in practical radars is a compromise between the above mentioned two
factors and values between 200 to 10,000 pulses per second are commonly employed
depending upon the nature and purpose of the radar.

 Staggered PRF
The existence of second-time-around-echoes cannot be readily recognized with a constant
PRF. Ambiguous range echoes can be recognized by changing the PRF of the radar i.e. by
staggered PRF. In theory, two PRFs can resolve the range ambiguity, but in practice, three or
more PRFs are often use for increase the accuracy and avoiding false value. Staggered PRF is
used to avoid “jamming” or interference from other radars’ transmitting and “second time
around”. The change of repetition frequency does that the radar on a pulse to pulse basis can
differentiate between returns from itself and returns from other radar systems with same
frequency.
 Frequency diversity
Commonly used radars use frequency diversity transmission of two frequencies together,
alternatively frequencies are interchanged, so both frequencies are used in range of the
antenna diagram width.
Resulting probability of detection is then: Pd = 1 - (1 - Ps)*(1 - Ps), where Ps is radar probability
of detection radar on one frequency. For Pd=0.96 is Ps=0.8 enough, in another words, only 1/4
of the transmission power is needed in comparison with one-frequency solution.

As same object have different radar cross-section for different frequencies by integrating the
return from both frequencies target fluctuation can be reduced to a great degree.

 Beam width
The angular range of the antenna pattern in which at least half of the maximum power is still
emitted is described as a “Beam With”. Bordering points of this major lobe are therefore the
points at which the field strength has fallen in the room around 3dB regarding the maximum field
strength? This angle is then described as beam width or aperture angle or half power (- 3 dB)
angle.

The azimuth beam width selection for a radar depends on two factors namely the azimuth
resolution required for the radar and the number of returns expected from a particular target in
a radar scan. The azimuth resolution of a radar is its ability to distinguish aircraft in different radial
having the same range. It is defined as the minimum angular separation between two targets at
the same range which can exist and still make it possible to distinguish between them on the
radar indicator.
Hence, in order to have a better angular resolution, the azimuth beam-width must be very small.
But smaller beam-widths will reduce the number of returned echoes from a particular target in a
radar scan. The following equation snows how the number of returns in a radar scan depends on
the azimuth beam-width, the PRF of the radar, and the rate of scan (antenna RPM).

The elevation beam-width is chosen depending on the expected maximum altitude of the target
to be detected by the radar. In SMR horizontal beam width is kept low, in the range of .45 degree
or lesser, so that aircraft and other vehicles moving in close distances can be identified accurately
owing to higher resolution.

 RCS
Overall aircraft reflection area is a compilation of many primitive (infinitesimal) reflection areas.
Energy amplitude of the reflected signal depends on the wavelength of the transmitted energy
and the space angle which the energy comes off and to what angle is reflected.

The radar cross section σ is the property of a scattering object, or target, that is included in the
radar equation to represent the magnitude of the echo signal returned to the radar by the target.

The radar cross section of complex targets such as aircraft, missiles, ships, ground vehicles,
fabricated structures, buildings, and terrain can vary considerably depending on the viewing
aspect and frequency. The variability results from the multiple individual scatterers that
constitute the object. Each individual scatterer of a complex target produces an echo signal
characterized by amplitude and a phase. These echo signals combine at the radar to produce a
resultant signal. A change in the relative phases of the echo signals from the individual scatterers
will occur if the relative positions of the scatterers change with viewing aspect or there is a change
in radar frequency.
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 Hit processing
The plot extractor takes the output of the signal processor i.e. the hits generated across the beam
width and declares a plot position which may also include course and radial speed information.
As the antenna scans past any one target, there may be threshold crossings, in several inter pulse
periods, different CPIs and perhaps in adjacent range resolution cells. The function of the hit
processor is to correlate all threshold crossings, grouping together all those which appear to
come from the same target.

 Influence of Meteorology
During poor visibility condition, like fog, rain, sand storm, etc, to maintain airport throughput
SMR, an important component of ASMGCS plays vital role. SMR frequency emission is more
susceptible to atmospheric disturbances, eg rain. To overcome circular polarization is used.

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2.2: RADAR SENSOR
2.2.1. Layout of the SMR
Please see the diagram given below for understanding the layout of the SMR.

Figure 0.1 Air traffic control radars and their band of frequencies

The pulse characteristics are fed via service display or by onboard panel. Currently we are using
SMR in frequency diversity mode.

For each frequency different transmitter and receiver are deployed and once video processing in
each reception path are over, videos are added after correcting for delay in transmission between
two frequencies.

Control segment takes care of synchronization of all activities.

Motor controller controls the speed as well as the power connection to the antenna power
assembly thereby keeping the desired antenna rotation per minute irrespective of weather
condition, eg, high wind, ice formation on antenna, etc.

Dual encoder deployed generate Azimuth Count Pulse/Azimuth Reset Pulse for generating
accurate azimuth information.

The transmitter may be a power amplifier, such as the klystron, traveling wave tube, or transistor
amplifier. It might also be a power oscillator, such as the magnetron. The magnetron oscillator
has been widely used for pulse radars of modest capability; but the amplifier is preferred when
high average power is necessary, when other than simple pulse waveforms are required (as in
pulse compression), or when good performance is needed in detecting moving targets in the
midst of much larger clutter echoes based on the Doppler frequency shift.

The radar signal is produced at low power by a waveform generator, which is then the input to
the power amplifier. In most power amplifiers, except for solid-state power sources, a modulator
turns the transmitter on and off in synchronism with the input pulses.

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When a power oscillator is used, it is also turned on and off by a pulse modulator to generate a
pulse waveform. The output of the transmitter is delivered to the antenna by a waveguide or
other form of transmission line, where it is radiated into space. Antennas can be mechanically
steered parabolic reflectors, mechanically steered planar arrays, or electronically steered phased
arrays.

On transmit the parabolic reflector focuses the energy into a narrow beam, just as does an
automobile headlight or a searchlight.

The duplexer allows a single antenna to be used on a time-shared basis for both transmitting and
receiving. The duplexer is generally a gaseous device that produces a short circuit (an arc
discharge) at the input to the receiver when the transmitter is operating, so that high power flows
to the antenna and not to the receiver.

On reception, the duplexer directs the echo signal to the receiver and not to the transmitter.
Solid- state ferrite circulators and receiver protector devices, usually solid-state diodes, can also
be part of the duplexer.
The receiver is almost always a super-heterodyne.
The input, or RF, stage can be a low noise transistor amplifier.
The mixer and local oscillator (LO) convert the RF signal to an intermediate frequency (IF) where it
is amplified by the IF amplifier.

The IF amplifier is designed as a matched filter; that is, one which maximizes the output peak-
signal- to-mean-noise ratio. Thus the matched filter maximizes the detectability of weak echo
signals and attenuates unwanted signals. With the approximately rectangular pulse shapes
commonly used in many radar, conventional radar receiver filters are close to that of a matched
filter when the receiver bandwidth B is the inverse of the pulse width τ, or B τ≈1.

After IF stage amplification the signal is sent to detector.

The output of detector is the video component of received signal and amplified by Video
amplifier. During video processing stage, the amplified analog video signal is converted to
digital signal, treated for noise cancellation by correlation, digital FTC followed by sweep
integration is done, adding video from two different frequencies in frequency diversity system
and lastly output provided is detected target in terms of digital , composite and analogue video.

By interface section, output video is given to service display for monitoring, distribution and
maintenance.

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 Service Display:
Service display is an Industrial grade computer with software to configure SMR. Communication
between service display and SMR is through LAN and/or RS232/422 connection.
Functions of service display are
 Setup the sensor parameters.
 Change of sensor modes, Monitoring of RADAR sensor health.
 Measurement of selected RADAR quantities.
 Monitoring RADAR sensor video qualities.
 Alignment of RADAR sensor in Range & Azimuth

2.2.2. Basic functions of the receiver/transmitter unit

Basic Function of Transmitter:
 As per digital pulse shape characteristics, e.g. Pulse width set by user , produces analog
pulse.
 Controls PRF, percentage of staggering.
 Upconversion of low power signal to programmed output level.
 Implements frequency diversity, two frequencies are transmitted with programmable
delay.
 Implementation of blanking sector, no radiation zone.

Basic function of Receiver unit:

 Implementation of Limiter and STC as per programmed curve.
 Amplification of RADAR echo signal.
 RF to IF conversion.
 Automatic frequency control, used for control of LO of transmitter section to take
care of frequency drift.
 Noise figure measurement.
 Forward power measurement.

Fig: 2.2
 SMR transmission signal path:

 As per user configuration the motherboard triggers modulator and controls PRF, staggering.
 Modulator upon reception of trigger pulse generates low level pulse signal.
 This pulse signal drives Magnetron/solid state final stage amplifier.
 Magnetron/Solid state final amplifier up convert the signal to rated final stage output level.
 Final output goes to antenna for radiation.
 A small portion of the final stage signal is picked up for measurement purpose.
 Simultaneously trigger signal is sent to receiver for automatic frequency control.
 In case of frequency diversity where two frequencies are used, two similar transmission
channel are there, each designated to one frequency.
 Depending upon weather condition/profile set from front panel or service display
polarization can be changed from linear to circular either manually or automatically.

Fig: 2.3
 Received echo signal from antenna are received by antenna i.r.o both frequencies, in case
of frequency diversity mode.
 Limiter/attenuator saves the receiver from high power signal received from nearby echo .
 Low noise amplifier provides bulk of the gain for received echo signal.
 The received signal is then down converted in two/three stage IF section as per equipment
design.
 After IF stage signal is detected using detector, output of detector is analog video.
 Analog video is then amplified and analog to digital conversion is done for further
processing.
 First noise cancellation is done on digitized data. This function consist of normally, video
threshold circuit, a pulse width discrimination circuit and a 3 out of 4 correlation.
 The output data from correlation function is the digitized video signal gated according to
the setting of 3 out of 4 correlator law. Purpose of correlation is to reduce white noise.
 Next video signal is passed through a FTC circuit, i.e a high pass filter/differentiator to

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reduce/remove scattering from volume and extended static area.
 After this video signal passes through a decimation function to reduce the high sampling
rate at the input to the desired output sample rate.
 Processed video signal are stored in sweep memory, the integrator/combiner reads N
sweep. In frequency diversity system both channel are used and combiner aligns the
sweeps in range
 Video from both channel is mixed after taking care of squint between two frequencies
and delay between two transmissions.
 Then protocol conversion, normally Asterix category 10, is done for data distribution to
ASMGCS fusion system as well as raw digital/analog video is sent to service display for
control, monitoring and maintenance.

 Timing Relations& controller structure:

 Proper synchronization is very necessary for accurate calculation of range. This is achieved
by having a master timing source for whole operation.
 In frequency diversity mode, out of two transceivers used for each frequency, the
transceiver selected as master normally is controlling all timing related function.
 Master transceiver synchronizes the slave transceiver by sending an external trigger,
which ensures transmission of two high frequency pulse trains immediately after each
other, normally between 240 to 1200 ns between the two pulses, depending upon
selected pulse width.
 Normally once configured master transceiver saves all configuration in its motherboard
and even if connection with service display lost it will operate on its own.
 Configuration and control is done by either front panel onboard panel or by service display.
 SMR pulse shape for modulation is rectangular. Calculation of timing normally starts from
the time the synchronization trigger is given to transmitter to initiate transmission,
normally generated in receiver section.
 The leading edge of the transmitted pulse must be vertical to ensure that the leading
edge of the received echo pulse is also close to vertical so that accurate range
measurements can be made possible. Otherwise ambiguity will arise in knowing the
precise instants of pulse transmission and reception and therefore inaccuracies creep into
the measurement of the target range.
 A flat top for the pulse is required as this determines the anode voltage of the
magnetron during the modulation. Since a magnetron requires a steady, regulated anode
voltage for proper operation, the pulse driving the anode voltage must also be having
constant amplitude i.e., it must be flat. Otherwise the magnetron frequency will be
pushed.
 A steep trailing edge for the pulse is needed for proper operation of the Diplexer i.e., the
antenna is connected as soon as the transmission is over to the receiver. This will not
happen if the pulse decays slowly and has a long time constant since the duplexer can

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switch the antenna to the receiver only when the transmitted energy has dropped down
to zero. This will result in lengthening the period of time for which the receiver remains
disconnected from the antenna and hence has an effect on the minimum range of the
radar.
 If a short minimum range is required, then short pulses must be transmitted. This means
that the minimum range of the radar is proportional to the pulse-width. For instance if
the pulse width is 1 micro second, then no echo pulses can be received during this period
as the receiver is disconnected by the Duplexer. This is to say that no echoes can be
received from targets closer than 150 meters from the radar as radar signals take 1 micro
second to travel 150 meters to and fro. Hence the minimum range of a radar whose pulse-
width is 1 microsecond is 150 meters.

2.2.4. Basic functions of the antenna unit

 Antenna unit radiates intended signal and receives echo signal returning from target.
 Fan shaped beam with azimuth width of .45 degree is generally used.
 In case of frequency diversity same antenna system is used for both frequencies.
 Normally slotted waveguide or SWG high gain circularly polarized fan beam
antenna with inverse cosecant squared radiation pattern are used.

Fig: 2.4
 Circular polarization and beam forming technique provides low susceptibility to
precipitation, additional performance is achieved when operated with frequency
diversity to reduce target fluctuation and using squint characteristics to suppress clutter.
 Squint refers to the angle that the transmission is offset from normal of the plane of
antenna. Different frequency radiated from same antenna will have different squint.
 It is like illuminating same object from two different angle giving more clarity.
 Antenna system consist of scanner including horn, encoder, rotary joint and sensors.
 The scanner consist of horn, slotted waveguide, polarization filter and RF feed housed in
lightweight Radom.
 The parts generally are fixed in a strong, stiff and lightening protected aluminum
structure
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Ver. 3.0 (2023)
QUALIFICATION TRAINING – SURVEILLANCE
[B4-Subject 01 of DOC 10057]
Airports Authority of India Subject - Primary Surveillance Radar Page 109 of 126

 Circularly polarized unit includes a multi-layer periodic array polarizer in front of the
horn. This provides efficient cancellation of backscatter from precipitation over
entire range of frequency and elevation angle.
 Encoder generates ACP/ARP for identifying target azimuth. Rotary joint helps in
transfer of signal from stationary part to movable part.
 The gear assembly includes backlash on the gear wheels to absorb tolerances and
wear ensuring maintenance free operation for several years.
 phase dual drive motor generally are used.
 Motor are protected from overheat by sensors, in case of overheat shutdown is
ensured.
 Furthermore oil level in gear is monitored by sensor.
 Motor controller ensures selected R.P.M is maintained even in adverse weather
condition like high wind, ice formation over antenna.
 Antenna interface is partially mounted on motherboard and partially on mains
distribution.
 The motherboard of transceiver receives the azimuth information and distributes it
within RADAR.
 Power is supplied to encoder and motor.
 Waveguide is used for transfer of signal from/ to movable part to static part.

Topic 3: TEST AND MEASUREMENT

3.1. Making measurements on PSR and SMR
 Measurement of parameter is needed for checking proper working of PSR/SMR.
 Measurement is done real time for keeping different parameters, e.g. Power output,
PRF, Pulse width, frequency, so that any drift can be readily detected and automatic
response circuitry can be activated for correction.
 Measurement is also done periodically or during breakdown to determine check for
correct operation /detect early sign of defect.
 Then measurement is also done during breakdown to determine probable location of
fault.
 Different important parameters in primary RADAR are forward power, reverse
power, Pulse width, PRF, pulse shape, frequency, probability of detection, coverage
diagram, etc.
 Different test equipment used are spectrum analyzer, vector voltmeter,
oscilloscope, SWR meter, sensor analysis tool.
 Covering all of the necessary measurements often requires three or four separate
instruments. For example, a peak power meter is used to measure the absolute
amplitude of a transmitter as a function of time, but a spectrum analyzer is needed
to measure absolute amplitude as a function of frequency. When performing relative
measurements, the peak power meter can measure the relative time and amplitude
of a waveform, but a vector network analyzer (VNA) or vector voltmeter is needed
to measure amplitude and phase as a function of frequency , The SWR meter or
VSWR (voltage standing wave ratio) meter measures the standing wave ratio in a
RADAR.
 Spectrum Analyzer: The primary use is to measure the power of the spectrum of
RADAR emission. By analyzing the spectra of electrical signals, dominant frequency,
power, distortion, harmonics, bandwidth, and other spectral components of a signal
can be observed that are not easily detectable in time domain waveforms.
 Power meter:
The transmitted power is measured with the help of calibrated peak power. This
measurement has been detailed in ch 1.3.
 PW, PRF, Duty cycle/duty factor
This measurement is carried out using oscilloscope. If oscilloscope is not capable of
measuring high frequency than step attenuator and crystal detector is used to down
convert for this purpose.
Pulse width is it is the width at half power points. Similarly PRF and duty factor is
measured using oscilloscope.

 Occupied Bandwidth
Occupied BW is the width of band over which emitted mean power is about 99% of the
total mean power. Difference between lower and upper frequency points is referred as
occupied BW. This can be measure with the help of spectrum analyzer.
 VSWR measurement
It is the measure of how much power is transmitted and how much is
reflected. Return loss in general= Forward power - Reflected power,

The SWR meter or VSWR (voltage standing wave ratio) meter measures the standing
wave ratio in a Radar receiver measurements
 STALO and COHO measurements
Radar receiver is very critical part in radar system as it has to detect and amplify the
received weak signal from antenna.
The radar receiver measurements include STALO level measurement, COHO level
measurement, receiver Gain, Minimum Detectable Signal(MDS), Dynamic range,
intensity check, velocity check etc.
 STALO Level Measurement
Radar usually will have different STALO frequencies and power levels. The main aim is
to determine weak signal receiver power. The digital power meter/spectrum analyzer is
used for this purpose.
 COHO Level Measurement
COHO stands for COHerent Oscillator. Frequency counter/spectrum analyzer of
appropriate range is required for this measurement.
 Sensor analysis tools
Coverage diagram depicting RADAR coverage over different distance at different angles
are of prime concern while declaring rated coverage, based upon which ATC may plan
different category of airspace and provide different category of service.
A high Percentage of detection is desirable especially in case of SMR. Sensor Analysis
tool are used to check coverage diagram, PD, etc apart from checking data format error.

Annexure

Formulas used in Radar

Some Important Formulas used in Radar

1) Noise Figure
Noise Figure = 10 Log F in dB
where, F = Noise Factor = Si / Ni
So / No
Where Si = Input Signal power, Ni = Noise at the Input
So = Output Signal power and No = Noise at the Output

2) Blind Speed
Vn = n. λ Fp / 2
Where, n = 1, 2, 3 … Fp = p.r.f in Hz Vn = nth Blind Speed in Knots and λ = wave length
in meters ( λ = c/f )

3) Parabolic Antenna Beam Width

θ° = 65 λ / L
Where, λ = wave length ( λ = c/f ) and L = Dimension of the Antenna
Also, θ° = 70 λ / D
Where, λ = wave length ( λ = c/f ) and D = Diameter of the Parabola

4) Parabolic Antenna Gain

Gain of Parabolic Antenna G = 4π A / λ²
Where, A = Area of Parabolic Aperture and λ = wave length of operating frequency.

Also, Gain of Parabolic Antenna G = K (πD/ λ)²

Where, D = Diameter of the Aperture of the Antenna , λ = wave length of operating frequency and K= a
Constant

Waveguide Mode of operation

5) Cut off Frequency, fc = 30/ λc
Where, fc=Cut off Frequency in GHz and λc = Cut off Wavelength in cm
Microwave Technique
√𝐏𝒇𝒘𝒅+ √𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐥
6) VSWR σ = Emax = l Ei l + l Er l = 1+ρ =
√𝐏𝐟𝐰𝐝+√𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐥
Emin l Ei l - l Er l 1- ρ
Where, Ei = Incident wave voltage , Er = Reflected wave voltage
Pfwd = Forward Power, Prefl = Reflected Power
ρ = Er/Ei, known as Reflection coefficient

7) Radial Velocity
Radial Velocity of a Target = V Cosθ
Where, V = Velocity of the Target and
θ = Angle subtended at the target between target heading and the ┴r to the radar

8) Directional Coupler

Insertion Loss (IL) = 10 log (P1/P2) dB

Isolation (I) = 10 log (P1/P4) dB
Coupling (C) = 10 log (P1/P3) dB
Directivity (D) = 10 log (P3/P4) dB

9) Antenna Hits per scan

Number of Hits per Scan N = Azimuth Beam Width x Prf = θB x Fp
Antenna scan rate θS

where θB = Azimuth Beam width, Fp = PRF and θS = Antenna Scan Rate

10) Doppler Frequency

Doppler Angular Velocity ωd = 2πfd = 4π Vr / λ
Where, Vr = Relative Velocity of the target, λ = Wavelength and
fd = Doppler Frequency Shift

11) Doppler Frequency Shift

Doppler Frequency Shift fd = ωd / 2 π = 2 Vr / λ = 2vrfo/c = 1.03vr/λ
Where, Vr = Relative Velocity of the target, λ = Wavelength,
ωd = Doppler Angular Velocity, f0 = transmitted frequency and c=
8
3×10 m/sec, velocity of propagation

12) Radar Range Equation

Maximum Range of a Radar is given by,

OR
Minimum Detectable Signal (MDS) is given by,

Where,
AAI/CNS/CBTA/SURVEILLANCE/PSR/QUALIFICATION03
Ver. 3.0 (2023)
QUALIFICATION TRAINING – SURVEILLANCE
[B4-Subject 01 of DOC 10057]
Airports Authority of India Subject - Primary Surveillance Radar Page 115 of 126

Rmax is the Maximum Range of the Radar

‘Pt’ is Peak power transmitted by the radar transmitter in watts
‘G’ is the gain of the transmitting antenna in dB
‘Ae’ is the Effective Aperture of the Antenna in m²
‘σ’ is radar cross-section of the target in m²
‘Smin’ is the Minimum detectable signal (MDS) in watts
‘λ' is the wavelength
13) Peak Power
Peak Power Pp = PAv x T
t
where, PAv= Average Power, T= prp and t = Pulse width

14) Average Power

Average Power PAv = Pp x t = Pp x Duty Cycle
T
Where, Pp = Peak Power, T = Prp, 1/T = 1/prp = fp = prf and t = Pulse width

15) Duty cycle

Duty Cycle = Pulse width x Prf = t x fp = t/T
Where fp = prf , t = Pulse width, T = Prp, 1/T = 1/prp = fp = prf
Also, PAv = Pp x Duty Cycle
Or Duty Cycle = PAv / Pp

Pulse characteristics
The performance of a pulse radar depends on the Shape, Amplitude, Duration and Repetition rate of the
pulse used to modulate the carrier. Pulse Modulation is generally applied in a Radar at a periodic rate
known as Pulse Repetition Period (PRP).

PRT = 1/PRF

Pulse Width

The pulse width (or pulse duration) of the transmitted signal is the time, typically in microseconds, each
pulse lasts. If the pulse is not a perfect square wave, the time is typically measured between the 50%
power levels of the rising and falling edges of the pulse.

The pulse width must be long enough to ensure that the radar emits sufficient energy so that the reflected
pulse is detectable by its receiver. The amount of energy that can be delivered to a distant target is the
product of two things; the peak output power of the transmitter, and the duration of the transmission.
Therefore, pulse width constrains the maximum detection range of a target.

Pulse Repetition Period (PRP)

Pulse Repetition Period is the time from the beginning of one pulse to the beginning of the next pulse.
ie; Pulse Repetition Period, T = 1 / prf

Pulse spacing
Pulse spacing is the time between corresponding points of successive pulses. Also known as pulse interval.

PRF is usually associated with pulse spacing.

Pulse spacing = Propagation speed
Prf

Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)

Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) is the average number of pulses transmitted per second by the radar
(Also known as pulse recurrence frequency).

It is necessary to detect the pulse returning from distant targets and also to allow them sufficient time to
return before the next pulse is transmitted. PRF should be as small as possible in order to have longer

ranges. PRF should be large in order to have small ranges.

The PRF chosen in practical radars lies between 200 to 10000 pps (pulses per second), depending upon
the nature and purpose of the radar.
Low PRF -- Systems using PRF below 3 kHz are considered low PRF
Medium PRF is from 3 kHz to 30 kHz, which corresponds with radar range from 5 km to 50 km.
High PRF -- Systems using PRF above 30 kHz function better known as High PRF. High PRF is limited to
systems that require close-in performance.
PRF is directly related to the range of the radar.
For Long range radars, PRF should be Small.
For Short range radars, PRF should be High.
The PRF determines --
1) How often the radar transmits and also
2) The maximum range of the system
PRF is often determined by the Maximum Unambiguous Range beyond which targets are not expected.
PRF, fp = 2 x Run/c
Rectangular Pulse for Modulation
The most widely used Pulse Shape for modulation is ‘Rectangular’. Rectangular pulses have vertical edges
and a flat top.
Reasons for using Rectangular Pulse for Modulation
1) The Leading edge of the transmitted pulse must be vertical to ensure that the Leading edge of the
received echo pulse is also close to vertical so that accurate Range measurement can be made possible.
Otherwise ambiguity will arise in the Range measurement.
2) A Flat Top for the pulse is required as this determines the anode voltage of the Magnetron or Klystron
during the Modulation. Since a Magnetron requires a steady, regulated anode voltage for proper
operation, he pulse driving the anode must also be having constant amplitude (must be flat). Otherwise
the Magnetron frequency will be pushed.
3) A Steep trailing edge for the pulse is needed for proper operation of the Duplexer. ie, Antenna is
connected to the Rx as soon as the transmission is over. This will not happen if the pulse decays slowly
and has a long time constant, hence has an effect on the Minimum Range of the radar.
Pulse Shape
In the case of a pulse radar, the shape and width of the rf pulse influences minimum range, range accuracy,
and maximum range. The ideal pulse shape is a square wave having vertical leading and trailing edges.

Pulse shapes and effects

Pulse width
Pulse width is an important property of radar signals. The wider a pulse, the greater the energy contained
in the pulse for a given amplitude. The greater the transmitted pulse power, the greater the reception
range capability of the radar. Greater pulse width also increases the average transmitted power.
Range is therefore limited by the pulse characteristics and propagation losses. The PRI and duty cycle set
the maximum allowed time for a return echo, while the power or energy transmitted must overcome the
background noise to be detected by the receiver.

Pulse width also affects a radar’s minimum resolution. Echoes from long pulses can overlap in time,
making it impossible to determine the nature of the target or targets. A long pulse return may be caused
by a single large target, possibly an airliner, or multiple smaller targets closely spaced, possibly a tight
formation of fighter aircraft. Without sufficient resolution, it is impossible to determine the number of
objects that actually make up the echo return. Narrow pulse widths mitigate the overlapping of echoes
and improve resolution at the expense of transmit power.

As such, pulse width affects two very important radar system capabilities -- resolution and detection
range. These two qualities trade off against each other. Wider pulse longer-range radars offer less
resolution, whereas narrow pulse shorter range radar have finer resolution.

Narrow pulses also require greater bandwidth to correctly transmit and receive.

If a short minimum range is required, then short pulses must be transmitted. ie; the minimum range of a
radar is proportional to the pulse width. For eg; if the pulse width is 1us, then no echo pulse can be
received during this period as the receiver is disconnected by the Duplexer. Hence, no echoes can be
received from targets closer than 150 mtrs from the radar (time taken by the radar signal to travel 1NM
to & fro is 12.36us or the to & fro distance travelled by the radar signal in 1 sec is 150 mtrs or the minimum
range of a radar whose pulse width is 1us is 150 mtrs.

A major disadvantage of short pulse widths is that the Maximum range of the radar also gets reduced as
the average power transmitted by the transmitter gets reduced by shorter pulse widths.
Peak Power and Average power

Peak power
Peak Power is defined as the Power averaged over that carrier frequency cycle which occurs at the
maximum of the pulse.
Peak Power is usually equal to one-half the maximum instantaneous power.
Peak Power Pp = PAv x T where, PAv= Average Power, T= p r p and t = Pulse width
t
Average Power
Average Power is defined as the Average transmitted power over the pulse repetition period.
Average Power PAv = Pp x t
T
1/T = 1/p r p = fp = p r f
ie; PAv = Pp x t x fp = Pp x Duty cycle
where, PAv= Average Power, T= p r p and t = Pulse width, Pp = Peak Power

Duty cycle
Duty cycle is the fraction of time that a system is in an “active” state.
Duty Cycle = ON Time
ON Time + OFF Time

Suppose a transmitter operates for 1 microsecond, and is shut off for 99 microseconds, then is run for 1
microsecond again, and so on. The transmitter runs for one out of 100 microseconds, or 1/100 of the time,
and its duty cycle is therefore 1/100, or 1 percent. The duty cycle is used to calculate both the peak power
and average power of radar system.

Duty Cycle = t x fp or t/T

Hence, PAv = Pp x Duty Cycle Or Duty Cycle = PAv / Pp
where, PAv= Average Power, T= p r p and t = Pulse width, Pp = Peak Power

Radar Mile
Maximum Range, Rmax = C x (Tp/2), where Tp is the Time Period, Tp=1/PRF.
Hence Maximum Range, Rmax = C x (Tp/2) = C x ( 1/2PRF) = C /(2 x PRF)
An echo signal may arrive after the transmission of the next pulse, if the time between the pulses is too
short.

The above equation states that each microsecond of round trip travel of Radar signals correspond to a
distance of 0.081 NM (if TR = 1, then R = 0.081 NM).
In other words, 12.36 us of round trip travel time corresponds to a distance of 1 NM.
This Time Interval of 12.36 us is called a ‘Radar Mile’ and is defined as “the time taken by the radar signals
to travel one NM to and fro.

Minimum Range of a Radar

The Minimum Range of a Radar depends upon the following factors:--
a) The time duration of the pulse length (pulse width)

b) The time the receiver takes to return to normal operation after the high energy pulse has been
transmitted (Rx Recovery Time). This is achieved by using a TR (Transmit/Receive) switch.

(Pulse width and recovery time are expressed in microseconds or fractions of microseconds)
The minimum range, in yards, at which a target can be detected is determined using the formula:-
Minimum Range = (Pulse width + Rx Recovery Time) x 328 yards
2

Or Minimum Range = (Pulse width + Rx Recovery Time) x 164 yards

Most modern radar systems are designed with very small recovery times that this figure can often be
ignored when figuring minimum range.

Maximum Range of a Radar

Parameters which affect the Maximum Range of a Radar
Sl. No Parameter For Long Range For Small Range
1 PRF or PRR should be small should be High
The pulse repetition rate (PRR) determines should be High should be small
the maximum measurable range of the
radar. Ample time must be allowed
between pulses for an echo to return from
any target located within the maximum
workable range of the system. Otherwise,
echoes returning from the more distant
targets will be blocked by succeeding
transmitted pulses. The PRR must be high
enough, so that sufficient pulses hit the
target and enough echoes are returned to
the radar
2 Antenna Rotation (Scan) Speed should be low should be high
The more slowly the antenna rotates, the
greater is the detection range of the radar
3 Beam Width should be wide should be narrow
The more concentrated the beam, the
greater is the detection range of the radar
4 Pulse Length should be more should be less
The longer the pulse length, the greater is
the range capability of the radar because
of the greater amount of energy
transmitted
5 Frequency or should be less should be more
Wavelength should be more should be less
The higher the frequency of a radar (radio)
wave, the greater is the attenuation (loss in
power), regardless of weather. Lower radar
frequencies (longer wavelengths) have,
therefore, been generally superior for
longer detection ranges
6 Peak Power of Tx should be more should be less
The peak power of a radar is its useful
power. Range capabilities of the radar
increase with peak power. Doubling the
peak power increases the range
capabilities by about 25 percent

7 Receiver Sensitivity should be more should be less

The more sensitive receivers provide
greater detection ranges but are more
subject to jamming
8 Antenna Height should be more
The high-frequency energy transmitted by
a radar system travels in a straight line and
does not normally bend to conform to the
curvature of the earth. Because of this, the
height of both the antenna and the target
are factors in detection range.

Radar Horizon Distance

The distance to the horizon (in nautical miles) for a radar system varies with the height of the antenna
according to the following formula:
Radar Horizon Distance (in Nautical Miles) =1.25 × √Ant Height in feet
A target at a range greater than the radar horizon will not be detected unless it is high enough to be
above the horizon.

Second (Multiple) Time Around Echoes

Echo signals received after an interval exceeding the Pulse Repetition Period (p r p) are called Multiple
Time Around Echoes. They can result in erroneous or confusing Range measurements.

One method of distinguishing Multiple Time Around Echoes from normal wanted echoes is to operate
with a varying Pulse Repetition Frequency. The echo signal from an unambiguous range target (normal
wanted target) will appear at the same place on PPI on each sweep.
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QUALIFICATION TRAINING – SURVEILLANCE
[B4-Subject 01 of DOC 10057]
Airports Authority of India Subject - Primary Surveillance Radar Page 124 of 126

Maximum Unambiguous Range (Run)

The Range at which a Radar can receive an echo before the next pulse is generated is called Maximum
Unambiguous Range (Run).
The unambiguous range of a radar is the maximum range at which a target can be located so as to
guarantee that the reflected signal/pulse from that target corresponds to the most recent transmitted
pulse.

The existence of Second Time Around Echoes may not be readily recognized with a constant PRF.
Ambiguous Range Echoes can be readily recognized by changing the PRF of the radar. The prf might be
switched every other scan or every time the antenna is scanned a half beam width or the period might be
altered on every other pulse.
When the switching is pulse to pulse, it is known as a “Staggered prf”.
A disadvantage of Staggered prf is its inability to cancel Second Time Around clutter Echoes. Second Time
Around clutter Echoes can be removed by using a constant prf.
Range resolution –
Range resolution is the ability of a radar system to distinguish between two or more targets on the same
bearing but at different ranges.

If the spacing between two aircrafts is too small, then the radar “see” only one target and if the spacing
between the two aircrafts is large,
The degree of range resolution depends on the width of the transmitted pulse, the types and sizes of
targets, and the efficiency of the receiver and indicator. Short pulse widths improve the ‘Range Resolution’
A well-designed radar system, with all other factors at maximum efficiency, should be able to distinguish
targets separated by one-half the pulse width time.

Range resolution is also given by,

Range resolution (in yards) = Pulse width (in µs) x 328 yards
2
Azimuth resolution –
Bearing, or azimuth, resolution is the ability of a radar system to separate objects at the same range but
at different bearings. The degree of bearing resolution depends on radar beam width and the range of the
targets. Range is a factor in bearing resolution because the radar beam spreads out as range increases.
For better Angular Resolution, the Azimuth Beam Width must be very small. But smaller beam widths will
reduce the number of returned echoes from a particular target in a radar scan.
Velocity Resolution
The velocity resolution is the minimum radial velocity difference between two objects traveling at the
same range before the radar can detect two discrete reflections.

Radar Accuracy
Radar accuracy is a measure of the ability of a radar system to determine the correct range, bearing, and,
in some cases, height of an object. The degree of accuracy is primarily determined by the resolution of
the radar system. Some additional factors affecting accuracy are pulse shape and atmospheric
conditions.–
Accuracy is different from resolution. Accuracy is governed by the design of the equipment.
AAI/CNS/CBTA/SURVEILLANCE/PSR/QUALIFICATION03
Ver. 3.0 (2023)
QUALIFICATION TRAINING – SURVEILLANCE
[B4-Subject 01 of DOC 10057]
Airports Authority of India Subject - Primary Surveillance Radar Page 126 of 126

When a blip is observed on the base of the CRT, its accuracy is the extend to which this blip corresponds
to the true geographical bearing and distance of the target from the antenna
Relationship of PRF, Beam width, Rate of scan and Rx sensitivity –
The range of a radar system depends on the transmitted power, the Rx sensitivity and the effective area
of the target. In the case of a unidirectional antenna, the echo pulses from the targets will be returned
continuously.
In the case of a revolving antenna, the echo pulses will be returned from any target within the lobe of the
beam being transmitted.
For short range radars, beam width must be very small for maximum accuracy in getting the position of
the a/c and the rate of scan should be faster. A high PRF is necessary in order that the required number
of strikes is received by the Rx.
No. of strikes per scan = Beam width x PRF x Time in sec for 1 scan
Number of degrees scanned

Rate of scan –
For Long range radars, Rate of antenna scan should be Slow to allow the beam to remain as long as
possible over the target to obtain sufficient return.
For Short range radars, Rate of antenna scan should be fast to allow quicker updates of radar picture.
The number of returns in a radar scan depends on three factors:
a) The Azimuth beam width

b) The PRF of the radar

c) The rate of Antenna scan (antenna rpm)

ie; No. of returns in a radar scan, N = (Az beam width) x PRF

Antenna scan rate

or N = θB x fp = θB x fp
θS 6ωS

Where fp in Hz, θB in degrees and θS in degrees per second

These returns can be used to improve detection in the presence of noise using the process of integration.
The ‘Elevation beam width’ is chosen depending on the expected maximum altitude of the target to be
detected by the radar.

Transmit Spectrum / Band Width of a Radar depends on:

1) 10 % to 90 % Pulse Rise Time and
2) 50 % Amplitude pulse width

AAI/CNS/CBTA/SURVEILLANCE/PSR/QUALIFICATION03
Ver. 3.0 (2023)
ATSEPPageCBT &A
128 of 128

Qualification Training
“SURVEILLANCE”

Content
 ATC SURVEILLANCE
 USE OF PSR FOR AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES
 ANTENNA
 TRANSMITTERS
 CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMARY TARGETS
 RECEIVER
 SIGNAL PROCESSING AND PLOT EXTRACTION
 PLOT COMBINING
 CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMARY RADAR
 SMR
 USE OF SMR FOR AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES
 RADAR SENSOR
 TEST AND MEASUREMENT
 TEST AND MEASUREMENT

सी.ए.टी.सी. प्रयागराज AAI/CNS/CBTA/SURVEILLANCE/PSR/QUALIFICATION03

Ver 3.0

C.A.T.C., PRAYAGRAJ 2023

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