History of Ethiopia and the Horn (Hist.

1012)
1.1. The Nature and Uses of History
A. Nature
 The term history is derived from the Greek word historia which meant “inquiry” or “an account of
one's inquiries.” The first use of the term is attributed to one of the ancient Greek historians,
Herodotus (c. 484–c. 420 B.C.E.), who is often held to be the “father of written history.”
 In ordinary usage, history means all the things that have happened in the human past.
 More specifically, the distinction is between what actually happened in the past or that part which
exists independently of the historian and still awaits to be recorded and the accounts of the past
provided by historians, that is, „history‟.
 Academically, history can be defined as an organized and systematic study of the past. The study
involves the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events.
 History can also mean the period of time after the development of complex social and political
organizations along with the invention of writing.
 Evidently, what actually happened in the past is almost infinite. Historians select which topics and
problems they wish to study, as do scientists. In this regard, the major concern of history is the
study of human society and its interaction with the natural environment which is also the subject of
study by many other disciplines.
 What differentiates history from other disciplines is that while the latter study the interaction
between humans and their environment in the present state, history studies the interaction
between the two in the past within the framework of the continuous process of change taking
place in time.
 Because of the longevity of that time, historians organize and divide the human past into discrete
periods after identifying significant developments in politics, society, economy, culture,
environment etc. through the rigorous study of documents and artifacts left by people of other times
and other places. Then they give a label to each period to convey the key characteristics and
developments of that era. Accordingly, history is conventionally divided into:-
 Ancient ,
 medieval and
 modern history. This is what we call periodization in history; one of the key
characteristics of the discipline.
 E. H. Carr defined history as an “unending dialogue between the present and the past.” In short,
the past does not exist now, but continues to live in present.
 Until the early twentieth century the study and teaching of history was limited to narrative
presentation of “what happened” in the past. At the core of this narration had been political events
relating to the deeds of “great men” and “great women”. As societies have become more complex,
as the different areas of the world have become more closely interconnected, as new types of
primary source and research methods are brought into use, so more rigorous accounts of the past
have become more necessary.
 Thus, history assumed three dimensions as its main job i.e. to
 narrate what happened,
 discuss how it happened and
 analyze why it happened
 Contemporary history teaching and research pursue a more integrative approach offering
students an expanded view of historical knowledge that includes aspects of
 environment,
 religion,

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  gender,
 philosophy,
 economics,
 technology,
 art and society instead of mere cataloguing of political events
B. Uses of history
History:-
1/ Help us better understand the present
 History is the only significant storehouse of information available for the examination and analysis
of how people behaved and acted in the past.
 People need to produce some sort of account of their past because it is difficult to understand
problems that face humanity and society today without tracing their origins in the past. Put
differently, knowledge of relevant historical background is essential for a balanced and in-depth
understanding of many current world situations.
2/ Provides us a sense of our own identity
 Knowledge of history is indispensable to understand who we are and where we fit in the world.
 As memory is to the individual, history is to the society. An individual without memory
finds great difficulty in relating to others and in taking intelligent decisions.
 A society without history would be in similar condition. It is only through sense of history
that communities define their identity, orient them, and understand their relationships with
the past and with other societies
3/ Provides the Basic Background for Many Other Disciplines
 Historical knowledge is extremely valuable in the pursuit of other disciplines such as literature, art,
philosophy religion, sociology, political science, anthropology and economics. With regard to the
last four, it is fair to argue that history is a mother discipline for they arose out of historical
investigation or formed part of historical writing.
4/ The Careful Study of History Teaches One Many Critical Skills
 Studying history helps students to develop some critical skills relating to the how of doing research.
These include but not limited to how to:-
find and evaluate sources;
make coherent arguments based on various kinds of evidence and present clearly in
writing. These analytical and communication skills are highly usable in other academic
pursuits. Gaining skills in sorting through diverse interpretations is also essential to make
informed decisions in our day-to-day life.
5/ Can Help One Develop Tolerance and Open-Mindedness
 Most of us have a tendency to regard our own cultural practices, styles, and values as right and
proper. Studying different societies in the past is like going to a foreign country, which contributes
to rid ourselves of some of our inherent cultural provincialism.
 By studying the past, students of history acquire a broad perspective that gives them the range and
flexibility required in many life situations.
6/ Can be Entertainment/supplies endless source of fascination
 Exploring the ways people in distant ages constructed their lives involves a sense of beauty and
excitement, and ultimately another perspective on human life and society.
7/ Enable us understand the past and avoid or correct mistakes of the past done by our ancestors
8/ Help us understand the existence of different customs, laws and institutions
9/ Help us to have broad understanding about national and international issues, democratic principles
and nationalism
10/ Can help foster promote national feeling

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 To conclude, history should be studied because:-
 it is essential to the individual and the society. we cannot escape from our past.
 only through studying history we can grasp how and why things change; and
 only through history we can understand what elements of a society persist despite change.
 Aesthetic and humanistic goals also inspire people to study the past, far removed from present-
day utility.
 Nevertheless just as history can be useful, it can also be abused. Such abuses come mainly
from deliberate manipulation of the past to fit current political agenda. In such cases, history is
written backwards. That is the past is described and interpreted to justify the present. While
personal biases are not always avoidable, a historian is different from a propagandist in that the
former takes care to document his judgment and assertions so that they can be subjected to
independent and external verification.

1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study

 Historians are not creative writers like novelists; the work of historian must be supported by
evidence arising from sources. Sources are instruments that bring to life what appear to have been
dead. Where there are no sources there is no history. Sources are, therefore, key to the study and
writing of history.
 Historical sources are broadly classified into two types: Primary and Secondary.
 Primary sources are:-
 original or first hand in their proximity to the event both in time and space
 surviving traces of the past available to us in the present
 Examples :- manuscripts (handwritten materials), diaries, letters, minutes, court and
administrative files, travel documents, photographs, maps, video and audiovisual materials,
and physical remains or relics such as coins, fossils, weapons, utensils, and buildings, oral
tradition (by eye witness)
 Secondary sources are:-
 second-hand published accounts about events that happened in the past.
 often use primary sources, but are written long after the event has occurred, providing an
interpretation of what happened, why it happened, and how it happened
 give us what appear to be finished accounts of certain historical periods and phenomena
 Examples:- articles, books, textbooks, biographies, and published stories or movies about
historical events, oral tradition (a retold eye witness account)
o What we have to know is that as new sources keep coming to light, no history work can be taken as
final. New sources make possible new historical interpretations or entirely new historical
reconstructions.
 Oral sources are also indispensable to study and document the history of non-literate societies. In
many societies, oral information can pass from one generation to another without being recorded.
This type of oral data is called oral tradition. For the history of Ethiopia and the Horn, historians
use a combination of the sources described above. However, whatever the source of information-
primary or secondary, written or oral- the data should be subjected to critical evaluation before
used as evidence. For instance:-
 Primary sources have to be verified for their originality and authenticity because
sometimes, primary sources like letters may be forged.
 Secondary sources have to be examined for the reliability of their reconstructions.
 An oral tradition may lose its originality and authenticity due to omission, exaggeration
and distortion through time. Therefore, it should be crosschecked with other sources such as
written documents to determine its veracity.

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 In short, historians (unlike novelists) must find evidence about the past, ask
questions of that evidence, and come up with explanations that make sense of what
the evidence says about the people, events, places and time periods they study.
1.3. Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn
 Historiography is:-
 The history of historical writing. In short, it means the history of history.
 The history of historical accounts, studying how knowledge of the past, either recent or distant, is
obtained and transmitted.
 People have had some sense of the past perhaps since the beginning of humanity. Yet
historiography as an intentional attempt to know and represent descriptions of past events in
writing has rather a briefer career throughout the world.
 The organized study and narration of the past was introduced by the Greeks Herodotus also called
“Father of written History” (c. 484–c. 420 B.C.) and Thucydides (d. c. 401 B.C).
 The other major tradition of thinking and writing about the past is the Chinese. The most important
early figure in Chinese historical thought and writing was the Han dynasty figure Sima Qian
(145–86 B.C.).
 History emerged as an academic discipline in the second half of the nineteenth century first in
Europe and subsequently in other parts of the world notably in the US.
The German historian, Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886), and his colleagues established
history as an independent discipline in Bonn with its own set of methods and concepts by
which historians collect evidence of past events, evaluate that evidence, and present a
meaningful discussion of the subject.
Ranke‟s greatest contribution to the scientific study of the past is such that he is
considered as the “father of modern historiography”.
 Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn has changed enormously during the past hundred years
in ways that merit fuller treatment than can be afforded here. In order to appreciate twentieth-
century historiography of the region, it is first necessary to examine earlier forms of historiography
(historical writing).
 The earliest known reference that we have on history of Ethiopia and the Horn is
 The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (The Voyage of the Indian Ocean),
 Written in the first century A.D by an anonymous author.
 It is a manual document or handbook used by merchants who frequently come to the Red Sea, the
Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean.
 Gives a detailed account of the Aksumite state and the ports on the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden
coasts. According to this document, Adulis was the port of the city of Aksum. It also states that the
king of Aksum was called Zoscales, and could communicate with Greek.
 Another document describing Aksum‟s trade and the then Aksumite king‟s campaigns on
both sides of the sea is the Christian Topography. This document is:-
 composed by Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor, in the sixth century A.D
 It also stated about the Aksumite merchants that visited lands to the south of Abbay to buy gold for
the ruling class.
 Unfortunately, contemporary Ethiopian materials are non-existent to substantiate the information
from the above sources despite the country‟s reputation for an ancient civilization of literacy.
 Inscriptions aside, the earliest written Ethiopian material dates from the seventh century A.D. The
document was found in Abba Gerima monastery in Yeha.
 The discovery of inscriptions that dates the 7th c AD was followed by a manuscript discovered in Haiq
Istifanos monastery of present day Wollo in the thirteenth century A.D (medieval time). The value
of manuscripts:-

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 Is essentially religious.
have the added value of providing insights into the country‟s past. For example, the
manuscript cited above contains the list of medieval kings and their history in
brief.
 The largest groups of sources available for medieval Ethiopian history are hagiographies.
Hagiographies:-
 Originating from Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
 Invariably written in Ge‟ez
 There important function is enhancing the prestige of saints
 Yet other related anecdotes are also introduced, and often discussed in detail such as the
development of the church and the state including territorial conquests by reigning monarchs.
 A parallel hagiographical tradition also existed within the Muslim communities of the country.
 One such account offers tremendous insight into the life of a Muslim saint, Shaykh Ja‟far
Bukko of Gattira, in present day Wallo, in the late nineteenth century.
 Besides the life of the Saint, this account discussed about:-
the development of indigenous Islam and
contacts between the region‟s Muslim community and the outside world
 Ethiopia had also an indigenous tradition of history writing called chronicles.
 Chronicles in the ancient Ethiopian Ge‟ez tongue first appeared in the 14th century and
continue (sometimes in Amharic) into the early twentieth.
 Kings or their successors entrusted the writing of chronicles to court scribes or clergymen of
recognized clerical training and calligraphic skills.
 The first and the last of such documents are the Glorious Victories of Amde-Tsion and the
Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu respectively.
 Chronicles incorporate both legends and facts past and contemporary about the monarch‟s
genealogy, upbringing, military exploits, piety and statesmanship.
 Chronicles are known for their factual detail and strong chronological framework, even if it
would require considerable labour to convert their relative chronology to an absolute one.
 Chronicles are also averse to quantification.
 Major events in and around the imperial residence are explained mainly in religious terms; the
chronicle, therefore offers very little by way of social and economic developments even in the
environs of the palace.
 However in conjunction with other varieties of written documents such as hagiographies
and travel accounts by foreign observers, chronicles can provide us with a glimpse into
the character and lives of kings their preoccupations and relations with subordinate
officials and though inadequately the evolution of the Ethiopian state and society.
 Written accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors to the coast also provide useful information on
various aspects of the region‟s history. For example:-
 al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta described the culture, language and import-export trade in the
main central region of the east African coast in the tenth and in the fourteenth centuries
respectively.
o For the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, we have two documents composed by Yemeni
writers who were eyewitnesses to the events they described. These were:-
1/ Futuh al Habesha (The Conquest of Abyssinia) was composed by Shihab al-Din, who recorded
the conflict between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim principalities in the sixteenth
century. This document also describes:-
the operation of the war including the conquest of northern and central Ethiopia by
Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi

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 major towns and their inhabitants in the southeastern part of Ethiopia, although
the discussion abruptly ends in 1535.
2/ The other first-hand account is left to us by Al-Haymi, who led a Yemeni delegation in 1647 to
the court of Fasiledes (r. 1632-67).
o Other materials that appeared in the sixteenth century include Aba Bahrey‟s Amharic script the
History of the [Oromo].
 The document was written in the 1593.
 Notwithstanding its limitations, this document provides firsthand information about the
Oromo population movement in the stated period
 The contribution of missionaries and travellers to the development of Ethiopian historiography
is also significant.
o Mission sources
 From the early sixteenth until the later nineteenth centuries, European missionaries
(Catholics and Protestants) came to the country with the intention of staying, and who,
nevertheless, maintained intimate links with Europe.
 Some of the major topics covered by these missionary sources include religious and political
developments within Ethiopia, and the country‟s foreign relations. An example of such
account is:-
 The Prester John of the Indies, composed by a Portuguese priest, Francisco
Alvarez, who led the Portuguese mission to the court of Lebne-Dengel in 1520.
o Travel documents
 One example of travel documents is James Bruce‟s Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile.
 Like other sources however both mission and travel materials can only be used with
considerable reservations and with care for they are socially and politically biased.
 Foreigners also developed interest in Ethiopian studies.
 One of these figures was a German, Hiob Ludolf (l.1624-1704).
Ludolf:-
 was the founder of Ethiopian studies in Europe in the seventeenth century.
 Was who wrote Historica Aethiopica (translated into English as A New History of
Ethiopia).
 never visited Ethiopia; he wrote the country‟s history based on information he
collected from an Ethiopian priest named Abba Gorgorios (Aba Gregory) who
was in Europe at that time.
 The other foreigner was August Dillman
 In the 19th century he published two studies on ancient Ethiopian history
 Compared to Ludolf, Dillman demonstrated all markers of objectivity in his historical
research endeavors.
 Historical writing made some departures from the chronicle tradition in the early twentieth
century. This period saw the emergence of traditional Ethiopian writers who made conscious efforts
to distance themselves from chroniclers whom they criticized for adulatory tone when writing
about monarchs.
 The earliest group of these traditional writers include:-
 Aleqa Taye Gebre-Mariam,
 Aleqa Asme Giorgis and
 Onesmus Nasib (Aba Gemechis).
 Later, Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus and Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn joined the above
three writers.

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  Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics from social justice,
administrative reform and economic analysis to history. For instance:-
Taye wrote Yeityopia Hizb Tarik (The History of Ethiopian People)
Asme wrote Ye [Oromo] Tarik (The History of the Oromo)
Onesmus translated the Bible into his native tongue, Afan Oromo.
Afework wrote the first Amharic novel, Tobiya, in Ethiopian history
Gebre-Hiwot has Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor Menilek and Ethiopia) and Mengistna
Yehizb Astedader (Government and Public Administration) to his name
 The most prolific writer of the early twentieth century Ethiopia was, however, Blatten Geta
Hiruy Wolde-Selassie.
Hiruy published four major works. Namely: Ethiopiana Metema (Ethiopia and Metema),
Wazema (Eve), Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary) and Yeityopia Tarik (The History
of Ethiopia).
 In contrast to their predecessors, Gebre Hiwot and Hiruy exhibited relative objectivity and
methodological sophistication in their works.
 Unfortunately, the Italian occupation of Ethiopia interrupted the early experiment in modern
history writing and publications. After liberation:-
Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria:
 formed a bridge between writers in pre-1935 and Ethiopia professional historians who
came after him.
 has published some eight historical works.
 made better evaluation of his sources than his predecessors.
 Yet like his precursors, bias permeates most of his works.
Yilma Deressa:
 Wrote Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be’asra Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemen (A History of Ethiopia in the
Sixteenth Century). This book addresses:-
 the Oromo population movement and
 the wars between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim principalities as its
main subjects.
 Tekle Tsadik and Yilma‟s works are written in Amharic and therefore can be used by the
wider public and scholars alike

Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel also contributed his share. Among others,
 He wrote Zikre Neger (Things Remembered).
 Zikre Neger is a comprehensive account of Ethiopia‟s prewar land tenure systems and
taxation, but fails to capture localized circumstances, responses, and conflicts and silent on the
actual impacts of government legislation on regulating access to resource control.
Another work dealing specifically with aspects of land tenure is left to us by Gebre-
Wold Engidawork and has been translated into English.
Another writer of the same category was Dejazmach Kebede Tesema.
 He wrote his memoir of the imperial period, published with as Yetarik Mastawesha
in 1962 E.C.
 The 1960s was a crucial decade in the development of Ethiopian historiography for it was in this period
that history emerged as an academic discipline. In this period:
 The pursuit of historical studies as a full-time occupation began with the opening of the
Department of History at the then Haile Selassie I University (HSIU) in 1963.
 Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) was established at Haile Sellasie I University College
(1963). Its founding member and first director the late Richard Pankhurst. He has

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 authored or co-authored twenty-two books and produced several hundred articles on
Ethiopia.
 IES has been publishing the Journal of Ethiopian Studies for the dissemination of historical
research.
 IES has its own library that:
 contains literary works of diverse disciplines
 has its fair share in the evolution and development of professional historiography
in Ethiopia.
 The production of BA theses began towards the end of the decade.
 The Department of History launched its MA and phD programs in 1979 and 1990 respectively.
 Since then, researches by faculty (both Ethiopians and expatriates) and students have
been produced on various topics.
 Although entirely a research organization, the Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) is the
other institutional home of professional historiography in Ethiopia.
 The professionalization of history in other parts of the Horn is a post-colonial phenomenon
 With the establishment of independent nations, a deeper interest in exploring their own
past quickly emerged among African populations, perhaps stimulated by reactions to
decades of education in an alien imperial historiography. With this came an urgent need to
recast the historical record and to recover evidence of many lost pre-colonial civilizations.
 The decolonization of African historiography required new methodological approach
(tools of investigation) to the study of the past that involved:-
 a critical use of oral data and
 tapping the percepts of ancillary disciplines like archeology, anthropology and
linguistics.
 At the same time, European intellectuals‟ own discomfort with the Euro-centrism of
previous scholarship provided for the intensive academic study of African history, an
innovation that had spread to North America by the 1960s.
 Foundational research was done at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS)
in London and the Department of History at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
 Francophone scholars have been as influential as Anglophones.
 Yet African historiography has not been the sole creation of interested Europeans. African
universities have, despite the instabilities of politics and civil war in many areas, trained their
own scholars and sent many others overseas for training who eventually published numerous
works on different aspects of the region‟s history.
1.4. The Geographical Context of Human History in Ethiopia and the Horn
 The term “Ethiopia and the Horn” refers to that part of Northeast Africa which now contains the
countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia. The region:-
 consists chiefly of mountains uplifted through the formation of the Great Rift Valley. (The Rift
Valley is a fissure in the Earth‟s crust running down from Syria to Mozambique and marking
the separation of the African and Arabian tectonic plates).
 has a massive highland complex of mountains and plateaus divided by the Great Rift Valley and
surrounded by lowlands, semi-desert, deserts and tropical forests along the periphery.
(physiographic features)
 has variety of climate, natural vegetation, soil composition, and settlement patterns.
 As with the physical features, people across the region are remarkably diverse. They:
 speak a vast number of different languages
 profess to many distinct religions
 live in a variety types of dwellings, and

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  engage in a wide range of economic activities.
 However, peoples of the region were never isolated; they interacted throughout history
from a diversity of locations. This interaction enable them to share common past.
 The history of Ethiopia and the Horn has been shaped by contacts with others through
commerce, migrations, wars, slavery, colonialism, and the waxing and waning of state
systems. Yet the evolution of human history owed much to geographical factors notably:
 location,
 landforms,
 resource endowment,
 climate and drainage systems which continue to impact, as incentives and deterrents,
 the movement of people and goods in the region
The impact of the region‟s geography on the way people live and organize themselves
into societies
 Spatial location in relationship to other spaces and locations in the world is one geographical
factor that has significant bearing on the ways in which history unfolds. Ethiopia and the Horn
lies between the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean on the one hand, and the present-day
eastern frontiers of Sudan and Kenya on the other. Thus, since early times,
 The Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden linked Northeast Africa to the Eastern Mediterranean,
the Near and Middle East, India, and the Far East
 The Indian Ocean has linked East Africa to the Near and Middle East, India and the Far
East.
 Another element of geography that had profound impact on human history is drainage system.
 Ethiopia and the Horn has five principal drainage systems. These are
1/ the Nile River System
2/ the Gibe/Omo–Gojeb River System
3/ the Genale/Jubba-Shebele River System
4/ the Awash River System and
5/ the Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes System
 Flowing from Uganda in the south to the Sudan in the north, the White Nile meets the Blue Nile
(Abay in Ethiopia that starts from the environs of Tana Lake) in Khartoum and eventually, drains
into the Mediterranean Sea through Egypt.
 The Awash River System is an entirely Ethiopian system and links the cool rich highlands of
Central Ethiopia with the hot, dry lowlands of the Danakil Depression
 The Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes System is a self-contained drainage basin, and includes a string
of lakes stretching from Lake Ziway in the north to Lake Turkana (formerly known as Rudolf) on
the Ethio-Kenyan border.
 The Gibe/Omo–Gojeb River System links southern Ethiopia to the semi-desert lowlands of
northern Kenya.
 The Shebele and Genale rivers originate in the Eastern highlands and flow southeast toward
Somalia and the Indian Ocean. Only the Genale (known as the Jubba in Somalia) makes it to the
Indian Ocean; the Shebele disappears in sand just inside the coastline.
 The above watersheds are very important in the life and history of the peoples inhabiting the region.
Besides providing people with the source of their livelihood, the drainage systems facilitated the
movement of peoples and goods across diverse environments, resulting the exchange of ideas,
technology, knowledge, cultural expressions and beliefs.
 Studying the drainage systems of Ethiopia and the Horn is crucial for proper understanding of the
relationships of the peoples living within the river basins mentioned previously.
 Ethiopia and the Horn can be divided into three major distinct environmental zones.
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1/ The vast Eastern lowland
 Covers the narrow coastal strip of northeastern Eritrea, widens gradually and descends
southwards to include much of lowland Eritrea, the Sahel, the Danakil Desert, the lower Awash
valley, and the arid terrain in northeast of the Republic of Djibouti. It then extends to the
Ogaden, the lower parts of Hararghe, Bale, Borana, Sidamo and the whole territory of the
Republic of Somalia.
 There is not much seasonal variation in climatic condition of this zone. Hot and dry conditions
prevail year-round along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular (little) rainfall except in
limited areas along the rivers Awash, Wabe Shebele and Genale/Jubba which traverse the region
and a few off-shore islands (eg. Dahlak, Socotra) in the Red Sea, Aden Gulf and Indian Ocean
which are' inhabited by people closely related to those of immediate mainland districts.
 Much of the lowland territory is covered only by shrub and bush as its major vegetation.
2/ Highland massif
 Locate immediately to the west of and opposite to the eastern lowland
 Starts from northern Eritrea and continues all the way to southern Ethiopia.
 The eastern extension of the highland massif consists the Arssi, Bale and Hararghe plateau.
 The major divide between the western and eastern parts of this zone is the Rift Valley.
 The major physiographic features of the zone are complex of mountains, deep valleys, and
extensive plateaus.
 It is generally said that rainfall has declined in Ethiopia and the Horn since the 1960s causing
drought and famine, such as the well-known Ethiopian famines of 1970s and 1980s.
3/ Western hot lowlands
 Found along the western foothills or on the periphery of the plateau and on borderlands of the
Sudan, stretching from north to south.
 in earlier times this region characterized by thick forests chiefly on the banks of the Nile and its
tributaries.
 Despite the varied physical environments discussed above, the countries of the Horn of
Africa are, for the most part, linguistically and ethnically linked together as far back as
recorded history goes.
 Population movements had caused a continuous process of interaction, creating a very
complex picture of settlement patterns. This is the case, for example, in Ethiopia where a
number of Cushitic groups live surrounding as well as interspersed among more or less
semitized population in the northern and central highlands of the country.
 The high degree of interaction, the long common history of much of the population and
their adherence to Christianity or Islam, had weakened ethnic dividing lines in large parts
of the region. Linguistic and cultural affinities are therefore as important as ethnic origin
in the grouping of the population.
Unit two
Peoples and Cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn
2.1. Human Evolution
 Regarding the origin of human being, there are two divergent views. These are:
1/ The creationist view that contends super natural force or God created non-living and living
things including human being with complete physical shape and structure.
2/ The evolutionist view which argues that living things and nonliving things developed from
small beings through gradual changes of many million years.
 The earliest evolution theorist Charles Darwin (1809- 1882) published Theory of Evolution or
Origin of Species by Natural Selection (1859) and Descent of Man (1871).
 According to evolutionists,

10
  human evolution accounts only fraction of history of the globe that had been formed through
natural process about 4. 5 billion years ago or before present (B. P.)
 The earliest known life came in to being between 3 &1 billion years B.P. Accordingly:
Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds and other small animals (mainly
invertebrates) emerged at about/circa (c.) 800 million years B. P.
In due course, first primates branched out of Tarsiers and main placental mammal
stream as of 200-170 million years B. P.
Then, some primates developed into Pongidae such as baboons, monkeys, gorilla,
chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon etc while others evolved in to Hominidae (human
ancestors).
 Archaeological evidences suggest that:-
 Human beings and apes share common ancestors.
 East African Rift Valley is a cradle of humanity.
 Evidences related to both biological and cultural evolution have been discovered in the Lower Omo
and Middle Awash River valleys both by Ethiopian and foreign scholars. Such as:
A fossil named as Cororapithecus dated 10 million B. P. was discovered in Ancar (in Hararghe)
in 2007.
A fossil called Ardipithicus Ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million B.P.) was discovered in
Middle Awash.
Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4.2 million B.P.) was discovered by Tim D. White at Aramis in Afar
in 1994.
Other Australopithecines were also discovered at Belohdelie (dated back 3.6 million years B.P.),
in Middle Awash.
Fossilized animal bones (3.4 million years) were found with stone-tool-inflicted marks on them
(the oldest evidence of stone tool use ever found in the world) by international team led by
Shannon McPherron in Lower Awash Valley in 2010.
A three years old child‟s fossil termed as Australopithecus afarensis, Selam, dated to 3.3 million
years B.P was also discovered at Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000.
Another Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated c. 3.18 million years B. P.) with 40%
complete body parts, weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters and pelvis looks like bipedal female was
discovered by Donald Carl Johnson at Hadar in Afar in 1974 A. D.
Fossil named as Australopithecus Anamensis was discovered around Lake Turkana.
Ethiopian Anthropologist Berhane Asfaw and his team discovered an eco-fact named as
Australopithecus Garhi (means surprise in Afar language) dated 2.5 million years B.P was
discovered at Bouri, Middle Awash, between 1996 and 1999.
Other species like Australopithecus Bosei, Australopithecus Aethiopicus and Pithecan were also
discovered in different areas of East Africa
Dr. Richard Luis Leaky and Mary Leaky found proto-human fossil named as Zinjanthropus in
1959.
Genus Homo
 The development of the human brain was to be the main feature of the next stage of human
evolution, which produced the genus Homo, believed to have emerged 2-2.5 million years B.P.
 Three species belong to genus Homo. These are:
1/ Homo Habilis:
 is derived from Latin terms Homo which meant human being and Habilis meant skillful or
handy.
 Its partial skull was discovered in lower Omo dated 1.9 million years B.P.
 Its brain size is 650- 800 C.C.

11
2/ Homo Erectus:
 Also known as upright walking human being
 Its fossil dated 1.6 million B.P was discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb with
185 cm tall, 68kg weight, 5-6 inches height and 900-1100 cc brain size.
 Homo erectus seems to have originated in Africa and then spread out to the rest of the world.
3/ Homo-Sapiens (wise human being)
A/ Skeleton of Archaic Homo-Sapiens/Knowledgeable human being/ (dated 400,000 years B.P.),
named Bodo with brain size of 1300-1400cc was discovered in Middle Awash.
B/ Homo Sapiens Sapiens
 Its fossils dated 100, 000 years B.P, were discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa and Kibish
around Lower Omo (by Leakey in 1967).
 Kibish fossils were re-dated in 2004 to 195, 000 years old, the oldest date anywhere in
world for modern Homo Sapiens.
 Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997, lived about 160, 000 years ago.
 Cultural evolution is related to technological changes that brought socio-economic transformation
on human life. It can be conventionally grouped in to:-
 Stone Age,
 Bronze Age and
 Iron Age.
 Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed by human beings. By taking their
features, ways and period of production, stone tools can be grouped in to three:-
A/ Mode I (Olduwan, which was named based on the first report made at Olduvai Gorge,
Tanzania). The mode I stone tools are mainly Characterized by:-
 crude and mono-facial styles, and
 the direct percussion production.
B/ Mode II (Acheulean, named after the first report at St. Acheul, France).
Mode II stone tools were produced by:-
 indirect percussion, by using hand-ax or hammer, and
 bifacial, pointed and convex features.
C/ Mode III (Sangoon). Mode III stone tools are characterized by:
 flexible and finest form of production by the use of obsidian
 Examples of the above types of stone tools have been found in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Fossilized animal bones (3. 4 million years B. P.) were found with stone-tool-inflicted marks
on them (the oldest evidence of stone tool in the world) at Dikika in 2010.
 Artifact findings suggest that the 1st stone tools (Olduwan tools) made and used by Homo
habilis were discovered near Gona (dated 2.52 million years B.P. in 1992) and at Shungura in
Afar.
 Homo erectus produced Acheulean tools dated back to 1.7.million years B.P, probably the
first to invent fire around 1.5 million years ago and started burial practice. Dutch hydrologist
Gerrard Dekker found Acheulian tools (over a million years old) at Kella, Middle Awash in
1963.
 Homosapiens produced Sangoon tools that trace back up to 300,000 years B. P. Gademotta
site in central Ethiopian Rift Valley has been dated back to 200, 000 B. P. Other vital sites such
as Gorgora, Ki‟one and Yabello in Ethiopia and Midhidhishi and Gudgud in Somalia have
offered noteworthy information about Stone Age communities.
The Stone Age
 The period of the usage of lithus/ stone tools is divided into sub-periods. They are:
1/ Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)

12
  Was a period from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B.P.
 was the period when human being developed language with shelter in cave using stone, bone,
wood, furs & skin materials to prepare food and clothing.
 There was sex-age labor division with able-bodied males as hunters of fauna, and children and
females as gatherers of flora.
 In due course, society developed from matriarchal to partriachial hierarchy.
 Gademotta Stone Age site in central Ethiopian Rift Valley is one of the oldest sites in
African continent and has been dated back to 200,000 B.P.
 Other sites such as Gorgora, Ki‟one, Tiyya, Tuto Fala & Yabaldho in Ethiopia and
Midhidhishi & Gudgud in Somalia are important sites that have offered noteworthy
information about Stone Age communities in the Horn of Africa.
2/ Mesolithic/ middle Stone Age
 Dated/lasted from 11, 000-10,000 B.P.
 was a transition period between Old and Neolithic/New Stone Ages(10.000-6000 B.P).
3/ Neolithic/ New Stone Age
 Lasted from 10,000 – 6000 B.P
 was a time when human being used micro-lithic tools.
2.2. The Neolithic Revolution
 It was during Neolithic period:-
 human beings began to transform from mobile way of life to sedentary. This was a radical shift
involving changes from hunting and gathering to the domestication of plants and animals.
 Climatic change and increased hunter-gatherers‟ population resulted in the declining number of
animals and availability of plants.
 As food gatherers were already aware of growing cycle of most of grass types, they began to
thickly grow those, which were most common and yielded seeds that are more edible.
 The big animals, which depended on dense bushes for sustenance, were reduced by hunting
and animals that people were able to domesticate easily were smaller ones.
 People descend from mountain sides to build houses near cultivated plots fencing both and
harvested crops had to be stored & protected from humidity & rodents
 For better security and to help each other in hard works, families preferred to live together
forming larger communities
 Using stick or hoe for planting was also gradually replaced by ox-drawn plough
 Farmers acquired surplus produce to exchange with better tools and clothes with the
craftsmen who were able to concentrate on and specialize in the production of these items.
 The process of domestication took place independently in the various parts of the world. In Ethiopia
and the Horn chiefly in the more elevated and wetter-parts, people cultivated plants including
 Teff (Eragrotis teff),
 dagussa (Eleusine coracana),
 nug (Guzotia abyssinica),
 enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc.
 The domestication of enset plant (Enseteedule) reduced shifting cultivation (continuous clearing of new
plots), slowing down soil exhaustion.
 Enset was widely cultivated over central and northern Ethiopia until increasing demands of
states which had to support many units of professional soldiers forced farmers to cultivate
cereals like teff only.
 The discovery of polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads, stone figures and animal remains
in sites like Emba-Fakeda around Adigrat in Tigray as well as Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea
evinces/expresses the existence of Neolithic material culture. Accordingly:-
13
  The Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided us agricultural stone tools.
 Stone tools used for cutting grass and grass like plants as well as rock paintings of
domesticated animals have been found at Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar.
 Archaeologist, Dombrowiski, excavated remains associated with domesticated cattle, chickpeas and
vegetables from Lalibela Cave on the southeastern shore of Lake Tana. Evidence for domesticated
cattle also comes from around Lake Basaqa near Matahara. Playa Napata and Kado in the Sudan,
Cyrenaica in Libya and Futajalon in West Africa were among known places of domestication of
animals like Nidamawa and Zebu (Bos indicus) cattle that in due course expanded to Ethiopia and the
Horn.
2.3. The Peopling of the Region
2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes
 Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked by ethnic and linguistic diversity. There are about 90
languages with 200 dialects in Ethiopia and the Horn. Beneath this apparent diversity, there is some
degree of unity.
 Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into two major language super families. These
are Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan.
A. Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into the following families:
1/ Cushitic: linguists divided this language family into four branches:
o Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea bordering the Sudan.
o Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen.
o Eastern: this includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe,
Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama,
Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.
o Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.
2/ Semitic: is divided into two:
North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese border); Tigre (spoken in Eritrean
Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland Eritrea and Tigray).
South: is further divided into two
 Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay.
 Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered).
3/ Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Bambasi, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime,
Dizi, Dorze, Gamo, Ganza, Gayil, Gofa, Hamer, Hozo, Kachama-Ganjule, Karo, Keficho, Konta,
Korete, Male, Melo, Nayi, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc. Among its
groups, Ometo includes Wolayta and Gamo while main Gonga is Keficho.
B. Nilo-Saharan:/sub divided into sub families namely, Chari- Nile and Koman/. Anywa, Berta,
Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara,
Nu‟er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk are languages belong to the Nilo-Saharan
supper family.
 Unclassified: Weyto (might be Cushitic or Semitic); Ongota (moribund possibly Omotic or separate
branch of Afro-Asiatic or not at all) & Rer Bare (extinct-may be Bantu).
 Language classification did not remain static. Factors like population movements, warfare, trade,
religious and territorial expansion, urbanization etc. have resulted in intense linguistic processes
that forced languages to be affected. In this process, some languages died out or have been in danger
of extinction while others thrived off the social phenomenon that is evidently observed.
2.3.2. Settlement Patterns
 A settlement pattern, the distribution of peoples across the landscape, is the results of long historical
processes in northeast Africa. A Settlement pattern is differ from place to place. Such as:
 In some areas, settlement was dense and in other areas sparse.

14
  Some people inhabited extensive highlands and others the lowlands.
 Based on historical linguistic and history of inter-peoples relations, studies indicate that
environmental, socio-economic, and political processes significantly shaped and reshaped the
spatial distribution of peoples in the region.
 Since early times, the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had inhabited the area between the Red Sea in
the east and Blue Nile in the west from where they dispersed to different directions. In due course,
 the Cushites have evolved to be the largest linguistic group in Ethiopia and the Horn and
have also spread over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania.
 the Semitic peoples spread over large area and eventually settled the northern, north central,
northeastern, south central and eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. The Semites are the
second majority people next to the Cushites.
 Except the Shinasha, who live in Benishangul-Gumuz and the South Mao in Wallagga, the
majority of Omotic peoples have inhabited southwestern Ethiopia along the Omo River
basin. Yet, in the earlier times, they had extended much further to the north.
 In the west, the Nilotes are largely settled along the Ethiopia-Sudanese border although some
of the Chari-Nile family inhabited as far as southern Omo. The latter are identified as the
Karamojo cluster living around Turkana Lake along Ethio-Kenyan border.
2.3.3. Economic Formations
 The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity two interdependent modes of life:
agriculture and pastoralism.
 Pastoralism
 While there may be pure pastoralists, it is very rare to think of a farmer without a head of
cattle or two. Likewise, in Ethiopia and the Horn, these two forms of livelihood have coexisted
and quite often interrelated.
 Yet, topographic features and climatic conditions largely influenced economic activities in
Ethiopia and the Horn.
 A predominantly pastoral economy has characterized the eastern lowland region since early
periods. Pastoral economy namely the production of camel, goat, and cattle has been the
most common economic practice among the Afar, Saho and Somali as well as Karayu and
Borana Oromo. While the Afar and Karrayu have depended on the Awash River, the
Somali have owed a great deal to Wabi Shebelle and Genale (Jubba) Rivers.
 Agriculture
 The plateaus have sustained plough agriculture for thousands of years supporting
sizable populations.
 Majority of the populations were engaged in mixed farming. It is here (plateaus) that
sedentary agriculture had been started and advanced at least since 10, 000 years B. P.
by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic groups.
 The major economic activity of the Omotic has been:-
mixed farming and trade in northern Omo
pastoralism and fishing predominantly practiced in southern Omo .
Many of the Omotic groups have also been famous in metallurgy, weaving and other
crafts.
 In the sparsely populated western lowland region, the dominant economic formations were
pastoralism, shifting agriculture, fishing, apiculture and hunting. For instance, sorghum,
millet, cotton and others have been largely cultivated in the lowlands along Ethio-Sudanese
border since antiquity.
 The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo Rivers have been shifting cultivators where
sorghum has been a staple food. Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle have high

15
 economic and social values. Berta and other Nilotes had trade and other social contacts with
northern Sudan.
2.4. Religion and Religious Processes
2.4.1. Indigenous Religion
 This includes a variety of religious beliefs and practices, which are native to the region and have
been followed by the local people since ancient times.
 A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is belief in one Supreme Being, but special powers are
attributed to natural phenomena, which are considered sacred. Spiritual functionaries:-
 officiate over rituals,
 propitiate divinities, and
 are held in a lot of respect as intermediaries between the society and spirits.
 Waqeffanna of Oromo
o Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa. Waqa's
power is manifested through the spirits called Ayyana. The major spirits include:-
 Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit)
 Atete (women or human and animal fertility spirit)
 Awayi/Tiyyana (sanctity spirit)
 Balas (victory spirit)
 Chato/Dora (wild animals defender spirit)
 Gijare/ Nabi (father and mother‟s spirit)
 Jaricha (peace spirit)
 Qasa (anti-disease spirit) etc.
 There is also a belief that the dead exist in the form of a ghost called Ekera in the surrounding
of his/her abode before death, or his/her cemetery (Hujuba).
o In the autumn and spring seasons every year at the edge of ever-flowing river and top of mountain
respectively, there is thanks giving festival called Irrecha besides New Year (Birbo) rite.
 Revered experts known as Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female) have maintained link between the
Ayyana and the believers. Qallu ritual house is called Galma located on hilltop or in the grove
of large trees.
 On Wednesday and Friday nights, there is Dalaga/ecstasy at which Qallu or Qallitti is
possessed by Ayyana so that s/he can interpret mysteries. The Jila/Makkala (delegated
messengers) used to make pilgrimage to get consecration of senior Qallu (Abba Muda or
anointment father) until about 1900. Abba Muda had turban surrirufa of tri-colors: black at
top, red at center and white at bottom representing those in pre-active life, active (luba) and
those in post-active life respectively.
 Hadiya
 Among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as Waa, who is believed to exist before everything
(hundam issancho) or create world (qoccancho) and whose eyes are represented by elincho (sun) and
agana (moon). The major spirits include:-
 Jara (male‟s protector)
 Idota (female‟s guard)
 Hausula, Qedane and Warriqa attracted prayers and sacrifices at Shonkolla and Kallalamo
mountains chosen by Anjancho and Jaramanjcho.
 One of Hadiya's clans, Worqimene, is believed to have the power to send rain in drought. Fandanano
(sing. Fandancho) practice is believed to be introduced by either spiritual leaders, Itto and Albaja
from Bimado clan, or Boyamo, father of five Hadiya clans, and was largely followed by inhabitants
of Boshana, Misha etc.

16
 The Kambata
 have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God and
 religious officials known as Magnancho.
 The Gedeo
 called the Supreme Being, Mageno and
 In Gede’uffa the word Dararo literally refers to flower. Its thanks giving festival/ceremony
performed just after the harvest season every year in January, accompanied by praying
ceremony.
 The Konso religion centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh.
 The Gojjam Agaw used to call the Supreme Being Diban (Sky God).
 Among sections of the Gurage, there have been:-
 Waq/Goita (supreme deity),
 Bozha (thunder God) and
 Damwamwit (health Goddess).
 The Gurage and the Yem had a common deity known as Abba at Enar (Henar).
 The Yem
 worshipped Ha’o (Sky God).
 So‟ala clan was considered as the top in religious duties as it was in charge of Shashokam (the
most vital deity).
 Religious functions were performed through couriers in each village called Magos.
 The Konta‟s spirit-cult was called Docho.
 The Wolayta
 The Wolayta called God Tosa and spirit Ayyana. These spirits include:-
Tawa-Awa /Moytiliya (father‟s spirit),
Sawuna (justice spirit),
Wombo (rain spirit),
Micho (goat spirit),
Nago (sheep spirit),
Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit),
Gomashera (war spirit),
Talahiya (Beta Talaye or talheya, Omo spirit) etc.
 In Wolayta:-
Dufuwa (grave) was believed to be abode of Moytiliya.
Annual worship of spirits was performed at a sacred place called Mitta usually at the end of
May and beginning of June to offer sacrifice of the first fruits called Teramo or Pageta
(Dubusha).
During annual worship, people gathered around tree called Dongowa, which varied from
clan to clan. Example:-
 sycamore (Ficussur exasperate) for the Bubula
 podocarpo for Zatuwa etc.
The Qesiga called their meeting place Kasha (Dabre).
To protect people from eating crop before harvesting Zomboro clan used Diqaysa
practice by planting in their fields sour olive and nubica trees.
 The Wolayta also:-
had the practice of Chaganna (prohibited days to work) to protect produce from disaster.
chose and kept dark brown heifer called Beka (Beqabe) or Baqa Potilliya (Literally,
ritual cattle) as birthday fate. If they made error in respecting this custom, they would
anoint their bodies with a leaf called Aydameta (ground red pepper) as repentance.
17
 Religious practitioners known as Sharechuwa had Becha or Kera Eza Keta (ritual
house).
The Walayta‟s New Year is known as Gifata.
 The Keficho called:-
 Supreme Being as Yero;
 Spirit as Eqo
 A person who hosts Eqo, as Alamo or eke-nayo.
 Father of all spirits dochi or dehe-tateno and its host dochi-nayo or Ibedechino/Ibede-gudeno
(including Arito and Wudia Riti), with residence at Adio.
 Harvest spirit Kollo and sacrifice to it dejo.
 Earth and area spirits as Showe-kollo and Dude-baro respectively.
 There are also local spirits like:-
 damochechi of Channa
 yaferochi of Sharada and
 wogidochi of Adio
 In Keficho, gepetato or king of hill identified by Yetecho clan as landowner.
 Members of the Dugo clan led spiritual services.
 The Boro-Shinasha people believe in super natural power called Iqa, which created everything and
presides over the universe. The indigenous religion elements prescribe praying for the prevention of
drought, flooding, erosion, disease and starvation within the community and their surrounding
environment. Among various prayer rituals:-
 The first is Gure Shuka for preservation of their locality through slaughtering animals by
calling the name of God being at the tip of the mountains.
 The second is Shode De’na, praying and slaughtering when unexpected disease happens.
 The third is Marrowa Shuka; slaughtering for children to grow without disease and to
prevent children from evil spirits attack; for rehabilitation of wealth; to promote harmonious
way of life and productivities in the family.
 The rituals are led by recognized elders, whose pray and bless are trusted to reach God among the
three clans: Enoro, Endiwo and Dowa.
 The Nuer:
 believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven), but believe in the coming of God through rain,
lightning and thunder, and rainbow is necklace of God. Sun and moon as well as other
entities are also manifestation or sign of God. There are also spirits associated with clan-
spears names such as WiW (spirit of war) associated with thunder.
 believe that when a person dies, flesh is committed to earth while breath or life goes back to
Kuoth and soul that signifies human personality remains alive as a shadow or a reflection,
and departs together with ox sacrificed to place of ghosts.
 An interesting feature of indigenous religion is the way its practices and beliefs are fused with
Christianity and Islam. This phenomenon of mixing of religions is known as syncretism.
2.4.2. Judaism
 Judaism is considered as the expression of the covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah (God) established
with the ancient Jewish (Hebrew). Sources indicate that Judaism:-
 has been followed in Ethiopia and the Horn by peoples since early times.
 began to be clearly noticed in the 4th century AD, when the Bete-Israel (literally, house of
Israel), one of the ancient peoples in the region, refused to be converted to Christianity.
 The Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot (religious practices, which are generally recognized as
Israelite religion that differs from Rabbinic Judaism). Many of the Bete-Israel accounts of their

18
 own origins stress that they stem from the very ancient migration of some portion of the Tribe of
Dan to Ethiopia, led it is said by sons of Moses, perhaps even at the time of the Exodus (1400-
1200 B.C.). Alternative timelines include perhaps the later crises in Judea, e.g., split of the
northern Kingdom of Israel from the southern Kingdom of Judah after the death of King
Solomon or Babylonian Exile.
 Other Bete-Israel take as their basis the account of return to Ethiopia of Menilek I, who is
believed to be the son of King Solomon (r. 974-932 B.C.) of ancient Israel and Makeda, ancient
Queen of Saba (Sheba), and considered to be the first Solomonic Emperor of Ethiopia.
 Another group of Jews is said to have been arrived in Ethiopia led by Azonos and Phinhas in 6th
century A.D. Still others are said to have been Jewish immigrants intermarried with the Agaws.
Whatever the case, the Jews appear to have been isolated from mainstream Jewish for at least a
millennium. The Jewish developed and lived for centuries in northern and northwestern Ethiopia.
2.4.3. Christianity
 Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D. during the reign of King Ezana (r. 320-360), who
embraced Christianity dropping pre-Christian gods like:-
 Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god)
 Arwe (serpent-python god)
 Bahir (sea god) and
 Midir (earth god).
 Instrumental in conversion of king Ezana were Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Frementius
(Fremnatos).
 When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria, Patriarch
Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him as the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox Church
(EOC).
 Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt continued until 1959, when Abune
Baslios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch.
 Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society in later part of fifth century, during
the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine Saints shown in the table below:
Table 1: The Nine Saints
Name Origin Church/Monastery Location of the Church
1.Abuna Aregawwi (Abba Za Mika‟el) Rome Debre Damo Eastern Tigray
2.Abuna Isaq (Abba Gerima) Rome Debre Gerima Medera (East of Adwa )
3.Abba Pentelwon Rome Debre Pentelwon Asbo (North East of Aksum)
4.Abba Afse Ladocia Debre Afse Yeha (Northeast of Aksum)
5.Abba Alef Qa‟esare‟a Debre Haleluya Biheza (Northeast of Aksum)
6.Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera
7.Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre Qonasel North of Aksum
8.Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of Adwa
9.Abba Yima‟ata Qosa‟iti Debre Yima‟ata Ger‟alta
Source: Sergew Hable Sellassie, Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270 (Addis Ababa:
Haile- Selassie I University Press, 1972), pp.115-9.
 The saints also translated Bible and other religious books into Geez.
 Then expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period (1150-1270) and chiefly gained fresh
momentum during the early Medieval Period (1270-1527), when many churches and monasteries were
constructed. These include:-
 Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela
 Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea
 Debra-Hayiq in Wollo
 Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq in Gojjam

19
  Debra-Libanos in Shewa
 Birbir Mariam in Gamo and
 Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar
 These churches and monasteries are not merely religious centers, but served through the ages as
repositories of ancient manuscripts and precious objects of art.
 From mid-sixteenth to the early seventeenth centuries, Jesuits tried to convert Monophysite
EOC to Dyophysite Catholic. Yet, this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the
Jesuits. However, the Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies within EOC.
 As of 1804, missionaries‟ religious expansion was one of the dominant themes of treaties
concluded between European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities.
 The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder), Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin order
founder), Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie were active.
 Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary Society of London
(CMSL) and Wesleyan Methodist Society led Protestant missionaries and their major leaders
were Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf.
 Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled them to win confidence of local people. They
translated spiritual books into vernaculars. They adopted old names for Supreme Being like
Waqayyo, Tosa etc and used them in new versions as equivalent to God. Village schools were
established as centers of preaching the faith. These schools were open to all children of chiefs and
farmers. They also provided medical facilities. All these attracted a large number of followers.
Eventually, continuous and systematic indoctrinations seem to have resulted in grafting of new
teaching on indigenous religion.
2.4.4. Islam
 When Prophet Mohammed started the teaching of Islam in Mecca in 610 AD, he faced opposition
from the Quraysh rulers. Under this circumstance, the Prophet sent some of his early followers
including his daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman as well as the Prophet's future wives
Umm Habiba and Umm Salma to Aksum.
 The first group of refugees was led by Jafar Abu Talib. In his advice to his followers, the Prophet
said of Ethiopia, "…a king under whom none are persecuted. It is a land of righteousness,
where God will give relief from what you are suffering."
 The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash in
Arabic sources), gave asylum for the refugees from 615-628.
 Leaders of the Quraysh asked Armah to repatriate the refugees, but the king did not
comply. Armah is said to have replied, "If you were to offer me a mountain of gold I would
not give up these people who have taken refuge with me.”
 Subsequently,
 Islam spread to the Horn of Africa not through Jihad, but through peaceful ways
including trade.
 Islam was well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on the Red Sea by the beginning of
eighth century. In the early tenth century, the Muslim community on the islands
developed a sultanate.
 In due course, Muslims settled other places on the Red Sea coast. It was from these coastal areas
that Islam gradually spread among the predominantly pastoral communities of the interior, largely
through the agency of preachers and merchants.
 Notwithstanding the debates, the Dahlak route played a minor role in introduction of Islam into
the interior of the country because:-
 Christianity was strongly entrenched as a state religion in Aksum and later states of
northern Ethiopia and

20
  open proselytization of Islam was prohibited. Thus, the port of Zeila on western coast of
Gulf of Aden served as an important gateway for the introduction of Islam mainly into
the present day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe.
 Islam firmly established itself in the coastal areas by the eighth and ninth centuries. From there,
it radiated to central, southern, and eastern Ethiopia through the role of Muslim clerics who
followed in the footsteps of traders. In this regard, it should be noted that Sheikh Hussein of
Bale, a Muslim saint of medieval period, played very important role in the expansion of Islam into
Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. Another Islamic center in
this region is Sof Umar shrine.
 Islam was introduced into Somali territories in 8th century A. D. through Benadir coasts of
Moqadishu, Brava and Merca. Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu Minirate
c.1269.
 Islam was further expanded by mystical orders (turuq, singular tariqa). Among these,
 The Qadiriyya (named after Hanbali jurist Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani, 1077-1166) emphasized
collective devotion (hadra).
 The Ahmadiyya, which had been set up by Ahmad Ibn Idris al Fasi of Fez in Morocco
(1760-1837) stressed austerity, turban and veil. It had contacts with Tijaniyya (named
after Abu al-Abbas Ahmad b. Muhammad b. al-Mukhtar al Tijani, 1737-1815) and
Summaniyya (named after Muhammad b. Abd al-Karim al Sammāni, 1718-75). The sheiks
of these orders expanded Islam as far as the Gibe region. The mosques, Islamic learning
and pilgrimage centers have been the depositories of cultures, traditions and literature of
local Muslims.

UNIT THREE
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF THE
THIRTEENTH CENTURY
3.1. Emergence of States
 The beginning of sedentary agriculture was one important factor for the emergence of states.
 The growth of trade also facilitated the development of states.
 State:-
 refers to an autonomous political unit having population, defined territory, sovereignty
and government with the power to decree and enforce laws.
 was the outcome of regular cultural process. In this regard, it should be emphasized that,
states arose independently in different places and at different times. Favorable
environmental conditions helped to hasten the rate of transformation in some regions.
 Religion is also the other factor for the emergence of states. The first states were theocratic states
and priests (shaman) maintained the social and religious affairs of their people. As production
became market oriented, the priests were gradually replaced by chiefs, who began collecting
regular and compulsory tributes known as protection payments with which they maintained
themselves; their supporters chiefly the army, the bureaucracy and other followers.
 Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa, where early state formation took place.
From small beginnings, such states gradually developed into powerful kingdoms and even
empires with a well-demarcated social structure. Geographical proximity to and control of the
international water bodies like Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean along with their ports as
well as rich interior favored some of them to become stronger than their neighbors and eventually
dominated them.
3.2. Ancient States
3.2.1. North and Northeast

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A. Punt
 Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 The evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian hieroglyphic writings, accompanied by vivid
paintings; tell of a series of naval expeditions, which the Egyptian Pharaohs sent to Punt.
 Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) sent expedition to collect myrrh, ebony and electrum (gold
and silver alloy).
 During Pharaoh Asosi, treasurer of God Bawardede took dancing dwarf “dink" to Egypt from
Punt.
 The best described and illustrated expedition was the one undertaken by the order of the famous
Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.), whose expedition is documented at her tomb in
Dier El Bahri. She sent five ships under the leadership of Black Nubian Captain Nehasi via Wadi-
Tumilat. The expedition:-
 was warmly welcomed by the Puntites King Perehu, his wife Ati, sons, daughters
and followers.
 was able to return collecting frank incense, cinnamon, sweet smelling woods
(sandal), spices, ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard and leopard skins, ostrich feathers
and egg, live monkeys, giraffes, people etc. Hatshepsut presented some parts of the
items to her god, Amun.
 It was because of the ritual importance of their exports that Puntites were also known as Khebis of
the Ta Netjeru (divine or ghosts land). Iron, bronze, asses, foxes, cattle, animals fur, dying and
medicinal plants were also exported from Punt to Egypt. In return, axes, daggers, swords, knives,
sickles, clothes, bracelets, necklaces, beads and other trinkets were imported from Egypt to Punt.
Scholars have not reached agreement as to the exact location of Punt. The varieties of incense and myrrh
mentioned in the writings have suggested northern or northeastern Somalia to some scholars while others
are inclined more towards Northern Ethiopia because of the reference to gold, ebony and monkeys. The
latter reinforce their guess arguing that at that early period, Egyptian sailboats might not have been strong
enough to pass through the Strait of Babel Mandeb into the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean.
Considering the two suggestions, still some others argue that it was probably stretched from Swakim or
Massawa to Babel Mandeb (Gate of Tears) and Cape Gardafui.

B. Da‟amat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea

 The state known as Da‟amat had a center a little to the south of Aksum.
 Inscription of the king of Da‟amat tentatively dated to the fifth century BC shows that he used
politico-religious title known as Mukarib.
 Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah (principal god), Astater (Venus god), Na’uran (light
god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god) were worshipped in the domain of the Da‟amat state
and other northern Ethiopian pre-Aksumite cultural centers. There were similar practices in South
Arabia at the time.
 There were a number of cultural centers in northern Ethiopia. The major ones are:
Yeha:
 is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and was the oldest of these centers.
 probably emerged around 1, 000 BC as a small emporium where South Arabian merchants and
their agents bought and stored ivory, rhinoceros horn and other commodities coming from the
interior.
 It seems that the period of its prosperity (zenith) was from about 750 to 500 B.C. Remains of walls
of some of its buildings and stone masonry as well as still standing temple and inscriptions indicate
Yeha‟s glory.
Hawulti Melazo:

22
  is situated to southeast of Aksum, where stone tablets that are inscribed in rectangular temple
surrounded by a wall decorated with paintings representing herds of cattle have been excavated.
Addi-Seglemeni:
 is located at 10kms southwest of Aksum, from where a stone slab is fetched and the oldest
Ethiopian monumental inscription is discovered.
 There were also other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi
Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda etc.
C. The Aksumite State
 The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C.
 Initially, its power was limited to a relatively small area comprising the town of Aksum and its
environs. Gradually, however, it expanded to include large territories in all directions.
 In its heyday, Aksumite territories extended from the Red Sea coast in the East to the Western
edge of Ethiopian plateau overlooking the vast Nile Valley in the west and from the northern
most corner of Eritrea and possibly as far south as northern parts of Shewa.
 According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea, Adulis on the western coast of the Red Sea was the major
port of Aksum. The long distance trade routes from Adulis and other posts on the Red Sea coast
passed inland through such centers as Kaskasse, Coloe, Matara and even further west across Takaze
River. The document also mentioned ports of Aden (Eudaemon) Gulf like Avalites (Zayla) and
Malao (Berbera), and Indian Ocean Benadir Coasts like Serapion (Moqadishu), Nicon (Brava)
and Merca.
 The major items of export of the Aksumite state consisted mainly of the natural products such as
ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and some spices (like ginger, cassia and cinnamon), gold,
rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and some curiosity animals like apes.
 The Aksumite state imported a number of manufactured products like garments and textiles
from Egypt, India, Roman Empire, and Persia; glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other
places; metallic sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from Roman Empire and
Syria.
 Zoscales (c. 76-89), the then king of Aksum, used to communicate in Greek language, Lingua
Franca of Greco-Roman world. Aksum also had relations with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Laodicea
(Asia Minor).
 The Adulis inscription written in Greek about an unknown king, which eventually was published in
Cosmas Indicopleustes‟ book, the Christian Topography, describes commercial activities of the
Red Sea areas. It also mentions the internal long distance trade between Aksum and a distant region
called Sasu, most probably in Beni Shangul and the adjoining lands beyond the Blue Nile. A big
caravan made up of close to five hundred merchants some of them special agents of the kings of
Aksum would take to Sasu cattle, lumps of salt (probably salt blocks) and iron to exchange for
gold. Yet, as they did not speak each other‟s language, and did not even trust to be near to each
other to bargain through signs and gestures, the whole exchange was done without one side seeing
the other. This was a good example of silent trade.
Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside world notably with the South
Arabian region, leading to exchange of ideas, material and spiritual culture. Sometimes such
contacts involved conflicts between the two regions. One of such known recorded conflict
between areas on both sides of the sea took place around 200 A.D. Accordingly, peoples in
Southern Arabian Peninsula, in present day Yemen, had difficulties in defending themselves
against the army of the Aksumite king, Gadarat.
Aksumite kings like Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II, etc. minted and issued
different kinds of coins in gold, silver and bronze for both overseas and local transactions from
the third to seventh centuries. Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e.

23
 Roman Empire, Persia, China and Aksum) at the time. It was a major naval and trading
power from the first to the seventh centuries. Aksumite ships were the main means of
transporting goods. Aksum was the only one with sufficient sources of timber for
shipbuilding and in those days, the technology for it existed in Adulis. Aksum had a large
fleet of ships, which was used not only for trade but also for its wars across the Red Sea.
 Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond Himyar and Saba, but the
local prince Dhu-Nuwas was converted to Judaism, marched to Zafar and Nagran, and killed
many Christians.
Byzantine Vasaliev Justinian (r. 527-65) with sanctification of Patriarch Timit III (518-538)
provided Kaleb with a number of ships transporting armies led by Julianos and Nonossus
against Dhu Nuwas. Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha as governor of
Arabia that continued until 570 A. D.
Kaleb was succeeded by his son Gabra Masqal (535-48) who built church at Zur Amba in
Gayint.
 It was during Gabra Maskal that Yared developed Ethiopian Orthodox Church liturgical
songs and hymns.
 The Aksumite state had begun to decline since the late seventh century because of internal and
external challenges.
Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural productivity and possibly plague
infestation started to weaken it.
With the destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702, the international
lifeline of the state was cut. The whole network of Aksumite international trade came under
the control of the rising and expanding Arab Muslims, and Aksumite state was isolated
from its old commercial and diplomatic partners. Consequently, the Aksumite state
declined economically. This naturally led to the decline of its political and military power
not only on the Red Sea coast but also in its interior provinces, where Aksumite hegemony
was challenged by local rebellions.
The recurring rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit)
finally sealed the collapse of the Aksumite state.
 However, as a civilization, Aksum had a profound impact upon the peoples of the Horn of Africa
and beyond, and on its successors i. e. the Zagwe, „Solomonic Dynasty‟, the Gondarine period etc.
 Some of the achievements of Aksum include:-
Sub-Saharan Africa‟s only surviving indigenous script and calendar as well as
EOC hymns and chants, paintings etc.
diversified ceramic and lithic tools
ivory curving
urbanization and sophisticated building traditions (palaces, stele, rock-hewn churches…).
complex administrative and governance system, and agricultural system including irrigation
etc.
D. Zagwe Dynasty
 After its decline, the center of Aksumite state shifted southwards to Kubar rural highland in the
territory of the Agaw, one of the ancient inhabitants of the land between the Eritrean Plateau and
Jema River, and to the west up to the Blue Nile valleys. This apparently gave Agaw elites the
opportunity to take part in Aksumite state structure serving as soldiers and functionaries for at
least four centuries.
 After integrating so well with Aksumite ruling class, the Agaw successfully took over the state
administration. Accordingly, the Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot married Masobe Worq, the
daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od. Later he overthrew his father-in-law and took control

24
 of power. Merra-Tekle-Haimanot's successors include Yimirahana Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela
(1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab, Yetbarek etc. Notwithstanding the debates, the Zagwe Dynasty is
believed to have ruled from C. 1150 to 1270.
 The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District within Wag and Lasta, more exactly at
Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).
 The territory of the Zagwe kingdom extended from most of the highland provinces of the
ancient Aksumite kingdom in the north down to northern Shewa in the south; the Lake
Tana region and the northern part of what is today Gojjam in the west.
 The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite traditions almost intact.
 Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with eastern Mediterranean region. The
most important export items included slaves, ivory and rare spices while cotton, linen,
silver and copper vessels, various types of drags and newly minted coins were
imported.
 The Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's paintings and the translation of some
of religious works from Arabic into Ge'ez. That said, Zagwe rulers are best known for
the construction of cave, semi-hewn and monolithic churches:
1. Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar with natural cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel.
2. Semi-hewn: with detailed interior decoration and partial decoration outside. They are not totally
separated from surrounding rock. Their roofs or walls are still attached to rock, eg. Bete Denagil,
Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri‟el-Rufa‟el and Bete
Abba Libanos.
3. Monolithic: with detailed decoration inside including roof and outside. They are completely
separated (carved out) from surrounding rock, eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam
and Bete Medhanialem.
 Among the eleven churches of Lalibela:-
 Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all.
 Bete Giyorgis is said to be the most finely built in the shape of the cross.
 Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem, and mitigate or even avoid difficulties,
which Ethiopian Christians encountered in journey to Holy Lands at least once in their
lifetime. This was done by constructing churches based on the model of Holy Lands in Israel.
 The Zagwe Dynasty came to end due to:-
 internal problems of royal succession and
 oppositions from groups claiming descent from the ancient rulers of Aksum.
The groups claiming descent from the ancient rulers of Aksum, considered Zagwe kings “illegitimate rulers”
based on the legend of the Queen of Sheba. The legend was in turn based on a book known as Kebra Negest
(Glory of Kings) that was translated from Coptic to Arabic and then into Ge‟ez. Based on the legend, the
power claimants contend that “Solomonic” Dynasty ruled the Aksumite state until its power was “usurped”
by the Zagwes. Yekuno Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent from the last Aksumite king Dilna‟od,
organized his forces being assisted by the ecclesiastical hierarchy and engaged the last king of Zagwe,
Yetbarek in battle. Yetbarek was killed in Gaynt and Yekuno Amlak took the state power contending the
“restoration” of “Solomonic” Dynasty.
3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States
3.2.2.1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat
A. Bizamo:
 was a kingdom located on the southern bend of Abay River just opposite to the present districts of
Gojjam and around the current Wambara area.
 was founded in the eighth century and had early connections with Damot.
B. Damot:

25
  was strong kingdom that expanded its territories into most of the lands to south of Abay and north
of Lake Turkana as well as west of Awash and east of Didessa.
 Motalami was its prominent king in the thirteenth century.
C. Enarya:
 was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia. The royal clan was Hinnare
Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso).
 In the ninth century, Aksumite king Digna-Jan is said to have led a campaign into Enarya,
accompanied by Orthodox Christian priests carrying arks of covenant (tabots).
 Enarya kingship was a divine one: the king (Hinnare-Tato) was secluded and considered as sacred.
He communicated visitors through an intermediary, AfeBusho. The real power rested with
Mikretcho (council) including Awa-rasha (king's spokesman) and Atche-rasha (royal treasurer).
The kings had residences in Yadare and Gowi.
D. Gafat:
 historically, the territory of Gafat lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining Damot on the
south western periphery of the Christian Kingdom.
 was inhabited by Semitic speaking population related to Adere and the Gurage. It is not clear
from available records whether the Gafat formed a “state” or not, but Gafat mountains provided a
rich source of gold.
 Despite efforts by Christian evangelists, the Gafat largely remained practitioners of their own
indigenous religion.
 As of early medieval period, Gafat was paying tribute to the Christian Kingdom mainly in cattle
which came from six districts, among which Gambo and Shat are Gafat clan names.
 The province was ruled by the title of Awalamo.
3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates
After the spread of Islam since the beginning of the eighth century, viable Muslim communities and states
had been established at many locations especially along the main trade routes from Zeila and its many
branches penetrating the interior. These states include:
A. Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent from Meca, set up Makhzumite
Sultanate in 896 A. D (283 A.H.) on northeastern foothill of Shewa.
B. Dahlak:
 This sultanate seemed to have emerged in the beginning of the tenth century AD.
 located within the Red Sea and served as a gate way of Islam. In this direction Islam could not
penetrate deep into the interior of northern Ethiopia because local Christian rulers opposed open
Islamic activities from this Island.
C. Ifat:
 was a state located in the adjacent to Shewan Sultanate. Its territory ran from northeast
southwesterly in the Afar plain eastward to the Awash.
 established by Umar Walasma, who claimed decent from Hashamite clan and came from Arabia
between 1271 and 1285. He intervened between quarrelsome Makzumite princes Dil-Marrah and
Dil-Gamis, weakened and annexed the sultanate of Shewa. The sultanate was fertile and well
watered.
 Its inhabitants earned their living from cultivation of wheat, sorghum, millet and teff, and animal
husbandry. Sugar cane, bananas, variety of fruits, beans, squashes, cucumbers, and cabbage
completed the diet. Chat was described for the first time as being consumed as a stimulant.
 Descendants of Walasma ruling family established another strong Muslim sultanate called Adal.
D. Fatagar:
 was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada‟a in the eleventh century.

26
  was a hilly lowland area with thoroughly cultivated fields of wheat and barley, fruits, and extensive
grazing grounds full of numerous herds of cattle, sheep and goats.
E. Dawaro:
 located south of Fatagar between upper waters of Awash and Wabi-Shebelle extending to
Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast. We have valuable information on Dawaro by an
Egyptian courtier Ibn Fad Allah el-umari.
 was much smaller than Ifat, but resembled.
 have a currency called hakuna in which transition takes place.
F. Bali:
 was an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau, separating basins of Shebelle and Rift valley
Lakes.
 was separated from Dawwaro by the Wabi-Shebelle River and extended southwards to the Gannale
Dirre River.
 was one of the largest of Ethiopia‟s Muslim provinces. Its economic activity resembles those of
other nearby Muslim lands. Trade was mainly based on barter exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth etc.
 had strong army composed of cavalry and infantry.
G. Others: mutually independent states like Arababani (between Hadiya and Dawwaro), Biqulzar,
Dera (between Dawaro and Bali), Fadise, Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah
(West of Dawaro and North of Bali in Arsi) and Sim were established and flourished.
3.3. External Contacts
 Ethiopia and the Horn had:-
 Contacts with Egypt since at least 3,000 B. C. These relations may be the region‟s earliest contacts
with the Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World.
 Very close relations with all commercially active South Arabian Kingdoms starting sometimes
before 1,000 B.C.
 The introduction of Christianity to Aksum established a new pattern of relation between the
region and Egypt.
 Until the introduction of Islam into Egypt and the general reduction of the Christians into
minority, relations between the two were fairly smooth and friendly.
 Following the introduction of Christianity, Aksum had established close relationship with
the East Roman or Byzantine Empire with which it shared common commercial interest
in the Red Sea area against their rival Persians. Yet, in the seven century, this relation
became complicated and began to deteriorate. The rapid expansion of the Muslim Arabs
through the Near and Middle East, North Africa and the Nile valley led to the decline of
Aksumite land routes and shipping lines. Successive Egyptian Muslim rulers began to use
the consecration and sending of a bishop as an instrument to further their own foreign policy
objectives and to squeeze concessions from Ethiopian Christian rulers, who reacted by
threatening to divert the Nile. The coming to power of the Mamluk was followed by the
reciprocal persecution of religious minorities. Moreover, the Mamluk presented a barrier to
the contacts between Christian Ethiopia and European states.
 However, the tradition to visit Jerusalem and other Holy places in the Middle East had begun at
the end of the first millennium AD.
 In order to arrive at Holy places, Ethiopian Christian pilgrims used the land route to
Egypt. From Cairo, again they used the land route to the Holy land. Consequently, there
were considerable numbers of Ethiopian Christian communities found in different regions,
in Egyptian monasteries, in the Holy places of Palestine and Armenia, and in Italian
city-states in subsequent centuries.

27
  The communities living in different parts of the world served as an important link or
bridge between Ethiopian Christian Kingdom and Europe. When pilgrims met their
fellow Christians of Europe in the Holy places, they transmitted information about the EOC
and its exceptional liturgical practices. They also explained about the territorial extent of the
Christian Kingdom. From the information, the Europeans began to consider Ethiopian
Christian Kingdom as a very powerful and wealthy state existing in the Horn of Africa.
Consequently, they wanted to use this imaginary strong Christian power against the Muslim
powers in the Holy land.
 Around the middle of the 12th century, a myth about a very rich and powerful Christian ruler
known as Prester John began to circulate in Europe. The legend was developed when the
balance of the crusade war fought over Jerusalem between the Christians of Europe and the
Muslims of the Middle East was in favor of the latter. In 1165, a letter addressed to European
kings, thought to be sent by the Prester John appeared in Europe mentioning about the enormous
power of the Prester John. The geographical location of the country of Prester John was not
known to Europe for over a century. However, the Europeans began to regard Ethiopian
Christian Kingdom as the land of Prester John since the only Christian kingdom between the
Red Sea and the Indian sub-continent was the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom. Then, they began to
search for the location of the Kingdom and to make an alliance with it.
3.4. Economic Formations
A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System
 The main stay of ancient states' economy in highland areas was plough agriculture. The mastery
of the technology of irrigation also contributed to the growth of agricultural production. Small
valley head wetlands were drained for dry season cultivation that provided an important hungry
season grains before main upslope harvest has been available. The people used diverse soil fertility
enhancement strategies like manure, compost and spreading residues‟ ashes as well as fallowing,
crop rotation, intercropping and contour plowing. In times of labor shortage, farmers also developed
teamwork.
 Land has always been one of the most precious possessions of human society throughout history.
The rules according to which members of the society hold, share and use land constitute what is
known as the land tenure system. It has been since ancient time that the traditional system of land
tenure seems to have developed. The most ancient system of land holding which survived in many
parts of Ethiopia and the Horn is the communal land tenure system. Communal right to land is a
group right. Here group refers to the family, the clan and the other lineage groups to which the
individual belonged. Each of these groups had communal right to the land they lived in and freely
exploited the resources of the land.
Peasants in the north had rist rights in their respective areas.
 Rist is a kind of communal birthright to land by members of the families and clans whose
ancestors had settled and lived in the area over long periods. It is inherited from generation
to generation in accordance to with customary law. All the subjects of the state had the rist
rights.
 The rist owners were known as bale-rist. Yet, they paid tributes to the state and all land
belonged to the state theoretically.
Tribute was collected through a complex hierarchy of state functionaries or officials who were
given gult right over the areas and populations they administered on behalf of the central
government.
 Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners‟ produce. The tribute collected by bale gults,
partly allotted for their own up keep and the rest were sent to the imperial center.

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  Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult as famous well-placed officials
used to transfer their position to their offspring.
B. Handicraft
 Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since the ancient period. The social, economic and
political conditions of ancient states had allowed the emergence of artisans in various fields with
diverse forms and applications including metalwork, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry,
weaving, jewellery, basketry and others.
 However, except the carpenters and masons in some cases, the artisans were mostly despised and
marginalized. The ruling classes mostly spent their accumulated wealth on imported luxurious
items rather than the domestic technology. The general public attitude towards artisans was not at
all encouraging. Consequently, the locally produced agricultural implements and house furniture
did not show any significant improvement and sophistication.
C. Trade
 Trade was another important economic activity of ancient states that obtained considerable income
from both internal and international trade. The major socio-economic and political centers of
earliest states seem to have also been major trade centers with wide ranging contacts in various
directions within the region itself and with merchants coming to the area across the international
water bodies.
 A network of roads connected the centers with the coast and various dependencies in the interior.
Local and international merchants frequented these roads. The region was crisscrossed by various
trade routes connecting various market places in all directions. The regular flow of trade was so
vital to the states in that one of their major concerns was to protect the trade routes and make them
safe from robbers.
3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements
A. Architecture
 As the states expanded, architecture also began to flourish and one of the unique architectural
technologies was the engraving of stele around the third century AD. There were totally fifty
eight steles in and around Aksum that can be grouped into:-
 well-made and decorated,
 half completed and
 megaliths (not hewn).
 As local tradition says, the steles were engraved specifically at Gobodara from which they were
transported and planted in Aksum.
 The longest one of these stele:-
 measures 33meters heights (the first in the world).
 is highly decorated in all of its four sides. It represents a-14 storied building
with many windows and a false door at the bottom.
 bears pre-Christian symbols, which are a disc and a crescent (half moon) at the top.
Some scholars suggest that this giant stele was broken while the people were trying
to erect it while others claim that it was broken during war.
 The second longest obelisk measures 24 meters height that was successfully erected.
 It represents a ten-storied building with many windows and a false door at the bottom.
 The third longest stele measures 21 meters
 It represents a nine-storied building with many windows and a false door at the bottom.
 It is smooth at the back of its side.
 It is without any decoration.
 The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the finest architecture of artistic achievements of
the Christian world and that is why they were registered by UNESCO as part of world cultural

29
 heritage in 1978, two years before that of the Aksumite stele. Further refinement can be observed
in the construction and decoration of the rockhewn churches in the Zagwe period. Zagwe
architecture used a softer material like sandstone, which was cut and shaped all round, except the
floor, into a variety of delicately decorated churches.
B. Writing System
 The Sabean language had an alphabet with boustrophedon writing type that is paleographical
writing from left to right and right to left alternatively.
The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia date to the ninth century BC.
One peculiar feature of Sabean inscriptions is absence of vowels as most of the words are
written in consonants. For instance, Da‟amat was described as D‟mt, while its successive
kings as RDM, RBH and LMN using title, mlkn.
 After the seventh and sixth centuries BC, however, variants of script arose, evolving in the
direction of the Geʽez script (an alpha syllabary). This evolution can be seen most clearly in
evidence from inscriptions mainly graffiti on rocks and caves.
By the first century AD, "Geʽez alphabet" arose, an abjad (26 consonant letters only)
written left-to-right with letters identical to the first-order forms of modern vocalized
alphabet.
Though the first completely vocalized texts known are inscriptions by Ezana (who left
trilingual inscriptions in Greek, Sabean and Ge'ez) c. 330 AD, vocalized letters predate
him by some years, as vocalized letter exists in Wazeba‟s coin some 30 or so years before.
The process was developed under the influence of Christian scripture by adding vocalic
diacritics for vowels, u, i, a, e, ə, o, to the consonantal letters in a recognizable but slightly
irregular way, so that the system is laid out as a syllabary.
 Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system has immense contribution to the development of
literature, art and the writing of history.
C. Calendar
 People needed to know and remember the times when the rains would begin and end as well as the
rise and fall of the water level. The responsibility of understanding these vital climatic cycles fell on
expertise. In due course, calendars were invented. Calendars were developed and adopted among
various peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Oromo calendar:-
has been based on astronomical observations of moon in conjunction with seven or eight
particular stars or group of stars called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars) and Bakkalcha
(morning star).
has 29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in 12 months of a year.
Pillars (dated 300 B.C.), which were discovered in northwestern Kenya from 1978-86 by
Archaeologists Lynch, Robbins and Doyl have suggested to represent site used to develop
Oromo calendar. In connection with this, c. 900 A. D. Oromo person Waqlim is said to
have taken art of shaping phallic bowls to Zimbabwe.
 The Sidama calendar:-
rotates following movements of stars with 13 months a year, 12 of which are divided equally
into 28 days while the thirteenth month has 29 days.
has a week that has only 4 days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and Qawalanka) and hence each
month has 7 weeks. Nominated Mote (King) is presented to Fiche Chambalala, New Year
ritual, for Qetela or popular demonstration.
 Ethiopic solar calendar
has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (is added every 4 years) Epagomenal days, which
comprise a thirteenth month.

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 A gap of 7–8 years between Ethiopic and Gregorian calendars results from alternative
calculation in determining date of Annunciation. Thus, the first day of the year, 1
Meskerem/Enkutatash is usually September 11 (Gregorian). However, it falls on
September 12 in years before the Gregorian leap year.
has evolved to become the official calendar of the country.
 The Muslim (Islamic) calendar
is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days.
employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which Mohammed and his followers made flight from
Mecca to Medina and established the first Muslim community (ummah). Dates in this era
are usually denoted AH (After Hijra, "in the year of the Hijra"). Years prior to the Hijra are
reckoned as BH ("Before the Hijra").
 Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta, Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have their own
dating system.
D. Numerals
 Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of fourth century AD.
 Geʽez uses numeral system comparable to the Hebrew, Arabic and Greek numerals, but it lacks
individual characters for multiples of 100.
 Numbers are over- and underlined in proper typesetting, combined to make a single bar, but some
less sophisticated fonts cannot render this and show separate bars above and below each character.

UNIT FOUR
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE THIRTEENTH TO
THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURIES
4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic‟‟ Dynasty
 The rulers of the “Solomonic” Dynasty claimed that they were descendants of the last king of Aksum
(Dil Naod) and hence, they were legitimate to take over state power from the “illegitimate” rulers of
the Zagwe dynasty.
 The name “Solomonic” is placed in quotation marks because:-
 the claim has no historical evidence.
 the claim of descent from King Solomon of Israel is legendary. The claim has been elaborated in
the Kibre Negest (“Glory of Kings”) that associated Ethiopia with the Judeo-Christian tradition.
The Kibre Negest claims that Ethiopian ruling class descended from the line of Menilek I, son of
the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel. As a result, Ethiopian monarchs from Yikuno-
Amlak to Emperor Haile Silassie I claimed descent from Menilek I.
4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion and Religious Processes
4.2.1. Succession Problem and the Establishment of a „Royal Prison‟ of Amba Gishen
 Following the end of the reign of Yikuno-Amlak in 1285, a political instability caused by constant
power struggles among his sons and grandsons for succession occurred.
 A letter written by Yegba-Tsion (r.1285-94) to the Sultan of Egypt and the Patriarch of
Alexandria in 1290 reflected the existence of those struggles.
 The power struggle intensified during the reigns of Yegba-Tsion‟s five sons who reigned from
1294 to 1299.
 The succession problem seems to have been partly resolved in 1300 during the reign of Widim-
Ra‟ad (r. 1299-1314) following the establishment of a 'royal prison' at Amba-Gishen located in
present day southern Wollo. According to the rule:-
 All male members of the royal family were confined at the Amba.
 Loyal soldiers to the reigning monarch guarded the royal prison.

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  When the monarch died, court dignitaries would send an army to the royal prison to escort the
designated successor and put him on the throne. This practice continued until Amba-Gishen
was destroyed by Imam Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi's force in 1540.
4.2.2. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the Christian Kingdom
 From 1270 until the establishment of Gondar in 1636, the medieval monarchs had no permanent capital.
Initially, the center of the “restored” dynasty was in medieval Amhara (today‟s South Wollo) around
Lake Haiq. However, it gradually shifted southward to the districts of Menz, Tegulet, Bulga, and finally to
the regions dominated by the great height of the Yerer, Entoto, Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi and
Zequalla mountains.
 After coming to power, Yikuno-Amlak embarked onconsolidating his authority throughout the empire. In
this regard, he quickly subdued Ifat, the Muslim center adjacent to Shewa. Yet, until the coming of Amde-
Tsion (r.1314-44), the center and the territorial limit of the Christian Kingdom was mainly in present day
Tigray, Lasta, medieval Amhara and Shewa.
 Amde-Tsion (r.1314-44) was the first "Solomonic" King, who embarked on a policy of a wider and
rapid territorial expansion.
 Amde-Tsion „s main motives of expansion were economic and political i.e. to control the trade
routes and territorial seizures.
 During the reign Amde Tsion, the Christian Kingdom controlled extensive territories. As a result, he
was considered as the most expansionist king of medieval Ethiopia. His reign also witnessed the
expansion of trade leading to the flow of commodities to the coast following the major routes.
 In the process of consolidating his power, Amde Tsion subdued rebellions in an attempt to end
centrifugal tendencies, which threatened the unity of the Christian Kingdom. In the process, he
expanded his territory into Agaw (Awi) of Gojjam around 1323/4; Bizamo and Damot in 1316/7;
Bete-Israel (located between Dambiya and Tekeze River) around 1332; and the Red Sea Coast. He
gave Enderta (in today‟s northeastern Tigray) to his wife Bilen-Saba to consolidate the control of the
Christian state over the provinces of the north extending to the coastal areas of Massawa.
 Amde-Tsion's army faced stiff resistance from among Ifat and Shewa, which might have cooperated
with the rebellious army at Enderta, led by Yibeka-Igzi in 1320s. However, Bahr-Sagad, the son of
Amde-Tsion, became the governor of Tigray.
 In 1325, Amde-Tsion campaigned to today‟s Eritrean region. After controlling the whole region, he
appointed a governor with a title of Ma'ekale-Bahir, which later on changed to Bahire-Negash.
 In the southeast, Muslim sultanates paid tributes to the Christian Kingdom. In the south, Gurage
speaking areas and a few of the Omotic kingdoms like Wolayta and Gamo were brought under the
influence of the Christian state. Amde-Tsion was in full control of all the trade routes and sources of
trade of the Ethiopian region in the early 1330s. The consolidation and territorial expansion of the
Christian Kingdom continued during the successors of Amde-Tsion.
4.2.3. Evangelization, Religious Movements, and Religious Reforms of Zara-Yaqob
I. Evangelization
 Christianity had a long history of expansion. Churches and their believers had been in existence long
before expansion of the Christian Kingdom in various parts of the Horn of Africa. For instance, in
Shewa there were early Christians who maintained contacts with their distant relatives in Northern
part of Ethiopia. Those early Christians played an important role in the spread of Christianity in
several areas.
 Iyesus-Mo'a opened new opportunities of learning for Christians who lived in the central part of
Ethiopia and later evangelized the newly incorporated areas where the influene of Christianity had
either been non−existent or minimal. The territorial expansion carried out by Amde−Tsion during the
medieval period set an addition momentum for the spread of Christianity.
 Abune Tekle-Haymanot played a key role in reviving Christianity in Shewa, which was followed by
the evangelization of areas in southern Ethiopia including medieval Damot. He baptized and
converted Motalami to Christianity.

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  The clergy, under the direction of the bishop in Ethiopia, Yaqob, spread Christianity to different
areas of Shewa such as Kil'at, Tsilalish, Merhabite, Wereb, Moret and Wegda, and Fatagar,
Damot, Waj and Enarya.
II. Religious Movements
A. The Ewostatewos Movement
 Monasticism became a dominant practice in Ethiopian Orthodox Church in the mid-thirteenth
century. The period witnessed development of monasticism and religious movements of which the
major one was the Ewostatewos movement, named after the founder.
 Ewostatewos:-
 Established his own monastic community in Sara'e (in present day Eritrea).
 Was joined by many students and taught until about 1337 in Sara‟e.
 The strict observance of Sabbath was among his teachings. When he was opposed by an
organized religious rival group of the clergy in Sera'e, he fled the country to Egypt. He faced the
same opposition in Cairo by Ethiopian pilgrims.
 After Ewostatewos left Ethiopia, the movement was weakned although his followers led by Abba
Absad tried their level best to maintain its momentum. The movement Ewostatewos:-
 revived when some of his followers such as Bekimos, Merkoryewos and Gebre–Iyasus returned
home from Armenia. The followers of Ewostatewos soon became active and dispersed to different
monasteries in northern Ethiopia.
 spread to areas like Enfranz, northern Tigray, and Hamessen.
 The King and the Abun opposed the movement. Hence,
 The anti-Ewostatewos group led by the Abbot of the Hayq Monastery called Aqabe-Se‟at
Sereqe-Birhan was supported by the Abun and the monarch.
 The monarch imprisoned some of the Ewostatians owing to the fact that he feared that dispute in
the church could divide his kingdom.
 The clergy expelled Ewostatians from their church services; some of the Ewostatians were
forced to withdraw and settle in peripheral areas and some of them sustained their movement
in monasteries like Debre- Bizen, Debre-San, etc.
B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites
 The Estifanosites were a movement within Ethiopian monasticism, called so after their founder and
spiritual leader abba Estifanos.
 The movement rose to prominence in the fifteenth century and continued until the sixteenth century,
when it was formally reconciled with the main body of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
 The head of the movement, abba Estifanos,
 was born in Agame at the end of the fourteenth century.
 established a rigid monastic organization which emphasized poverty, absolute self-subsistence,
equality and independence from secular authorities. His adversaries in the monastic circles made
attempts to discredit him, but the movement gained followers in various monastic communities. When
summoned to the royal court, Estifanos was initially able to convince the emperor (probably atse
Takla Maryam, r. 1430-33) that he posed no threat to royal power or the unity of the Church. Later,
however, Estifanos collided with Zara-Yaqob. Because, Estifanos:-
appears to have disapproved of the Emperor‟s religion initiatives,
rejected royal supremacy and authority in spiritual matters and
refused to participate in court judiciary procedures.
 As a result, Zara-Yacob took very harsh measures against the Estifanosites allegedly for their
opposition of the veneration of St. Mary.
 Naod appears to have been more favourably inclined towards the Estifanosites and to have been
instrumental in their reintegration into the EOC during the period of Metropolitan abune Yeshaq.
For their part, Estifanosites appear to have softened their position; the excommunication was
lifted by the Metropolitan. Despite the importance of the Estifanosites movement for the history of

33
 Ethiopia, as yet we have neither a comprehensive critical history of its background and
development, nor a clear idea of its real geographical scale, historical significance and influence.
III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob
 Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several measures to stabilize and consolidate the Orthodox
Church. Accordingly:-
 First, he settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy towards the creation of a suitable church-
state union. In this regard, he made peace with the House of Ewostatewos by reviving Sabbath in
the Ethiopian church and the Ewostatian agreed to receive Holy orders from the Ethiopian
prelates.
 He urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote areas.
 He ordered the people to observe fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays and get Father Confessors.
 He encouraged the establishment of a library in every church to solve the problem of sufficient
religious books. This was followed by revival of religious literature. He himself wrote some books
like Metsafe-Birhan, Metsafe-Me’lad, Metsafe-Sillasie, Metsafe-te'aqebo Mister,etc.
 He made some parts of Te’amre-Maryam translated from Arabic to Geez.
4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim Sultanates
 A number of strong sultanates emerged since the fourteenth century. Trade was one of the major factors
that resulted in the rise and development of those sates. Trade:-
 served not only as a major source of livelihood
 acted as a major agent that resulted in the formation of Muslm sultanes and
 remained a major source of conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim sultanates.
 One of the strong Muslim sultanates that emerged along trade routes and became a center of resistance
against the Christian Kingdom until the second half of the sixteenth century was the Sultanate of
Adal.
4.3.1. The Rise of Adal
After its establishment, Ifat:-
 conducted a series of campaigns against its neighbouring sultanates thereby extending its hegemony over
these areas.
 resisted the expansion of the Christian Kingdom.
 However, one branch of the Walasma family, which realized that Ifat was becoming an easy target to
the Christian Kingdom due to its location, moved further to the southeastern lowlands and established
new and vigorous Muslim Sultanate of Adal in the highland districts around Harar in 1367.
 The first center of this extended Walasma Dynasty was at a place called Dakar, a place located on
the southeast of Harar. The Walasma family consolidated its power in the new center, and began
another phase of military campaigns against the frontiers of the Christian Kingdom.
 The center of Adal in 1520 changed to the city of Harar and
 After the defeat of Imam Ahmed; a growing threat from a new force-the Oromo forced the
sultanate to change its capital to Awsa in 1576/7, to the present Afar region.
4.3.2. Trade and the Expansion of Islam
 Islam spread into the central and southwestern parts of the Ethiopian region through:-
 Muslim merchants and
 Muslim preachers.
 Trade served as channel for the expansion of Islam in the Muslim Sultanates while at the same time it
formed the base of the economy of those states.
 The most known Muslim Sultanates from 13th -16th century were Ifat (1285-1415) and Adal (1415-
1577).
 The main trade outlet shifted to Zeila and the old city-states of Mogadishu, Brava, and Merca were
used as ports for their hinterland. In the meantime, for the trade in the northeast, Massawa served as an
outlet. With the revival of trade, different towns and trade centers emerged along the route from Zeila to
the interior. Travelers' accounts and chronicles referred to these towns and ruins of mosques and
residences mark the existence of market centers, which followed and served the trade coasts.
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  The ruins that mark the landscape around Jigjiga and the highlands of Harar and Charchar attest to
the market towns that served the Zeila route. These include Weez-Gebeya in western
Shewa/famous market on the Fatagar-Dawaro-Harar route, Suq-Wayzaro in old Damot, Suq-
Amaja and the very famous market center Gandabalo on the Ifat-Awsa route. Gandabalo was
largely inhabited by Muslim and Christian merchants serving the kings and sultans as agents.
 Other big market towns include the ones that linked medieval Amhara with Awsa, called Wasel
near what is today Ware-Illu, Qorqora/Qoreta (north of Waldiya) and Mandalay in southern
Tigray.
 The towns of Dabarwa, the seat of the Bahre-Negash (“Lord of the Sea”), and Asmara were the two
important entrepots of caravans in the hinterland of Massawa.
 Muslim states had significant control over trade routes that passed through Zeila due to their
geographical proximity, although contested by “Solomonic” Kingdom especially after its revival and
consolidation.
4.4. Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates
 Zeila was the main outlet to the sea during the medieval period.
 The ambition to control the Zeila trade route and commodities that passed through Zeila led to
rivalry between the “Solomonic” rulers and the Sultanate of Ifat.
 The first recorded conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Ifat took place in 1328. It was because:-
 The Muslim Sultanates organized their armies to take military action against the Christian Kingdom.
 The Sultan of Ifat, Haqaddin I stopped merchants belonging to the Christian King, Amde-Tsion,
confiscating the goods, capturing, and imprisoning the king's agent, Ti‟iyintay returning from Cairo.
 The actions taken by Haqaddin I forced Amde-Tsion to wage a campaign against Ifat in1332. Amde
Tsion defeated the Sultan and took him prisoner and eventually replaced him by his brother Sabradin.
Both Ifat and Fatagar came under Sabradin. The Sultanates of Hadiya and Dawaro made an alliance
with Sabradin. Yet, Ifat was defeated and Sabradin was captured on his retreat. As a result, Ifat,
Fatagar and Dawaro were incorporated. Amde-Tsion required from them:-
 annual tributes and
 freedom of movement for all caravans through Zeila.
 Following the decline of Ifat, other Muslim Sultanates like Sharkha, Harar, Bali, Dara, and
Arbabani were also seriously weakened. It was based on these grounds that some members of the
Walasma moved their seat of power further east to Adal, from where they continued their struggle.
To check their attacks on the highlands, the successors of Emperor Amde-Tsion conducted repeated
campaigns into the lowlands. Example:-
 In 1376, Haqadin II came to power and refused to pay tribute and rebelled against Neway-
Maryam (1371-80), the son of Amde-Tsion. However, he died fighting in 1386.
 The successor of Haqadin II, Sa‟d ad-Din II (C. 1386-1402) gained initial success until king
Dawit I (r. 1380-1412) in 1402/3 extended his expansion and defeated him. Sa‟d ad-Din II
became refuge in Zeila until King Yishaq (r.1413-30) killed him in 1415. Since then the area
was called "the land of Sad ad-Din." Following the death of Sa‟d ad-Din and loss of Zeila to
Christian Kings, the Muslim sultanates declined in power.
 Sa‟d ad-Din‟s sons who took refuge in Yemen came back to succeed their father. Yet, Adal
continued to challenge the Christian state and were successful in killing Tewodros (1412-13)
and Yeshaq. This led to intense struggle for predominance.
 During the mid-fifteenth century, Emperor Zara Yaqob gained some access to the Red Sea. In
1445, Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay at the battle of Yeguba. As a result, the son
and successor of Ahmed Badlay, Mohammed Ahmed (r.1445-71) sent a message of
submission to Ba‟ede Mariam (r. 1468-78) to remain vassal of the Christian Kings.
 On the death of Mohammed, however, Adal was still strong and continued its struggle.
Hence, the reigning monarch, Ba‟ede-Mariam campaigned against Adal. Despite initial
successes, the army of Ba'ede-Mariam lost the battle in 1474.

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  The successors of Ba'ede-Mariam proved weak in their dealings with the rulers of Muslim Sultanates.
At the same time, leaders of the Muslim Sultanate sought to resolve the problem peacefully. As a
result, Mohammad ibn Azhar ad-Din (1488-1518) attempted to harmonize relations with the Christian
Kingdom. However,
 among the various Sultans of the Muslim sultanates, Emir Mahfuz carried out some effective
military campaigns into the highlands.
 in 1517 Emir Mahfuz died fighting against Emperor Lebne-Dengel's (r. 1508-40) force and
his son-in-law, Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, puplarly known as Ahmed Gragn or the
"left-handed" took over the leadership.
 Apart from the hostile relations, there were wider socio-economic and cultural interactions
between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim principalities. As in earlier periods, trade:-
 continued to be the major channel of social integration.
 had long been the source of friendship, interaction, interdependence, and conflict among the states
of the region.
 the long distance trade and local markets served as core areas of social ties. Relatively, the
difference in ecology of the Muslim sultanates and the Christian Kingdom created economic
interdependence, which in due course strengthened socio-economic bondage. Merchants of the two
regions often moved from the highlands to the coast and vice versa. It was through such caravan
merchants that the social links were strengthened and religions spread. These interactions and
interdependence in economic, social, cultural and political spheres lay the foundation for
modern Ethiopia.
 Beside the above dusscused socio-cultural and economic interactionas, the period witnessed
the flourishing of Geez literature as is evident from the works of Abba Giorgis Ze-Gasicha
and others and philosophies epitomzed by Zara-Ya'iqob (not to be confused with the king).
On the Muslim side, literature had developed including the works of Arab writers such as Ibn
Fadil al Umari, Ibn Khaldun and others.
4.5. External Relations
4.5.1. Relations with Egypt
 From the late thirteenth century onwards, Christian Kingdom continued to maintain relations with Egypt,
which was mainly religious in character. In 1272, Yekuno-Amlak sent an emissary to Egypt‟s Sultan,
Baybars requesting an Abun from the Coptic Church. Furthermore, both Egypt and Ethiopia continued
to act as protectors of religious minorities in their respective domain. Egypt also wanted to ensure
secure flow of the Nile (the Abay River) that originated from Ethiopia.
 In the early fourteenth century,
 Mohammed ibn Qala‟un persecuted the Copts and destroyed their churches in Cairo. In
response, Amde-Tsion demanded the restoration of the churches and warned that the failure to
do so would result in the diversion of the Nile waters.
 Patriarch Marqos (1348- 63) sent a message to Sayfa-Arad (r.1344-71), revealing his
imprisonment by the then Egyptian Sultan. Sayfa-Arad is said to have mobilized a huge army
against Egypt after which the Sultan released the patriarch and sent a delegation to the King.
 Besides, Patriarch Matewos (1328-1408) delegated by the Sultan, established harmonious relations
between King Dawit and Egypt. The Sultan is said to have sent a piece of the "True Cross" and
in return, Dawitis said to have given a number of religious paintings to the Sultan.
 In 1437/8, Zara-Yaqob wrote a friendly letter to Sultan Barsbay requesting the protection of
Christians in Egypt. Three years later, however, Patriarch Yohannes XI wrote Zara-Yaqob a
letter stating the demolition of the famous church of Mitmaq (Debre-Mitmaq). Then Zara-
Yaqob sent an envoy to Sultan Jaqmaq (1438-53) with a strongly worded letter. In reply to this
message, Jaqmaq sent an envoy to Ethiopia, with complimentary gifts to the King but rejected
the reconstruction of the church.
4.5.2. Relations with Christian Europe

36
 As with the Muslim Arab world, the Christian Kingdom maintained relations with Christian Europe.
During the medieval period, contacts between the two regions were strongly influenced by the legend of
“Prester John”.This was followed by sustained relations in subsequent decades. For example,
 It is stated that Ethiopian delegation was in attendance of Gian Galeazzo Visconti‟s coronation in
Milan in 1395.
 In 1418, three Ethiopians attended the Council of Constance. In another report, message from an
Ethiopian monarch, Amde-Tsion was presented to King Phillip of France in 1332.
 The earliest known message to Ethiopia from a European monarch is the letter of King Henry IV of
England dated 1400 A.D. and addressed to “Prester John”, the purported king of the Christian
Kingdom. The identification of the King with “Prester John” was firmly established in the fourteenth
century. They even thought that it was possible to liberate Jerusalem with the help of this King. Hence,
during the reign of King Dawit, the leaders of Rome, Constantinople, Syria, Armenia and Egypt
sent letters to the king in which they asked for support. King Dawit received some Italian craftsmen
consisting mainly of Florentines. In 1402, King Dawit sent his first delegation to Europe led by a
Florentine man called Antonio Bartoli.
 Alphonso de Paiva V of Aragon received a delegation from Yishaq in the city of Valentia, in 1427.
Yishaq‟s delegation to Europe was to ask for more artisans and military experts. The embassy of the
Duke of Berry consisting craftsmen, Neapolitan Pietro, a Spaniard and a Frenchman reached Ethiopia
during the reign of Yishaq.
 In 1450 a Silican Pietro Rombulo, who had been in Ethiopia since the last years of Dawit's reign and
who had previously carried out a successful trade mission to India on behalf of the King, was now sent
to Europe as Zara-Yaqob‟s ambassador. An Ethiopian priest, Fikre-Mariam and two other
individuals accompanied him. The mission was to Alphonso of Aragon, (also ruled as king of Naples
and Sicily). King Zara-Yaqob sent delegates to Alphonso to get political, military, and technical
assistance. Alphonso wrote a letter to Zara- Yaqob and informed him that he sent him artisans and
masons he requested.
 The most authentic pieces of evidence on Ethio-Europe links are the maps of Egyptus Novelo (c.
1454) and Fra Mauro's Mappomondo (1460) which clearly depicted many places and peoples.
Venetian Gregorio or Hieronion Bicini visited Ethiopia in 1482.
 Pedros da Covilhao/Peter de Covilham arrived at court of Eskindir (1478-1494) in 1493.
 The beginning and continued rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates in the
fifteenth century strengthened the relation between the Christian Kingdom and Christian Europe.
Queen Elleni (the daughter of Hadiya Garad and married to King Zara Yaeqob) played an important
role in the strengthening of these relations. Queen Elleni, the mother and regent of Lebne-Dingil:-
 Had foreseen the threat that came from the Ottoman Turkish who showed a clear interest to support
the Muslim Sultanates.
 Had foreseen the possibility to consolidate relations with and get support from Portugal that was
against the Tukish. In 1508, Portugal sent a person to act as an ambassador to Christian Ethiopia.
 Sent an Armenian called Mathew to Portugal around 1512. The Portuguese court doubted his
authenticity and was received coldly. The Portuguese Embassy led by Rodrigo di Lima, Duwarto
Galliba and Francisco Alvarez reached Ethiopia in 1520 and remained for six years. The objective
was to establish a naval port against the expanding Turkish power in Red Sea Area. The mission
was not successful.

UNIT FIVE
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY
SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE EITEENTH CENTURIES
5.1. Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal and After

37
 The revival of long-distance trade caused competition and struggle for control over the trade
routes between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim principalities. This was followed by a
series of wars, which were depicted as wars for religious supremacy in historical accounts of
Christian and Muslim clerics. While mal-administration and exploitation of periphery made
military mobilization possible, religion provided ideological justification for the wars. However, the
interest to control trade routes lay at the heart of the conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the
Muslim Sultanates that continued for over two centuries, culminating in the wars between the
Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal that lasted from 1529 to 1543.
 As a prelude to this conflict, among the Muslim Sultanates, internal strife, corruption and anarchy was
intensified and a new leadership was urgently called for. Such leadership came from Imam Ahmed Ibn
Ibrahim al-Ghazi. The origins of Imam Ahmed, alias “the left-handed,” are obscure. Ahmed Gragn
was:
 born at Hubet in between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga and raised by his devout Muslim kin in one of
the oases on the route to Zeila.
 a rigorous and ardent believer of Islam.
 soldiered for Garad Abun of Adal, who during his few years in power called for Islamic
Puritanism.
 According to local tradition, the Imam withdrew to the countryside, upon the death of his source of
inspiration, Garad Abun, and started calling for devotion to the teachings of Islam. Here came
fundamental change in the cause of the confrontations. After Imam Ahmad‟s rise to power under
circumstances discussed above, the battles were not just fought for control of the long-distance trade
route going through Zeila but mainly because there was a demographic pressure among the Afar and
Somali pastoralists pushing to approach Harar and the Christian Kingdom. For centuries, lowland
inhabiting Muslim pastoralists had wanted to expand to high plateaus for better and enough pasturelands
and attempted to do so but only to be held back by the Christian army. With increased population and
overgrazing in Somali and Afar of eastern Ethiopia, between the thirteenth and sixteenth
centuries, raiding and counter-raiding at water holes or animal rustling intensified.
 It was one of the Imam‟s remarkable achievements in leadership that he mobilized the pastoral
communities of the Afar, the Somali, the Harla, Harari and others to a common cause. He convinced
them not to fight amongst themselves but to unite and expand to the Christian Kingdom and
resolve their pressing material needs while at the same time keep Islamic believes and practices from
the infiltration of any alien religious doctrine. He was able to gain audience as Imam and consolidated
his army to fight the Christian Kingdom.
 Meanwhile, Lebne-Dengel (1508-1540) was enthroned when he was only eleven. Assisted by the
elderly Elleni and due to internal conflicts in Adal, the Christian state initially retained its interest and
even advanced into Muslim territory scoring significant victories in the early sixteenth century. As a
result, most of the Muslim Sultanates including Adal were made tributaries to the Christian
Kingdom.
 However, shortly, Adal fell to Imam Ahmed‟s army. By the time Imam Ahmed was strong enough for
military confrontation:
 in 1520, he refused to pay tribute
 he campaigned against the Christian Kingdom in 1527.The Imam‟s army fought fiercely and
controlled the territories including Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata and
the Christian Kingdom was at risk.
 In 1528, realizing the upcoming threat, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a vast force from his domain and
encamped about fifty kilometers east of what is now Addis Ababa. During this time:-
 The Christian kingdom had the problem of logistics and the leadership of the army of the
Kingdom failed to adopt a common strategy to defeat Adal‟s force.

38
  On the other hand, enthusiastic Imam Ahmed‟s army managed logistics problems with its
small-sized army. The Imam‟s army had also an excellent leadership characterized by better
mobility and flexible tactics with a unified command.
 Due to the above-mentioned reasons, the larger and well-equipped Christian army was defeated in one
of the most decisive engagement at the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, near present day Mojo. After
the victory,
 The Imam‟s army made a large-scale control of the territories of the Christian Kingdom
including Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, and moved as far north as Mereb Melash.
 By 1535, Imam Ahmed‟s empire stretched from Zeila to Massawa on the coast including the
Ethiopian interior.
 As he penetrated deep into the Christian Kingdom, Imam Ahmed established a civil
administrative bureaucracy constituted from his own men and newly recruited personnel
from the Christian territories.
 One of the most illuminating figures during the war was the wife of the Imam, Bati Del Wanbara.
She:-
 Was the daughter of a Muslim military commander of Adal known as Mahfuz.
 Had encouraged her husband to avenge the death of her father (as traditions claimed).
 Accompanied her husband throughout his expeditions and she is said to have marched even in a
state of pregnancy during which she was unable to use mules. Indeed, she delivered her two
sons during the campaigns of 1531 and 1533 in Ifat and present day Tigray respectively.
 On the part of the Christian Kingdom,
 The military set back forced the reigning king, Lebne-Dengel, to retreat who finally died in
1540 being fugitive.
 Lebne-Dengel‟s son, Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559), ascended to the throne who continued to face
the wars this time with more intensity as Imam Ahmed had received Turkish musketeers.
 In the meantime, based on earlier request made by Lebne-Dengel in 1535, about four
hundred Portuguese soldiers, armed with matchlocks arrived in the Christian court in
1541.The the army was led by Christopher da Gama, the youngest son of Vasco da Gama.
However, in August 1542 the Christian army was defeated in Ofla, in today's southern
Tigray. In the battle, about two hundred Portuguese and their leader Christopher da Gama
were killed and the leader was beheaded.
 Lebne-Dengel's wife, Seblewongel:-
 Was said to have participated in the war against Imam Ahmed in 1542 when the army of the
Christian Kingdom lost almost half of the Portuguese soldiers and their commander Christopher Da
Gama.
 After the success, Imam Ahmed was confident about his army‟s ability to repulse any future attack
by the force of the Christian Kingdom that he sent his allies back home and let his army camp. On the
part of the Christians, preparations were made for final confrontation under the leadership of
Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59). The Queen mother, Seble-Wongel, advised the reigning
emperor how to prepare and march for the battle of Woyna-Dega. During this period:-
 Due to limited resources, the monarch employed hit and run strategy, which severely
affected Imam‟s army.
 Imam Ahmed‟s army could not use its previous quality of easy mobility because they did not
know where the attacks came from.
 On February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was encamped near Lake Tana, he was attacked
and killed after a fierce fighting at the battle of Woyna-Dega.
 Soon after the battle,
 Gelawdewos was confident that the nobility and his army were loyal to him. As a result, the
king restored possession of almost all the northern and central plateau.

39
  Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to Gelawdewos and he was tolerant toward
them to promote national conciliation and to develop revival of smooth relations with the
Muslim world.
 Gelawdewos was able to restore many of pre-1520s territories and tributary regions.
 Gelawdewos attempted to reconsolidate the state through campaigns to different areas and
camping Chewa (regiment) in border areas.
 Gelawdewos had established a strong Christian Kingdom by the early 1550s. However, the
control over the Muslim dominated areas was not an easy task.
 In the period, the growing challenge to the Christian state came from the:
 retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal,
 Ottoman Turks,
 Jesuit interlude, and
 Oromo that advanced into the center.
 Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid was ready to wage war against the Christian
state for revenge. In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted Gelawdewos and killed the king
himself.
 Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563) who succeeded Gelawdewos defeated the Turks' force and reclaimed
territories in the coast including Dabarwa. However, in the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted and allied
with the Turks against him.
 Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) had to defend the Turks while fighting with the Agaw,
Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama, Enarya and the Oromo. The emperor then marched to the north,
defeated Turkish forces, and restored the territories.
 Consequences the Muslim-Christian conflict.
On the negative side
 Huge human and material cost.
 Destruction of the royal prison Amba Gishen
 Both the Muslim Sultanate and Christian Kingdom were weakened thereby paving the way for
an easy infiltration and success of the Oromo population movement.
On the positive side the war resulted in:-
 Cultural interaction (Linguistic and religious interactions) among the peoples of Ethiopia.
 Intermarriages among peoples of the various cultural groups
 Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean between Portugal and the
Ottoman Turks gave the prolonged conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim
principalities a global dimension. Persians, Arabs, Syrians, Egyptians, and Turks, traditional
international trade intermediaries, who were under Ottoman Turks were hit by discovery of a
seaway to India by Vasco da Gama in 1498 and tried to prevent rival Portuguese ships from
trading with India. Therefore,
 Portugal looked up to the Christian kingdom as an ally and started the old “semi-spiritual
quest” for Prester John. From the first decade of the century, messengers were being sent.
However, actual military alliance did not take place because Ethiopia was not a sea power to
give sensible maritime support to Portugal against the Ottoman Turks.
 On its part, the Christian Kingdom had asked Portugal‟s military assistance against its
Muslim rival.
 The Turks on their part gave moral and military support to Imam Ahmed. In 1540, the
Imam turned to his Muslim ally, Turkey, for assistance and regional Ottoman authorities
provided two hundred Muslim musketeers and ten cannons.
5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies
 As with the state, the church was weakened by the wars against the sultanate of Adal.

40
  The destruction of property and deaths of its clergy hampered the operation of the Church and
therefore, its service as an ideological arm of the state. At the same time, the monarchy could not
count on the traditional political and military apparatus to withstand the continued expansion of
the Oromo deep into the Christian Kingdom and then to consolidate the Christian Kingdom.
Thus, revival was sought in the church.
 The rulers of the Christian Kingdom may have regarded an alliance with Roman Catholicism as a
tactic to secure sufficient modern weaponry and training to restore its lost territories.
 In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their bishop, Andreas de Oviedo, came to Ethiopia
to expand Catholicism. The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two different and therefore
separate, natures of Christ-divine and human, which was contrary to Monophysite theology of
Ethiopian Orthodox Church. EOC taught that Christ, through union or Tewahedo had a perfect
human nature inseparable from divinity.
 The leading members of the Jesuit mission who played key role in efforts to evangelize the country
include Joao Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez and Alfonso Mendez.
 The Jesuits evangelical efforts:-
 Began with Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59), hoping that the rest of the society would follow
suit. Gelawdewos listened and engaged in doctrinal debates with the missionaries, but he was not
prepared to give in. Instead, he defended the teachings of Orthodox Christianity in a document
entitled the Confession of Faith.
 Minas and Sertse-Dengel, who succeeded Gelawdewos one after the other, were too busy fighting
against the Oromo and the Turkish forces to entertain the Jesuits in their courts.
 The Jesuits got relative success with Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4) who secretly converted to
Catholicism. But Za-Dengel‟s reign was too short for the Jesuits to effect the desired result. Za-
Dengel was overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-7), who befell a similar fate in the hands
of Susenyos (r. 1607-32).
 Susenyos, too, as was challenged by provincial leaders who refused to pay tribute, integrated
the Oromo with the forces of central government to consolidate his power and then stabilize
the country. Probably as a means to this, Susenyos sought for an alliance, which he got through
the diplomatic advisory of Pedro Paez.
In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism
In 1622, Susenyos announced it to be state religion.
 In the meantime, in 1617-1618 several anti-Catholic voices mounted following the changes in liturgy
and religious practices. Even worse, with the monarch‟s consent, another Spanish Jesuit, Afonso
Mendez:-
 ordered reconsecration of Orthodox priests and deacons and rebaptism of the mass.
 called for the suspension/prohibition/ of Jewish customs such as male circumcision and the
observance of the Sabbath.
 pronounced the prohibition of preaching in Ge‟ez, fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays,
reverence for Ethiopian saints and the Ark of Covenant (Tabot).
 ordered eating pork, Latin Mass and Gregorian calendar to be adopted.
 The above reforms led to revolts led by the ecclesiastics/priests/clergyman/ and the nobility. Even
loyal followers of the emperor including his own son Fasiledas (r. 1632-67) were opposed to the
changes initiated by the Jesuits.
 After 1625, controversies, rebellions, repressions mounted and the state came to the verge of falling
apart.
 In a battle in June 1632, large number of peasants lost their lives in one day. Finally, the emperor
abdicated the throne in favor of Fasiledas, who countered the Catholic transformation. Fasiledas:-
 restored the position of Orthodox Church as the state religion,
 expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts including Susenyos‟ uncle and the most
fervent supporter of Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos.

41
  introduced a new policy called "Close-Door Policy", which isolated the state from all
Europeans for about a century and a half. He did this by fearing another religious conflict.
Conversely, he initiated and adopted a policy of close diplomatic relations with the Islamic
world and formed an alliance with the neighboring Muslim states to ensure that no European
crossed into the Christian Kingdom. As a result, in 1647, he concluded an agreement with the
Ottoman Pasha at Suakin and Massawa to the effect that the latter should block any
European from entering in to his territory.
 By putting into practice the above measures, Fasiledas was able to restore peace and order.
 Ethiopia‟s diplomatic break from Europe remained effective until the beginning of the nineteenth
century with the exception of secret visits by a French Doctor Charles Jacques Poncet and the
Scottish traveler James Bruce in 1700 and 1769, respectively.
 Yet, the Jesuit intervention triggered doctrinal divisions and controversy within the Ethiopian
Orthodox Church that was divided into disputant sects and reached its peak during the Zemene
Mesafint. These disputant sects were:-
 Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ: first in eternity as a Divine Being the
eternal birth and second, born again from St. Mary into the world as a perfect man and
perfect divinity united in one nature, thus Tewahedo (United). It was dominant in Tigray
and Lasta.
 Qibat (Unction) was also developed from Hulet Lidet doctrine and accepted the eternal birth
as the first birth of Christ, but claimed that at the moment of his incarnation, when he was
born into the world, Holy Ghost anointed him. This sect was dominant in Gojjam.
 Sost Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace) taught that Christ was first born
in eternity as divine being, was born again in the womb of St. Mary and anointed by Holy
Ghost. This sect was dominant in Gonder and Shawa.
5.3. Population Movements
 The movements of people from one place to another have played important roles in shaping the history
of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 As far back sources tell, population movements occurred in the Horn due to various reasons, in varied
scales and followed different directions. People moved from place to place due to pull and push
factors, which can be summed up as natural and social. Specifically, people move out from their
habitats in search of resources and better living environment in general.
 In Ethiopia and the Horn, the causes of the movements could be attributed to the region's
long socio-political conditions involving military conflicts, drought and demographic
factors.
 Population movements of the medieval period had extensive effects including the integration of
peoples across ethnic and religious lines. Major outcomes of population movements during the period
under consideration include:-
 Religious, ethnic and linguistic interactions and
 Intermingling of peoples (this resulted in intermarriage of peoples, change of abode, original
culture and evolution of new identities.)
5.3.1. Population Movements of the Argoba, Afar, and Somali
 The military conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal in the late fifteenth
and the early sixteenth centuries was partly responsible for the population movement of the Argoba,
Afar and Somali. In addition, the demographic pressure on environment gave background for the
population movement. Their territories lay in the region where trade routes passed and hence were affected
by the consequences of the military conflict. These peoples moved back and forth in response to the
ongoing military conflict.
 The Argoba:

42
  The Argoba were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade and Muslim state formation in the
Horn. For instance, the sultanate of Shewa and Ifat were established by the Makhzumite and
Walasma Dynasties respectively.
 Towards the end of the thirteenth century, the sultanate of Shewa moved further to the east as the
result of the pressure from the Christian Kingdom. The sultanate of Ifat, in which the Argoba were
dominant, became the center of Muslim resistance.
 On the eve of the wars of Imam Ahmed al Ghazi, the Argoba joined the Afar and the Somali
against the Christian Kingdom.
 The area inhabited by the Argoba was also a target of the expanding Christian Kingdom and was
the major center of conflict. This was because the major caravan trade routes passed through
Argoba territory. As a result, the Christian-Muslim rivalry and the conflicts thereof led to the
destruction of sultanates and dispersion of the people. The enduring effect of the conflict can be
observed from the fragmented settlement patterns of the people.
 The Afar:
 Before the sixteenth century, due to drought, the Afar moved towards the east until they reached the
middle Awash.
 Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed through the Afar's territory. As a result, the region
was the centre of competition between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim sultanates to
control the trade routes. Besides being actors in the conflict, the conflict inevitably pressurized the
Afar to move into different directions to avoid the risk of the conflicts. In the sixteenth century,
their pastoral economy helped them to survive the destructive effects of the wars.
 The Somali:
 Their territory laid in the medieval competition for the control of trade routes.
 Prior to the wars of Imam Ahmed al Ghazi, there was strong demographic pressure from the Somali.
The population movement of the Somali was a strong force behind the military strength of the
Imam. However, the population movement of the Somali did not last for long as they returned to
their home base following the defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543.
5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
A. The Gadaa System
 The Oromo population movement of the sixteenth century cannot be better understood without considering
the Gadaa system. The Gadaa system was an institution through which the Oromo socially:-
 organized themselves,
 administered their affairs,
 defended their territories,
 maintained law and order, and
 managed their economies.
 Studies do not clearly indicate when and how the Gadaa system emerged. However, it is clear that for long
the society organized their politics, economy, social, cultural, and religious affairs through the Gadaa
institution.
 The account by Abba Bahrey indicates that during the early sixteenth century, the system fully
functioned because of which the Oromo were well organized. Thus, it is reasonable to think that the
Oromo had practiced the Gadaa system long before the sixteenth century movement of the
Oromo.
 Recent studies based on the Gadaa calendar and Gadaa centers suggest that the system evolved from
the earlier Cushitic age-set social organization. Time computation and recording history was based on the
eight-year segment of time. In the system,
 eight years represented one Gadaa period,
 5-gadaa periods or 40 years represented one generation and nine generations represented an era.
 The earliest eras of Gadaa but still obscure were those of Bidiri Dhoqqe. Prior to the beginning of
Gadaa Borana-Barentu around 1450 AD, the Oromo passed through known eras of Taya, Tasaa,

43
 Munyo, Suftu, Maddile, Abroji, Dhittacha and Warra Daye (warden), each of which survived for
an era.
 Gadaa was interrupted and revitalized during various eras because of various internal and external
factors. For instance, the Borana-Barentu Gadaa was instituted after interruption for nearly two
generations. It was revived in 1450 at Madda Walabu that became the central Chaffe (assembly) and seat
of the senior Qallu until 1900.
 The Gadaa system constituted elements of democracy such as periodic succession and power sharing to
prevent a one-man rule. Other principles of the system included representation of all lineages, clans and
confederacies. It also served as a mechanism of socialization, education, maintenance of peace and
order, and social cohesion. In addition, Gadaa constituted rules of arara (conflict resolution), guma
(compensation) and rakoo (marriage).
 The Gadaa system organized the Oromo society into age-grades and generation sets delineating
members' social, political, and economic responsibilities. In the system, ten age- grades and five classes
operated in parallel. The system:-
provided a socio-political framework that institutionalized relationship between seniors and juniors
and egalitarian relations among members of a grade.
helped the members of age-sets to develop a consistent and stable sense of self and others. Sons
joined the first grade as members of Gadaa class (generation class or set) forty years after their
fathers and were initiated into the next higher grade every eight years. The following table shows a
common version of age-grades and roles associated to them.
Table IV: Age grades and their roles
Gadaa-grades Ages Roles
Dabale birth-8 years Socialization
Game 9-16
Folle 17-24 military training, agriculture etc
Qondala 25-32 military service
Raba-Dori 33-40 candidates for political power
Luba/Gada 41-48 leaders of Gadaa government
Yuba 49-80 senior advisors, educators and ritual leaders
Source: Gada Melba, Oromiya (Khartoum, 1988), p. 11.
 In the Gada system:-
 The gadaa/luba assumed power for eight years.
 The head of the government was known as Abba-Gadaa literally “father of the period”
 The Abba Gada was assisted by several elected representatives from among the generation set. These
included:-
 Abba Bokku (father of scepter),
 Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly),
 Abba-Dula (war leader),
 Abba Sera (father of law),
 Abba Alanga (judge),
 Abba Sa'a (father of treasury) and other councilors.
 The senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played indispensable roles in power transfer and legitimizing the ruling
gadaa class.
 Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution, which helped them to form sisterhood and
solidarity. Women from childhood to old age i.e.
 guduru (pre-pubescent),
 qarre (adolescent, ready for marriage),
 kalale (wives of Luba and Yuba) and

44
  cifire (wives of Gadamojji/above 80 years) were believed to have sacred power. They
involved in occasions like power transfer, conflict resolution, thanks-giving and others.
The kalale were also privileged to support and advise the ruling class.
 The Gadaa system functioned by the cyclical power transfer from one Gadaa class to the next every eight
years. With some minor differences in nomenclature in different parts of Oromo territories, the five Gadaa
classes (generation sets) are listed below:
Table V. The five Gada classes/parties/generation sets/
Fathers Sons
Melba Harmufa
Mudena Robale
Kilole Birmajii
Bifole Mul’ata
Michille Dulo
Source: C.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford trans. and eds. Some Records of Ethiopia, 1593-
1646 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1954).
B. The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
 A combination of natural and manmade factors caused the Oromo population movement of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
 Natural factors include demographic pressure and subsequent need for land to accommodate
the growing human and livestock population.
 Manmade factor was the conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates from
the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries might have pressurized mainly pastoral Oromo groups to
leave the lands they inhabited for other areas.
 In 1522, when the population movement began, the Oromo were already organized under Borana and
Barentu confederacies. The Oromo forces took northern direction and passed through a corridor between
Mount Walabu and Lake Abbaya. When they reached half way between Lakes Abbaya and Hawassa,
they took westward and penetrated across the Bilatte River to the southwest. Then they headed
northwards to the lakes region of the Rift Valley.
 From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars.( a war carried to conquere new areas that did
not occupied by their predecessors). Accordingly,
 The first Gadaa i.e Melba (1522-1530) fought and defeated Christian regiment Batra Amora led
by Fasil and occupied Bali
 The Gadaa Mudena (1530-8) reached the edge of Awash River.
 The Kilole Gadaa (1538-46) controlled Dawaro after defeating Christian regiment Adal Mabraq
 The Bifole (1546-54) advanced to Waj and Erer.
 The Michille (1554-62) scored victory over Hamalmal's force at Dago, and Jan Amora forces as
well as Adal led by Emir Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo.
 The Harmufa (1562-70) fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina and Wayyata; occupied Angot,
Ganzyi, Sayint etc.
 In 1574, Sartsa Dingil‟s (r.1563-97) cavalry led by Azzaj Halibo defeated Robale gadaa (1570-78)
at Woyna Daga, but Robale recovered by defeating Zara‟a Yohannis‟ force.
 The Birmaji (1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama to Wolaqa and overwhelmed the
Daragoti regiment.
 The Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya and Tigray.
 In the early seventeenth century, the Dulo (1594-1602), Melba (1603-10), and Mudena (1610-18)
expanded to West and Northern parts of the Horn of Africa while others like the Warday moved to
Kenya and Bur Haqaba and Majertin in Somalia.
 In addition to the wars between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates, the organization of the
Oromo under the Gadaa system played crucial role in the success of the Oromo population movement.

45
 In the course of their movement into various regions, different Oromo branches established Gadaa centers.
Accordingly,
 Oda Nabee of Tulama,
 Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi),
 Oda Bultum of Itu-Humabenna,
 Oda Bisil of Mecha and
 Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha became major Gadaa centers.
Other places, which became Gadaa centers, were
 Gayo of Sabbo-Gona,
 Me'e Bokko of Guji,
 Oda Dogi of Ilu,
 Oda Hulle of Jimma,
 Oda Garado of Waloo, etc.
 Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra of Guji, Makko-Bili of Mecha,
Babbo Koyye of Jimma and others established Gadaa centers and laid down cardinal laws in
their respective areas.
 However, various Oromo groups kept their relations through the office of Abba Muda (the father of
anointment) seated at Madda Walabu and formed alliances during times of difficulty. Besides, they
obeyed similar ada (culture) and sera (law) through sending their delegates to Madda-Walabu, the
central chaffe until the pan-Oromo assembly was forbidden in 1900 due to the political influence of
the Ethiopian state.
 In due course, Gadaa devised effective resource allocation formula including land holding system to
regulate resource and their interaction among different clans is known as the qabiyye system. The
system established rights of precedence (seniority) in possession of land. Accordingly, place names
were given the names of the pioneer as a marker of qabiyye rights.
5.4. Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and Religious Diversities
 The political, social, and economic processes of the medieval period were the major factors for the
people's interactions across regions. Such interactions occurred during peace and conflict times. The
cases in point were:-
 the trade contacts and conflicts to control trade routes,
 religious expansion, and
 territorial expansion and population movements.
 One of the major consequences of the interactions in the medieval period particularly in the
population movement of the sixteenth century was the integration of peoples across ethnic and
religious diversities in Ethiopia and the Horn. Population movement of the period:-
 relatively covered extensive geographical areas in the region.
 involved diverse ethnic groups, cultures, and religions from south to north and from east to
west.
 It is apparent that territorial and religious expansion by the Christian kingdom diffused Christian
tradition from north to the south.
 The wars of Imam Ahmed and the population movements of the Argoba, the Afar and the Somali
caused the expansion of Islam into the central parts of Ethiopia.
 The other consequences of the Oromo population movement:-
 It put an end to the wars between the Christian and Muslim states as well as the
southward expansion of the Christian state.
 At larger scale, the Oromo contact with diverse peoples in the sixteenth century brought
far-reaching integrations among peoples across ethnic and religious background. That is:-
 The Oromo integrated non-Oromo through two adoption mechanisms:
Guddifacha and Moggasa.

46
 o Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a foster parent. In this system, the child enjoyed
equal rights and privileges with a biological child.
o Moggasa
 was a system of adopting non-Oromos commonly known as Oromsu.
 was the practice of incorporation of individuals or groups to a clan through oath of allegiance
with all the rights and obligations that such membership entailed.
 was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa on behalf of the clan. The adopted groups gained both
protection and material benefits. The process significantly contributed to the social
cohesions, national integration, and the revival of long-distance trade.
 The interactions also resulted in an exchange of socio-cultural values and institutions. A number of
peoples in the neighborhood of the Oromo adopted Gadaa system and Oromo language. Likewise,
the Oromo adopted and adapted cultures and traditions of the people with whom they came into
contact. Example:-
 the adoption of monarchical systems and the integration of the Oromo to the Christian and
Muslim states.
 the rise of nobles in the northern Oromo in politics particularly during the Gondar period,
Zemene-Mesafint and the making of modern Ethiopia.
5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions
It is not possible in the space of a brief teaching module such as this to provide an exhaustive detail of societies
and states in eastern, central, southern, and western parts of the country in the period covered by this unit.
Thus, this section explores the history of some of the states (as illustrations) in the period under
consideration. Although there was no one criterion used to select the states, due regard has been given to
balance the number of states selected from each region mentioned above. The selection of states for
discussion also considered availability of sources and treatment in earlier sections.
5.5.1. Peoples and States in the East
Somali
The Somali people:-
 have inhabited vast territory in the Horn.
 practiced pastoral economy for long and moved between places for centuries possibly in search of
sufficient pasture.
 were lived south of their present territory at least as early as the twelfth century or thirteenth century.
Ibn Said (1214-86), an Arab geographer, noted that Merca town located in the southern Somali
coast near Shabele River was a capital that brought large number of Somalis together during the
thirteenth century.
 The songs celebrating King Yeshaq's (r. 1413-30) military success depicts that the Somali lived
close to the Christian Kingdom.
 Somali contingents also played notable role in the victories of the Sultanate of Adal against the
Christian kingdom.
 The Somali were governed by a council known as shir. The decision making process was highly
democratic in which all-adult male were allowed equal access and participation. These councils at sub-
clan, clan and inter-clan level provided a governing structure that acted as an enforcement of law and
justice. The council governed wide-ranging affairs including:-
 resource allocation,
 marriage,
 trade and
 crime.
 As a component of shir, the guurti (a council of elders) was the highest political council mandated
with resolving conflict and crisis.
Afar
 The Afar people:-

47
  predominantly have lived in northeastern Ethiopia and in northern Djibouti, although some have
also inhabited southern part of Eritrea.
 had an indigenous governance system known as Makabanto, which has some elements of democracy.
 were first mentioned by Ibn Said under the name "Danakil". During the thirteenth century, they
occupied the lowland territory near Bab el-Mandeb.
 Along with the Somali and other adjacent Muslim population, Afar land, which was associated
with medieval Adal Sultanate, was home for many historical cities such as Maduna and Abasa.
 Following the collapse of the power of Sultanate of Adal in the sixteenth century, the Afar
established their sultanates like Awsa, Girrifo, Tadjourah, Rahaito and Gobad.
 The Awsa Sultanate:-
 Awsa Sultanate succeeded the earlier Imamate of Awsa in the middle Awash. The latter
polity had come into existence in 1577, when Mohammed Jasa moved his capital from Harar
to Awsa.
 At some point after 1672, Awsa declined and temporarily ended in conjunction with Imam
Umar Din bin Adam's recorded ascension to the throne.
 The Awsa Sultanate was subsequently re-established by Kedafo around 1734, and was
thereafter ruled by his Mudaito Dynasty. Primary symbol of the Sultan was silver baton,
which was considered to have magical properties.
 Awsa‟s economy was mainly depended on Bati-Ginda‟e trade route.
 Later Awsa became center of Islamic learning led by preachers like Tola Hanfre.
Argoba
 Early reference to the people of Argoba is insufficient. There are two versions on the origin of the
people of Argoba. i.e:-
 The first version holds that they descended from the eighty-two followers of the Prophet Mohammed
who came to the Horn of Africa and settled at Ifat.
 The second version claims that the origin of the Argoba is not related with Muslim-Arab
immigrants, but claims and arguably seems a logical presentation that indicates the Argoba as an
ancient and indigenous people who accepted Islam very early from religious leaders who came
from Arabia.
The Emirate of Harar
 Harar is one of the earliest Muslim centers in the region of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 In the sixteenth century, Harar became the capital of Walasma of Adal replacing Dakar until 1577
when it was shifted to Awsa due to the pressure from the Oromo. Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim used Harar
as a center from where he launched his campaigns into the Christian kingdom in 1527.
 Later during the reign of Emir Nur Mujahid, Harar became a walled city where the sultanate of the
Harari developed.
 In the mid seventeenth century, Emir Ali ibn Da‟ud (r. 1647-62) in cooperation with the Oromo
established a dynasty which was to rule for nearly two centuries and a half. It was strengthened by
Amirs like Abdul Shakur (1783-94). The Amir‟s council, Majilis engaged in supervising Mosque
land, Waqf and offering other assistance to the Amir.
 The emirate grew in importance to be a steady center of Islamic culture and power.
 Its economic power grew as it controlled trade routes from the Gulf of Aden ports of Zeila and
Berbera.
 Its authority was established over the surrounding Oromo and Somali through trade, inter-
marriage, and expansion of Islamic teachings. Egyptians were attracted by such a prominence that
they sent an expeditionary force in 1875 and controlled the emirate for nearly a decade (until 1885).
 Although it was later restored, and ruled by Amir Abdulahi, as the last emir of the Sultanate for
two years, Emperor Menilek‟s expansion to the region shortly followed in 1887.
5.5.2. Peoples and States in Central and South Central Parts
The Kingdom of Shewa

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The Kingdom of Shewan:-
 was formed by a Menz ruler Negasi Kristos (r.1696-1703) and eventually controlled districts like
Asandabo, Debdabo, Mafud and Yifat.
 its second king was Merid Azmatch Sebestie/Sebastyanos (r.1703-18).
 King Abuye/ Abiyye (1718-45) made Haramba, his capital and tried to subjugate the surrounding
Oromo before he was killed by the Karrayu Oromo. In addition to his unsuccessful attempts to
control the Afar and Abitchu Oromo.
 Amaha Iyesus/ Amayyes (r.1745-75) declared authority over Bulga, Efrata, Menz and Tegulet with
his capital at Doqaqit which later shifted to Ankober.
 Asfa-Wosen (r.1775-1808) conquered Antsokia, Asbo, Gedem, Gishe, Merhabete, Morat and
Shewa Meda.
 The dynasty became very strong under Negus Sahle-Sellasie (r.1813-47), the grandfather of
Emperor Menilek II. During his reign, many travelers visited Shewa and he even signed “treaty of
friendship and commerce” with the British in 1841.
 Its economy was mainly based on agriculture supplemented by trade and craft. Near the capital,
Ankobar, there was an important trade center in Aleyu Amba administered by the Shewan court.
Gurage
The Gurage:-
 live in southern Ethiopia.
 the main Gurage clans and their sub-divisions are the following;
 Inor group (Inamor, Enner, Endegegna, Gyeto and Mesemes)
 Chaha group (Chaha, Muher, Ezha, Gumer and Gura)
 The Kistane group (Nurana and many other clans)
 Additional groups included Dobbi, Gadabano and Masqan.
 The staple crop in Gurage land is enset.
 had traditional system of governance developed over the centuries. There was, however, no
centralized leadership. Power was vested in clan or lineage groups. The descent groups displayed
corporate rights, obligations, and influence.
 Gurage‟s notable customary modes of governance include the Yajoka Qicha and the Gordanna Sera.
Kambata
 By about 1550-70, four communities of separate origin coalesced to form the contemporary state of
Kambata which means, “ this is the place” (where we live-as the Kambata believe in).
 The first one, Kambata in the narrow sense, had its original homeland around Mount
Hambericho in the heartland of Kambata territory.
 The other three namely the Dubamo, Donga and Tembaro trace their homeland from Sidama
highlands.
 If the above processes led to the formation of the nucleus of the state, the ethno-genesis of Kambata
also benefitted from Omotic and Semitic peoples who moved into the region at different times.
 Emperor Yeshak (r.1413-30) annexed Kambata proper and controlled the area between Omo and
Bilate Rivers, which he incorporated into the Christian Ethiopian Empire.
 In 1532, the region was captured by Imam Ahmed‟s army, which furthered the interaction of
peoples. At the end of the sixteenth century, the groups were recognized as and conscious of the name
Kambata related to one of the seven dominant clans (Kambata Lamala) in the region.
 The people were ensete farmers sharing similar culture and speaking the same language called
Kambatissa, which belongs to the Highland East Cushitic family together with Qabena, Halaba,
Hadiya, Sidama, Gedeo and Burji groups.
 The Kambata had a traditional administrative institution called the Hambericho Council.
The council had seven members each representing the seven clans in the region. With a king at the
top, the council ruled Kambata until the late nineteenth century.

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 Hadiya
 The origin of the state of Hadiya goes back to the thirteenth century.
 Hadiya was mentioned in the Kebre-Negest (Glory of the Kings) and it referred to the area west of the
Islamic states in the federation of Zeila.
 The people were heterogeneous both linguistically and culturally.
 Semitic-speaking agricultural people dominated north of the state while the southern part was
largely inhabited by Cushitic-speaking pastoral communities. There was a considerable Muslim
population.
 By about 1332, the ruler of the Christian kingdom, Amde-Tsion, subjugated Hadiya after defeating its
ruler, Amano who supported by a Muslim “prophet” Bel‟am aligned with the then leader of Ifat,
Sabraddin to confront the Christian force.
 From the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries, Hadiya‟s political importance was considerable with
sizable population and vast territory.
 In 1445, a Hadiya king called Mahiqo rebelled against Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) and was
consequently replaced by his uncle Bamo. To stabilize the situation, Zara-Yaqob made a political
marriage. Accordingly, Princess Elleni, from Hadiya, who became an important historical figure,
married Emperor Zara-Yaqob.
 Another Hadiya leader, Garad Aze refused to pay tribute to Emperor Sartsa-Dengel (r.1563-98), but
was suppressed in 1568/9.
 The relations between Hadiya and the Christian Kingdom was interrupted following the wars
between the latter and Adal and the Oromo population movement until Hadiya's incorporation
into the Imperial state in the late nineteenth century. After these two major historical events
especially the latter, Hadiya‟s population became more diverse. However, descendants of the old
Hadiya can be traced from four different linguistic clusters:-
 the Oromo
 the Sidama
 the Kabena and Alaba, and
 the Hadiya proper with its sub-groups-the Mareko, Lemu, Soro, Shashogo and Badowacho.
 As with the Kambata and Sidama, the Hadiya language belongs to the Highland East Cushitic
family and their languages are intelligible to members of these ethnic groups.
5.5.3. Peoples and States in the South
Sidama
 Historically, the Sidama have been living in the southern parts of Ethiopia occupying lowlands of
about 1500 m a.s.l in the Great East Africa Rift Valley that cut through Lakes Hawasa and Abaya up
to 3000 m a.s.l in the eastern Sidama highlands of Arbegona, Bansa and Arroressa districts.
 Agriculture, although practiced traditionally, remained the basis of Sidama‟s economy. Enset and
coffee are Sidama‟s important food and cash crops respectively.
 The Sidama had an indigenous system of governance led by the Mote (king).
 The Mote exercised political and administrative authority in consultation with the council of
elders called Songo.
 Songo members raised any agenda for discussion within the council and submitted their
decisions to the Mote for approval. Although there was no written constitution, rules were
known by heart through generations and practiced accordingly.
 The cultural and ritual leader in Sidama society was the Woma. The woma:-
 was selected for his ability as a peacemaker, bodily perfection, oratorical ability, wisdom and
caution.
 could not participate in war or cattle raiding as he was considered a man of peace.
 handled cultural matters such as offering sacrifices to the spirits.
 performed other rituals such as circumcision and marriage.

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 The Sidama society was divided into generation-sets called Luwa. The system had five grades each
lasting for eight years. These are Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa and Mogissa.
 Candidates for Luwa received a five-month military training and war songs like gerarsha
under the leadership of the gaden with his deputy called Ja’lawa.
 The gaden settled disputes within his Luwa, besides handling the defense of Sidama society
together with the Mote.
 Another important institution of Sidama society is Seera. Seera was the social constitution of the
Sidama people governing social life based on the Sidama moral code, halale (the ultimate truth) to
judge the right and wrong. Although it was not written and defined with strict enforcement
mechanisms, people abide by the rules of halale to avoid curse or ostracization by the society.
Gedeo
 Contradictory traditions exist regarding the origin of the Gedeo people. The dominant tradition
relates the ancestors of the Gedeo to Daraso, who was the older brother of Gujo (father of Guji
Oromo). Accordingly, the seven major Gedeo clans descended from the seven sons of Daraso. The
clans were grouped in two houses,
 the first being the shole batte (senior house) where the first four clans belonged including
more than 25 sub-clans and
 the second called sase batte (junior house) where the last three belonged having 10 sub-
clans. Each clan was exogamous and was assigned for particular duty such as ritual,
traditional medicine or leadership.
 The Gedeo had a culture called baalle, a traditional governance system that worked with age
classes and ranking. I.e:-
 The baalle had seven grades with a 10-year period each creating a 70-year cycle.
 Sasserogo was a federation of three territories; Sobbho, Ributa and Rikuta sharing one Abba
Gadaa who leaves office every eight years to be replaced by a new holder with the next age set
at baalle ceremony. It was at this ceremony that all positions ranging from the top, Abba Gada
down to Hayitcha were assumed.
 Like the neighboring Sidama, with whom they shared a very close language, their economy was
based on the cultivation of enset.
Konso/ Xonso
 The name Konso is invariably used to refer one of the ancient peoples in Ethiopia and the Horn who
spoke affa Konso (Konso language) and their land. The literal meaning of the term is a “heavily
forested hill/ area.”
 A century ago the highlands of Konso, which was covered by dense forest, had been the traditional
home of Konso people while the low-lying environment along Sagan and Woyito river valley served
as hunting grounds.
 Konso attracted the attention of local and international researchers interested in human evolution,
as it is one of the earliest human settlement sites in the world.
 Agriculture was and remains to be the major economic activity of the Konso. Farmers:-
 practiced a fairly balanced and integrated system of specialized agricultural technology. The
location of mainland Konso within mosquito infested hot and dry lowlands at the edge of the
Great East African Rift Valley led farmers to adopt intensive agriculture.
 combined crop production with cattle breeding. At the same time, they adopted soil
conservation techniques notably the construction of terraces, which proved helpful to
convert rugged and hilly areas into permanent cultivation.
 were also adept at selecting plant genes that withstood harsh climatic conditions. Such
complex agricultural practices enabled farmers to produce sufficient food on small plot of
land for their sustenance.
 Besides agriculture, Konso‟s economy depended on bee keeping and craftworks. All of these
activities attest the ingenuity of local adaptation strategies.
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  Until the late nineteenth century, the Konso people lived in walled villages (paletas) namely
Karati, Turo and Takati which were further divided into wards called Kanta.
 There was no central authority who acted as sovereign power over the three regions.
 Each village was ruled by a council of elders called hayyota who were selected through direct
participation of male members of the village. Membership to the council was not
hereditary but rotated every eighteen years.
 At the core of the socio-political organization of the Konso appear to be the clan or lineage group and
generation set, Tselta.The Konso were divided into nine exogamous clans namely Toqmaleta, Elayta,
Saudata, Pasanta, Kertita, Ishalayta, Mahaleta, Tikisayta and Argamyta. The Tselta had fixed
cycle of years starting from birth, although they varied across villages-
 eighteen in Karat,
 nine in Takati and
 five in Turo. The major function of the generation set was informing the responsibilities
expected of each age group.
5.5.4. Peoples and States in Southwestern Part
Wolayta
 The name Wolayta denotes a specific ethnic group in southwestern Ethiopia and their powerful
kingdom, which first emerged as a state back in the thirteenth century.
 According to local traditions, before the emergence of Wolayta as a political unit, the area was
inhabited by different communities such as the Badia, Badiagadala and Aruja.
 The state flourished in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries because of:-
 successful wars that the Wolayta fought against their neighbors and
 the material, human and territorial gains thereof.
 At the apex of the social and political hierarchy was the Kawo (king), assisted by advisory council
of nobles called Ballimalla.
 From the thirteenth to the late nineteenth centuries, two successive dynasties ruled Wolayta. I.e:-
 the Wolayta-Malla and
 the Tigre.
 Founded in the thirteenth century by Motalami, the Wolayta-Malla seems to have ruled until
the end of the fifteenth century. It was then superseded by the Tigre dynasty, so called because it
was supposedly founded by Tigreans from northern Ethiopia.
 The land of Wolayta is known for its:-
 fertility and
 moderate climate, with green vegetation cover for the most part of the year.
 All land was nominally owned by the king who granted it to his dependents. In practice, land
relationships were ordered according to three basic principles of social organization i.e.
 kinship the lineage group,
 polity and Accordingly, rights over land were vested in:- the crown (royal estate) and
 social status. the nobility
 There were also communal lands allocated for grazing and social gatherings to which all members
of the society except artisans had equal access.
 The king rewarded people with land on grounds of:-
 gallant deeds in battle and
 other important contributions to the state.
 By grants of land or by threats of dispossession the reigning monarch ensured loyalty to the
state.
 Except those who worked on the royal estate, landholders paid tribute to the king.
 The dominant food crop was enset (Enset Ventricosum).
Kafa

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 According to traditions, this powerful kingdom emerged in fourteenth century. Around mid
seventeenth century, the state had come to prominence.
 The ruling Minjo dynasty and the medieval kingdom of Ennarya had close contact. The Oromo
expansion might have forced the ruling house of Ennarya to flee south of the Gojeb which as a
result brought Christianity and the royal title tato to Kafa.
 As with a number of Cushitic and some Semitic peoples of the south, Kafa‟s economy was based on
the cultivation of enset on peasant farms supported by trade.
 Besides working on their land, peasants rendered free labor service and tilled royal estates
with the support of slaves who were acquired through raiding or trading, or as payment for
debt.
 As far as trade is concerned, a prosperous commerce took place with Oromo states of the
Gibe region. Major trade items, such as, musk, coffee, slaves, Ivory, gold, honey-wax, and
civet were exported via markets like Tonkolla, Tiffa, Qeya etc.
 From the seventeenth to the eighteenth centuries, the kingdom expanded to Bonesho, Mashengo,
Maji, Nao, She and Chara. At the apex of the administration of the kingdom was the Tato with his
major political center at Bonga. Another seat of power was Andarcha, seven miles to southeast.
 The Tato was assisted by a council of seven advisors called Mikrecho.
 The Mikrecho served to moderate the power of the king but they played important roles in
succession as well.
 The Kafa had a tradition of digging deep trenches called Kuripo as defensive barrier. The Gojeb
River also:-
 served as natural protection against external invasion and
 it might have contributed to their relative independence until 1897.
Yem
 The Yem state:-
 was located along the eastern banks of the Gibe or to the northeast of the Kafa kingdom.
 its economy combined agriculture, trade and crafts.
 initially, an indigenous dynasty called Dida or Halmam-Gamma ruled it from its palace in
Dudarkema/Zimarma near Oya, in the vicinity of Bor Ama Mountain.
 Besides being at the top of the political ladder, the Amno (king) of Yem acted as a
chief priest with attributes of divinity.
 A state council of 12 members named Astessor with its chairperson Waso assisted
the Amno in administering the state.
 Erasho were the provincial governors and they were responsible for digging ditches
called bero and erecting nearly fifty-meter wooden or iron pillars at the center of
the kingdom around Brisi Bita so that the war father, the Nomiaw, could patrol the
surroundings.
 Especial messengers, Wosi carried orders from Amno down to district chiefs, Gagna
and vice versa.
 In the fourteenth century, the last King Oyokam/Amo Dasha was overthrown by people from the
north who founded a new dynasty called Mowa (Howa) with its center at Angari.
 In the nineteenth century, the neighboring state of Jimma Abba Jifar tried to control the Yem
which itself was absorbed into the imperial state of Ethiopia under Emperor Menilek II towards
the end of the century.
Gamo
 Historically, the Gamo inhabited areas from Lakes Chamo and Abaya to the Gughe Mountain and
beyond.
 Gamo‟s physical landscape can be divided into two. I.e:-
1/ the geze (highland) and

53
 2/ the bazo (lowland).
 The highlands were densely populated while people who escaped coercion by the state at the political
center largely settled the lowlands which also served as hunting fields.
 A set of interrelated indigenous laws called the Woga defined land-use in the Gamo highlands.
The laws had their origin in a belief that everything was connected and bound in a delicate balance.
Together they formed a natural resource management system that governed everything from
interpersonal relationships to the conservation and preservation of pasture, forest, soil, and water.
 The cultivation of enset had been central to the subsistence of Gamo highlands while maize and
sweet potato were staple food crops in the lowlands.
 Other crops grown in the highlands included barely, wheat, teff, peas, beans and cabbage.
 Besides farming, most farmers kept cattle for food, farming and manure, which they needed for
successful agriculture. Craft making, pot making, tanning and metalworking were other modes of
the subsistence system.
 These people had developed their own indigenous knowledge and technologies in manufacturing
different types of tools and weapons, traditional musical and funeral instruments, weaving
colorful textiles etc.
 The first mention of the Gamo in written records dates back to the fifteenth century in the praise
songs of king Yishak (r.1413-30). The song mentioned the Gamo as one of the tributary states to the
Ethiopian monarch. The Gamo maintained relative autonomy from control by the Christian
Kingdom after war with the Muslim sultanates weakened the latter.
 Between the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, the Gamo lived in scattered settlements and
organized in different communities called dere. The dere were politically autonomous villages
(units) but shared three essential features. These were:
(1) each dere had kawo (hereditary ruler) who also offered sacrifices and symbolized the unity of
the people.
(2) every dere had its own initiates called halaqa and
(3) every dere had its own assembly place called dubusha, where communal matters were discussed
and disputes solved.
 Access to politico-ritual status among the Gamo people was made possible through initiation or
election and baira, a system of seniority. The two systems functioned both in opposition to each
other as well as complementarily.
 The First system was carried through initiation or election. The dulata (assembly) elected
married men to positions that were known by different names from one dere to another. i.e:-
 In some dere it was called halaqa
 In others dere it was known by the name huduga or maga.
 Election to this office was open to all married men and accorded representatives with provisional
political authority.
 The dulata (assembly):-
 had an institutional authority to give decisions on different social, political and many
other important matters.
 had also the power to impose sanctions as penalty on individuals or groups who
committed serious crimes or violated the community‟s social regulations and
cultural values.
 The second system, the baira, was ascribed and largely based on genealogical seniority
according to primogeniture. The Gamo people were distributed in agnatic clans each having a
system of individual genealogical hierarchy.
 The baira (senior) of the clan
 had a privilege over lineage members.
 made animal sacrifice on behalf of their juniors at all levels of the community. The
senior sacrificer of the dere is the kawo.

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  The concept of kawo
 refers to the first rank status, with variable attributes and he was legitimatized by birth and
primogeniture.
 represented the unity of dere and played an important role in relations with the outside world.
Dawuro
 Dawuro‟s topography mostly is mountainous and plateau at the central, and lowland and plain at
Gojeb and Omo river basins. The land is divided into three climatic zones. These are:-
 geziya (highland),
 dashuwa (mid-altitude) and
 gad’a (lowland). Such climatic conditions enriched Dawuro with a variety of tree species and
natural vegetation/forest.
 The livelihood of Dawuro people is based on mixed agricultural activities.
 The language of Dawuro people is Dawurotsuwa, a sub-group of the Omotic family.
 Historically, Dawuro land had been inhabited by three major clans namely:-
 Malla,
 Dogolla, and which altogether were regarded as Gok’as or K’omos.
 Amara
 The area was also home for people that came from neighboring Omotic states such as Wolayta,
Kucha, Gamo, Gofa, and Kafa and from places like Gondar, Gojjam, Tigray and Shewa since
early times.
 A political alliance through royal marriages was one important factor that facilitated the movement
of people from neighboring territories into Dawuro.
 By about 1700, the Kawuka dynasty had created a big state from a great number of petty
chieftainships on the territory between the Gojeb and Omo rivers in the north, east and south and
the Kafa high mountains in the west.
 Among the rulers of the Kawuka dynasty of Dawuro, Kati Irashu and Kati Halala were famous. Kati
Halala :-
 was the grandson of the king of Kafa.
 during his reign, Dawuro incorporated Konta.
 is known for his stone fortifications which he oversaw to defend his territories from outsiders.
Ari
 The Omo River basin had been home to different groups of people since early times. These included the
Ari, Dasenech, Tsemayi, Erbore, Hamer, Surma, Meniet, Nyangatom, Bodi, Male, etc.
 Major economic activities in the region were sedentary agriculture, pastoralism and handcrafts.
 The language of the Ari people is called Araf, which is one branch of the Omotic language family.
 The society was organized into ten independent clan based chiefdoms. I.e:-
 Hereditary clan chief known as Babi headed each of these chiefdoms.
 The clan chief was entitled with both political and ritual authorities over the people of his
respective domain.
 The clan chief was assisted by officially appointed prominent figures in the administration of the
political unit. The assistants included Godimis (religious leaders), Zis (village heads) and Tsoikis
(intelligence agents of Babi).
5.5.5. Peoples and States in the West
Berta and Gumuz
 The Berta people inhabit the present Beni-Shangul Regional State.
 The earliest record of Berta settlement in this region dates from the sixteenth century.
 The Berta people speak the Berta language as their mother tongue. It is a tonal language classified
as a branch of the Nilo-Saharan linguistic group.

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 In addition to the Berta, the Beni-Shangul is home for the Gumuz. They are already mentioned by the
Scottish explorer James Bruce. He notes that they hunted with bows and arrows, a custom that survives
today.
 The Gumuz speak the Gumuz language, which belongs to the Nilo-Saharan family. It is
subdivided in several dialects.
 Islamic influence had been strong on the Berta and other Nilotes because of their trade and
social contacts with the northern Sudan.
Anywa
 Historically, the Anywa predominantly inhabited areas along Pibor, Sobat, Gila, Akobo, Agwei, Oboth,
Baro, and Alwero Rivers on the western borderlands of the present-day Gambella region.
 The people speak Dha-anywaa, a sub-branch of the Nilo- Saharan language family.
 The Anywa had an indigenous administrative system whereby each village lived under a chief called
Kuaari who along with the nobles, Nyiye, managed the distribution of farm and grazing fields, settled
disputes etc with the community.
 Although local traditions mention a certain person by the name Oshoda as the founding father of the
Anywa, the administration of the territory was not centralized.
 Economically, they are engaged in small-scale cultivation, fishing and hunting. While most Anywa
practiced Christianity, they also believed in traditional religion.
Nuer
 Historically, the Nuer lived in areas that extended across the savannas and marshes of the Bahr el-
Ghazal and the Upper Nile regions of the Sudan. Since the nineteenth century, they had been largely
settled in the plains of Gambella along the Sobat and Baro Rivers and parts of the Sudan.
 The mainstay of Nuer‟s economy was cattle breeding supplemented by crop production. The Nuer had
developed a rather complex spiritual culture around their cattle, which were used as bride wealth as well.
 The Nuer had an age-set system combining social and political functions. Nuer boys had to pass through a
severe test and a series of rites connected with it before they were initiated into adulthood.
Majang
 The Majang formed the southern end of the Nilo-Saharan settlement that covered the escarpment of the
Oromo inhabited highlands to the Baro plains.
 Linguistic evidence relates the origin of the Majang to the Boma plateau in South Sudan. Gradually, they
moved northwards and settled in forested areas of western Ethiopia. By mid twentieth century, their
settlement extended to areas near Dembi-Dollo in the north.
 Economically, the Majang practiced shifting cultivation and animal husbandry. Other economic
activities of the Majang include beekeeping, hunting and fishing.
The Kunama
 The Kunama people also called the Baza:-
 are one of the ancient inhabitants of western Eritrea on the Gash and Tekkeze Rivers and in
today‟s northwestern and western Tigray. The Arab traveller al-Ya‛qubi in 872 A.D.
mentions the kingdom of Baza, which is a self-designation of the Kunama.
 had a customary institution called sanga-anene mandated with the administration of the society.
Other responsibilities of the sanga-anene included granting asylum to new comers in the
sanctuary of their compounds and performed rituals as part of reconciliation process in case
of homicides. The office of the sanga-anene was held by male members of the society. The
office was transmitted hereditarily from the eldest brother to the next born on matrilineal line.
 The mainstay of Kunama‟s economy is mixed agriculture. Agriculture is based on the use of hoe, spades,
sickles and the ox (camel)-drawn plough. Signs of past practices of terraced agriculture are still visible
in some areas of the Kunama.
 The staple crop among the Kunama is sorghum (kina), which also has a ceremonial value. Other crops
grown are millet (borta or beca), pulses and maize (afokina). The Kunama also keep livestock mainly
goats, sheep, oxen, and camels.

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5.6. The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint
5.6.1. The Gondarine Period
A. Political Developments
 The period of Gondar begins from the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle when the political center of
Ethiopian emperors shifted to Gondar area.
 Emperor Sartsa-Dengle established royal camp at Enfranz in 1571.
 Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near Gondar like at Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz
and Azazo.
 Gondar was founded in 1636 when Fasiledas established his political seat there.
 Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first three successive emperors:
 Fasiledas (r.1632–67),
 Yohannes I (r.1667-82) and
 Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706).
 Among the major reforms during the periods the above three emperors were:-
 the restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion, and the establishment of a royal prison at Amba
Wahni to solve problems stemming from power rivalry.
 Emperor Yohannes I and his council established a separate quarter for Muslims at Addis Alem.
 Yohannes I‟s successor, Iyasu I, reformed land tenure system, introduced a system of land
measurement in Begemder, taxes, and customs, and revised the Fetha Negest (the civil code).
 The assassination of Iyasu the Great by a faction under the leadership of his own son, Tekle-Haymanot,
ushered in political instability in Gondar involving intrigues and poisoning of reigning monarchs. Tekle-
Haymanot was crowned in 1706 before the death of his father and was in turn assassinated by Tewoflos.
Tewoflos was again killed by Yostos, who was also poisoned and replaced by Dawit III, who himself was
poisoned and replaced by Bakafa. Bakafa tried to restore stability with the support of his followers and his
wife EtegeMentewab until he was incapacitated in 1728. The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased
involvement of the Oromo in politics and the army as will be discussed shortly.
 From 1728 to 1768, Etege Mentewab together with her brother Ras-Bitwaded Walda Le‟ul (1732-1767
dominated the Gondarine court politics.
 Walda Le‟ul was influential during the reigns of Iyasu II (1730-55) and Iyoas (1755-69).
Following his death in 1767, Etege Mentewab was challenged by Wubit Amito, her daughter-in-
law from Wollo. To counter the growing power of the Wollo Oromo in the royal court, Mentewab
sought the alliance of Ras Mika'el Sehul of Tigray who was politically astute and militarly
powerful.
 Mika'el Sehul succeeded in stabilizing the situation and refused to return to Tigray although
demanded by Iyoas. This was followed by the killing of Iyoas and his replacement by an old man
Yohannes II by Ras Mika'el. Soon Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and put his son Takla-
Haymanot II (1769-77) on power. This marked the onset of the period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-
1855).
B. Achievements of the Gondarine Period
 Gondar became the center of state administration, learning, commerce, education, art, and crafts
for more than two centuries. The first three kings were successful not only in political affairs but also
in cultural developments.
 Gondar had great influence on the country‟s cultural developments. This enabled Gondar to repeat the
splendors of Aksum and Lalibela. The cultural achievements of the period led some writers to describe
Gondarine period in history as Ethiopian Renaissance.
Architecture: when Gondar served as a permanent capital, for about one hundred fifty years, Ethiopian
kings built significant secular buildings like castles, bridges, residences, bath, library, towers,
fortifications and there are squared, round and unknown shape of churches.

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  In the cities compound the most impressive building known as Fasil Gemb, there are different palaces
corresponding to Emperor Fasiledas, Yohannes I, Iyasu I, Dawit III, Bakafa and regent Queen
Mentewab.
 The Gondarine architecture would have started before the reign of emperor Fasiledas during the
reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle at about 1586, at Guzara near Enfranz. Even it goes back to the
reign of Lebne-Dengel (r.1508-1540) that is the pointed oval dome over the center of the church of
Bahir Gimb Mikael considered as built by him.
 The architectural styles of Fasiledas castle usually have two stride and almost square; circular
domed corner towers. Not only castle, bridge building did not originate with the reign of Fasiledas.
Rather, Emperor Sartsa-Dengel is said to have built a very fine bridge near his palace at Guzara, and
Emperor Susenyos likewise erected a bridge over Blue Nile at Alata.
Painting: With a wealth of religious paintings on manuscripts and on wood, ornaments, weapons
and other accessories especially, the churches built by Queen Mentwab were known by beautiful
paintings, cross and an art works.
Literature: The Imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a great number of manuscripts. Besides the
Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the Lives of Ethiopian Saints and the Litanies, and many other
kinds of illuminated manuscripts were also produced. Gondar is also known for its traditional
medicine, music and poetry.
Trade and Urbanization:
 Gondar was a commercial center that connected long distance trade routes of the southern region
with Massawa and Metemma in the Ethio-Sudan border. Gold and salt were used as medium of
exchange. The appearance of daily market was known.
 With spread of urbanization, the city became residences of foreign communities like Indians, Greeks
and Armenians. The city had an estimated 60,000-70,000 population.
 In addition to its political and commercial importance, it served as religious center of Christians,
Muslims and Bete-Israel. Besides, it served as the center of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (residence of
the abun and Ichege) until the mid of nineteenth Century. Many of Orthodox churches served as
education centers (known by excellence in teaching aqwaqwam), liturgical chanting was centered at
Gondar.
5.6.2. The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
 Zemene-Mesafint
 refers to the period when actual position of political power was in the hands of different
regional lords.
 lasts from the time Ras Michael Sehul "assassinated" king Iyoas in 1769 to 1855, when Kasa
Hailu was crowned as Tewodros II.
 Ras Mika‟el Sehul who was a king maker in the period took strong measures against the nobility.
These measures made him highly unpopular because of which coalitions of lords of Gojjam,
Amhara, Lasta and Wollo that defeated him at the battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771.
 Under the reigns of Ras Mika‟el Sehul‟s successors, there was relative stability but several regional
lords evolved.
 The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords ruled were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya,
Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa. When compared to each other the “Yejju
dynasty” was the leading power during the Zemen-Mesafint with the center at Debre-tabor. Ali
Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was considered as the founder of “Yejju dynasty” in 1786.
 Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-1825) who made incessant struggle
against Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame.
 In 1826, Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8), defeated Hayle-Mariam Gebre of Simen. Maru
of Dambiya was also killed at the battle of Koso-Ber in 1827. Ras Yimam was succeeded by Ras
Marye in 1828.

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  In 1831, Marye came to war against Sabagadis at the battle of May Aslamay (near Debre
Abbay in western Tigrai), where both the contenders were killed at the battle.
 Finally, after the death of the Yeju ruler, Marye, Dori came to power at Gonder. But, his
rule was short – lived. After his death, Ras Ali II (Ali-Tinishu) 1831-1853 came to power.
 The period of zemene mesafint was brought to an end by Kasa Hailu of Qwara through a series of
battles that lasted from 1840s to 1855.
Major features of Zemene-Mesafint include:
 absence of effective central government;
 the growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
 the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern Ethiopia;
 rivarly and compeition among regional lords to assume the position of king maker;
 establishment of fragile coalition to advance political interests;
 Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional role of unifying the state due to
doctrinal disputes;
 Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “Closed Door Policy.”
 In addition to the above features, there were developments in terms of literature, arts, architecture
etc during the period.

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 UNIT SIX
INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF ETHIOPIA
AND THE HORN, 1800-1941
6.1. The Nature of Interactions among Peoples and States of Ethiopia and the Horn
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, many autonomous and semi-autonomous peoples and states
existed in Ethiopia and the Horn. This section deals with the history of these peoples and states in the
period under consideration.
6.1.1. Peoples and States in South-Central, Southwestern, and Western Ethiopia
A. South-Central:
 Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, and Gurage were autonomous and semi-autonomous political entities
during this period.
 Economically, they depended largely on agriculture.
 Local merchants were actively involved in local trade and to some extent in the long
distance trade. Trade routes that connected the interior with the coast passed through
these territories. Among these, the Gurage land was an important market centre and
political entity. Important trade centers such as Soddo and Aymallel were located in the
Gurage land.
 The Gurage had their own political organization and their leaders held the titles of Abegaz or
Azmatch who combined political and military authority.
 In the second half of the nineteenth century, Qabena emerged as a strong political entity. It
became a centre of Muslim revivalist movement to the northeast of the Gibe River. Stirred by
Muslim refugees from Wollo, and with possible connections even with the Mahdist Sudan, the
movement swept across a large part of the region and was attended by a fast spread of Islam.
B. The Gibe States:
 Towards the beginning of the nineteenth century, several monarchical states (motumma)
emerged among the Mecha Oromo at the expense of the Gadaa system.
 Many factors accounted for the transformation of the Gadaa system. In the process, the
war leaders of the Gadaa system (Abba-Dula) and powerful individuals usurped the
power of the Gadaa government.
 The abba-dula accumulated wealth from the control and taxation on long distance
trade and utilized the opportunity to establish hereditary leadership. This development
especially took place among the Oromo around Gibe, where the following five
monarchical states emerged.
i. Limmu-Enarya: This Kingdom,
 Was the earliest of the Gibe states.
 Was founded through the incorporation of Enarya.
 Initially, Abbaa Dula of Limmu like Tesso fought and defeated the rulers of Enarya like
Badancho, Gu‟amcho and Banaro at different times.
 Finally, Bofoo/Abba Gomol (1800-1825) established Limmu-Enarya. Bofoo abdicated in
favor of his son, Ibsa/Abba Bagiboo (1825-61).
 Reached the height of its power during Ibsa‟s reign, when he incorporated areas including
Hagalo, Badi-Folla etc. Ibsa was succeeded by Abba Bulgaa (1861-1883).
ii. Guma:

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  Jilcha Abba Bal‟oo of Chira killed Sarbaroda of Dagoye clan; began state formation and
succeeded by his son Oncho (1810-1830) who was in turn followed by Jawwe (1840-1854).
iii. Gomma:
 Formed by Abba Bokee (1800-1829) who was succeeded by his son Abba Manoo (1829-1840)
who occupied Qattuu and converted to Islam by Muslim Ulama/scholars.
iv. Jimma:
 Towards the late eighteenth century, Makahore emerged as an influential female figure among
the Sadacha Mecha Oromo of Jimma.
 The local Abba Dula sought to take political power from Makahore. Among the Abba Dulas, Ose
Kobi (Abba Faro) was elected as a hereditary ruler against the Gadaa rule. He was succeeded by
Dangila (Abba Magal) who enlarged the domain.
 The process of state formation was completed by Sanna/Abba Jifar I (r.1830-55) who formed
Jimma Kingdom and left a consolidated state to his successors like Abba Rebu (1855-59), Abba
Boqa (1859-1861) and Abba Gomol(r.1861-75).
 The most famous among the Jimma monarchs was Tullu /Abba Jifar II (ca. r.1875-1934).
 Apart from agriculture and trade, the kingdom's economy depended on iron mining and
smelting at Dakkano and Kito, respectively.
v. Gera:
 was the last of the Gibe kingdoms to be formed.
 The process of state formation in Gera was completed during the reign of Tullu Gunji (r.1835-
38), a successful war leader who made himself king.
 Abba Rago I (r.1838-48) succeeded Tullu Gunji after a short interlude by Abba Basso.
 Enjoyed its prosperity under Abba Magal who had been converted to Islam. As with other Gibe
states, Gera attracted Muslim missionaries to preach Islam.
C. The Leqa States
 Like in the Gibe region, several monarchical kingdoms evolved among the Mecha Oromo of
Wallagga. Among these were:-
 the Leqa states,
 the Sibu and
 the Jawwi south of the Abbay River.
 While Moti Abishe established strong kingdom of Horro, a number of Abba Dula declared
themselves moti (king) by controlling profitable trade routes and large territories in the region west
of the Gibe region. Among these, the Leqa states were the prominent ones.
I. Leqa-Naqamte:
 Was founded by Bakare Godana in 1840.
 Reached its height under his successors Moroda and Kumsa. They were able to establish strong
monarchical state rich in trade and agriculture.
 Moti Kumsa (later Dejazmach Gebre-Egzi'abiher) was known for promoting handcraft
work, gold washing, coffee planting and game reserves/hunting.
 Its rulers instituted a new administrative structure and judicial hierarchy that replaced the
Gadaa system known as sirna abba-qoro (qoro system).In its nature, the administration system
was essentially kingship and was quite similar to feudal administration in its reliance on land.
II. Leqa-Qellam:
 Was located in south western Wallagga.
 It was founded by Tullu and became powerful under his son, Jote being centered at Gidami and
controlling the areas around Sayyo-Dambi Dollo.
D. Ilu:

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  The Tume clan leader Chali Shono (also known as Abba Bor) set up the well-consolidated state
of Ilu-Abba Bor in the early nineteenth century.
 Was one of the prosperous states in the region.
 Each Oromo monarchical state had officials like:
 Abba Gurmu (next person to the king)
 Abba Mizan (treasurer and foreign affair minister)
 Abba Dango (immigration chief)
 Lammi (ambassador/royal messenger)
 Abba Qoro (district governor)
 Abba Ganda (village chief)
 Abba Busi (tax head)
 Abba Jiga (murder judge) and
 Abba-Qawe (body-guard).
 Contrary to the Gadaa values that had not requisitioned any kind of taxation, under monarchical
systems farmers were forced to pay croptax measured by traditional instruments called buchano
(about 15 kilograms) and later guboo (25 kilograms) on each crop.
E. Nilotic Sheikdoms:
 In the early nineteenth century, important Islamic centres emerged in the lower course of the
Abbay. A number of Shiekdoms were established through parallel imposition of Arabic-speaking
Sudanese mercantilists over Berta and Gumuz inhabitants. Among them, the Sheikhdoms of:
 Assosa or Aqoldi
 Bela Shangul and were established to the south of Abbay River
 Khomosha
 Guba emerged to the north of the Abbay River in the western edge of Gojjam (along the
Ethio-Sudanese border).
 These four sheikhdoms were founded by Muslim leaders of Sudanese origin who considered
themselves as „Watawit‟. The term Watawit refers to Arbaized Berta people who had entered
and settled in Benishangul as traders and Islamic religious teachers in the late nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries.
 The main economic bases of the sheikdoms were agriculture, gold mining and frontier trade.
 Among these sheikhdoms,
 Asosa/Aqoldi got preeminence under Sheikh Khojale al Hasan.
 Bela/Beni-Shangul became famous under Abd al Rahman Khojale.
 Khomosha reached its zenith under Khojale Muhammad Wad Mahmud.
 Guba: attained similar prominence in the southwest of Gojjam
 The influence of Islam from the Sudan and cross border trade was the main reasons for the
rise of these states. The rich gold of the region also attracted foreign powers like the Mahdists
and Egyptians who attempted to control the sheikdoms at different times.
6.1.2. Trade and Trade Routes
 Although the trade routes which linked southwestern Ethiopia to the coast had medieval
antecedents, it was in the nineteenth century that they attained particular prominence. This was
partly because of the revival of external trade in the Red Sea region. As a result, trade became
one means of maintaining strong relations across peoples of different areas and backgrounds.
During this period, two main trade lines linked various territories of Ethiopia and the Horn. i.e:-
 The first major trade route:-
 originated from Bonga, the capitalof Kafa Kingdom,

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  linked peoples and states of the southwestern Ethiopia with the northern part of the
Ethiopian region.
 the main market centers along this line were:-
 Bonga, Hirmata, Saqa, Billo, Asandabo (in Guduru), Basso-Yajube (in Gojjam), Yifag
and Darita (in Begemider) and Gondar.
 From Gondar, one line bifurcated to westward through Chilga to Matamma-Qallabat
(Gallabat) taking commodities to be sold to the Sudanese merchants called Jallaba. The
other route passed through Adwa, Asmara and entered Massawa.
 Still another split at Basso to move via Ancharro and Dawwe in Wollo and Awusa in
Afar to Tajura, Obbok and Rahe‟ita in Djibouti.
 The second major trade route also:
 began from Bonga and
 passed through Hirmata to Agabja-Andode-Toli to Soddo in southwest Shewa; Rogge
near Yerer. Then, the line passed through Aliyu Amba or Abdul Rasul in northern
Shewa and ran eastward to Harar. From Harar, the route branched into Zeila and
Berbera, the most important commercial centers in Somalia. Then Ethiopian products
were mostly sold in the Middle East.
 In the trade between the interior and the coast, varieties of items were exchanged. The main sources
of exported items were obtained from the southwestern regions. Among these weregold, ivory,
rhinoceros horn, skins, civet, musk, honey, wax, coffee, various spices and slaves.
 Slaves were either raided or bought from different parts of Ethiopia and exported to Arabia,
Persia and India. Likewise, imported products included mirrors and ironware.
 The major media of exchange were:
 salt bars (amole)
 iron bars
 wines
 cowries‟ shells
 beads
 pieces of cotton cloth (abujadi)
 Maria Theresa Thalers (MTT) etc.
 For internal trade, amole was the major important commodity and source of wealth. The Amole:-
 was mined in the Afar plains (Taltal) bordering eastern Tigray where it was also suitably
shaped for transportation.
 then, transported from Afar and eastern Tigray region to the highlands through Adwa,
Gondar, and to south and southwester parts of the region. The other route took salt from
eastern Tigray to south Wollo and Shewa. The town of Mekelle prospered as the salt was
cut in and distributed to the highlands from the area under the supervision of the governor
of Enderta with the title of Balgada, who had the tributes as tax judge, grew in importance
and rivaled Bahre-Negash (the governor of the maritime province to the north).
 Maria Theresa Thalers (MTT):-
 was a coin introduced to the Horn of African region at the end of the eighteenth century.
 on the Red Sea coast used with other kinds of European and Middle Eastern coins.
 Diverse peoples of different ethnic and religious background were involved in the trade. At each
market center, local peoples were active traders. However, Muslim merchants were the most
dominant that traveled from interior to the coast. Among these were:-
 Northern Muslim merchants (Jabarti) trading as far as the Red Sea Coast.
 Muslim Oromo merchants of southwestern region known as Afqala.

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  In the northwest, Sudanese merchants known as the Jelaba played a leading role
 The Argoba from the Kingdom of Shewa were similarly active merchants in the trade
between Harar and the northern Somali coast.
 Somali and Borana merchants (Saffare) dominated the trade between southern Ethiopia,
Kenya and Somalia.
 Afar and Harari merchants run a brisk trade between Shoa and the ports of Djibouti and the Gulf
of Aden respectively.
6.2. The Making of Modern Ethiopian State
 As discussed in the previous units, the diverse peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn were brought into
contact through the agency of:
 trade
 population movements
 evangelization, and
 wars.
 These agents played an important part in the making of the modern Ethiopian state. On the other
hand, a number of autonomous and semi-autonomous peoples and polities were in existence in
many regions up to the end of the nineteenth century.
 During the nineteenth century, several states that emerged in the region were involved in
territorial competition not only to extend control over resources but also for state building.
To put it differently, state building remained an agenda of several powerful individuals and groups,
that arose in the nineteenth century. The difference was:-
 the level of their strength and ambition, and
 their relations with foreign powers.
 States in the northern and central parts of Ethiopia had relative strength that built up over time
and gained a new momentum during the nineteenth century owing to their foreign contacts
and their strategic location.
 The making of the modern Ethiopian state went through two distinct phases.
 The first one involved unifying different regions and peoples in north and north central
parts of Ethiopia.
 The second phase involved territorial expansion into the southern parts of the country.
Here under, the processes of unification and territorial expansion are discussed in some
detail.
A. The Process of Territorial Unification
 The territorial unification ushered in a revival of the imperial power which had declined during
the Zemene-Mesafint. This occurred after a series of battles and human and material losses. A
leading figure in the overall process was Kasa Hailu of Quara who later became Emperor
Tewodros II of Ethiopia. Kasa‟s mission to create a unified state goes back to his time when
he was a shifta. Hence, it will be vital to trace the origins of his ideas that he tried to translate into
action later in his reign as emperor of Ethiopia.
 Kasa Hailu:-
 Was born to Hailu Walde Giorgis and Atitegeb Wondwosen (she was Koso vender)
 Was the man who ended the Zemene Mesafint.
 Started his career by assisting his half−brother, Dejjazmach Kinfu in defeating the Egyptians at
Wad Kaltabu (in present day eastern Sudan) in 1837.
 When Ras Ali II (Ali Alula/Ali Abba Bula) gave Quara to his mother Empress Manan/Halima Liban,
he moved to jungle and became a bandit. Manan sent expeditions under generals like Wandeyrad
against him, but he easily defeated them at Illoha, Chago & Segel in 1847. Kasa‟s force captured
Manan her husband Emperor Yohannes III in these battles. After negotiation Kasa released them and

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 Ras Ali II recognized Kasa as Quara governor and arranged for him to marry his own daughter,
Tawabach Ali.
 As he acquired military and political strength and experiences, he started mobilizing his own
army in the area and fought battles in his own right. In 1848, he fought against the Egyptians that
he preferred to call them as the „Turks‟ at a place called Dabarki. Although they showed
extraordinary courage, Kasa‟s forces lost the battle owing to the Egyptians‟ superior military
organization, discipline and better arms.
On the battle of Debarqi was born Kasa’s enduring interest in military organization and
modern arms, particularly the mortar.

 Yet, when his army incurred heavy casualties from Egyptian forces at Dabarki in 1848, Kasa was
forced to turn his attention first against regional lords and confront foreign enemy. Accordingly,
Kasa defeated:-
 Dejjach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam at Gur Amba on November 27, 1852
 Birru Aligaz, Aben, Yazew and Belew, the four dejjazmachs sent by Ras Ali, at Taqusa
(Gorgora Bichign) on April 12, 1853
 Ras Ali at Ayshal on 29 June 1853 and
 Dejjazmach Wube of Simen and Tigray at Deresge Mariam on 8 February, 1855.
 After defeating the major regional lords one after another, he was anointed by Abune Salama, the
Coptic bishop at Deresge Mariam on 9 February 1855, with the throne name of Tewodros II
(1855-1868), King of Kings of Ethiopia.
 Tewodros:-
 pursued his victory at Deresge by marching to the south. He subsequently marched first to
Wollo and then to Shewa.
 wanted to create a strong central government by appointing individuals (both hereditary and
non-hereditary) who would be totally accountable to him.
 faced resistance soon after he came to power. After the inclusion of Shewa, rebellions broke
out in several regions. Some of the important rebels were Tadla Gwalu of Gojjam, Tiso/Tasew
Gobaze of Walqayt, Wag Shum Gobaze Gabramadhin of Lasta, Sayfu Sahla-Sellase and Bazabeh
of Shawa, (Dejjach Liban Amade, Amade Bashir, Adare Bille and Warqit & Mastawit) of Wallo,
Niguse and Tassama Waldamicha'el of Simen and Kasa Mircha of Tigrai.
 Externally, he was involved in a serious diplomatic crises following the imprisonment of a
handful of Britons and other Europeans. As a result, the British Parliament sent an
expeditionary force to free those prisoners and punish the emperor. In a battle that took place
at Maqdela, Emperor Tewodros committed suicide on April 13, 1868.
 Following the death of Emperor Tewodros, three contenders to the throne emerged; namely,
 Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta,
 Kasa Mircha of Tigray and
 Menilek of Shewa.
 Gobeze took state power immediately after Tewodros as Emperor Tekle-Giorgis II (1868−71).
Although attempts were made to create a smooth relation between the Emperor and Kasa
Mircha, the quest for state power put them in enmity and it was brought to an end following a
battle at Assam (near Adwa) in July 1871, in which the latter became victorious.
 Kasa Mircha, who became Emperor Yohannes IV in January 1872, sustained state building
project with an approach that differed from that of Tewodros. Emperor Yohannes IV (1872-
1889):-
 attempted to introduce a decentralized system of administration.
 permitting regional rulers to exercise a great deal of autonomy. A good example of this was:-

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  his recognition of Menilek as Negus of Shewa in 1878 by the Liche agreement.
 his designation of Ras Adal Tesema of Gojjam as Negus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam
and Kafa in 1881.
 succeeded in achieving the unity of the predominately Christian provinces including Wag
and Lasta, Simen, Begemidr, Amhara Saynt, Gojjam, Wollo, Shewa, and including the
Mereb Milash for quite some time.
 sought to end the religious controversy within the EOC as well as effect religious unity
in the country as a whole. In this regard, he presided over the Council of Boru Meda
(1878) where Tewahdo was declared the only doctrine of the EOC. This was followed by
the conversion of Muslims and adherents of other religions into Orthodox Christianity.
Accordingly,
 The leading Wollo leaders such as Mohammed Ali and Amede Liben as well as
Kumsa Moreda of Leqa Naqamte heeded to the Emperor's call, rather reluctantly,
converting to Christianity and changing their names to Ras Michael, Dajjach
Hayle-Mariam, and Dajjach Gebre Egziabher respectively.
 Others accepted the Emperor's demand outwardly but remained Muslims, becoming
"Christians by day and Muslims by night".
 Others resisted and fled Wollo to Arsi, Gurage, Jimma and the Sudan while others
revolted under the leadership of Sheikh Tola (Talha) Jafar that led to harsh measures of
Emperor Yohannes IV.
 Internally, Like Tewodros, Yohannis faced challenges from power contenders from Gojjam, Gondar,
Yejju, Hamasen and Shawa. In Gojjam, Adal Tasama (Nigus Tekle-Haymanot) assumed power
by killing his contender Dasta Tadla, although Yohannis tolerated his regional dynasty. The strongest
regional challenger of Emperor Yohannis was Menilek II of Shawa.
 Externally, Emperor Yohannes faced challenges from:-
 Egyptians,
 Italians, and at different times.
 The Mahdists
 Emperor Yohannes lost his life fighting the latter at Metemma in 1889. Although the Emperor
had designated Mengesha Yohannes as his successor, rivalry for power split the monarch's camp
and thus, Mengesha was unable to make a viable bid for the imperial throne. As a result, the throne
was assumed by Negus Menelik of Shewa who became Emperor Menelik II (1889-1913).
Consequently:-
 Ras Mengesha refused to submit to Emperor Menelik.
 The tension was resolved after Menelik led a campaign to force Mengesha's submission in
1889. Ras Mengesha was appointed as governor of Tigray after a temporary arrangement
in which Ras Mekonnen Wolde Mikael ruled the area for about a year.
B. Territorial Expansion
 As indicated above, Emperor Tewodros II, Emperor Yohannes IV and others made state
building their mission and struggled their ways. Yet, the most successful was Menilek of Shewa.
This was because Menilek had, among other factors, access to modern firearms.
 Menilek‟s territorial expansion became successful due to:-
 The control of resource rich areas that enabled the emperor to build military muscle
 The determination of his generals.
 The process of territorial expansion by Menilek can be discussed in three phases i.e.
 When he was king of Shewa (1865-89)
 From 1889-96 and
 The aftermath of Adwa (1896-1900).

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 Before the 1870s, Menilek had already incorporated the Tulema and eastern Mecha Oromo
territories after controlling local leaders notably:-
 Ashe Rufo of Salale
 Dula Ara‟e of Gullale
 Tufa Muna of Gimbichu
 Ture Galate of Soddo and others.
 The Oromo elites that worked towards the formation of the modern Ethiopian state were:-
 Ras Gobena Dache
 Fitawrari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde
 Dejjach Balcha Safo (Abba Nefso) and others.
 In 1875-76:-
 The northern Gurage, the Kistane, peacefully submitted to Menilek because of:-
 their religious affinity and geographical proximity to the Kingdom of Shewa, and
 fear of their local rivals notably the surrounding Oromo
 On the other hand, the western Gurage, led by Hasan Enjamo of Qabena, which had
elements of Hadiya-Gurage coalition strongly resisted Menilek's force until Ras Gobena
broke their resistance in 1888.
 Menilek's territorial expansion to western and southwestern regions were concluded through
both forceful and peaceful submissions.
 In the regions south of the Abbay River, particularly in Horro Guduru, Ras Adal Tesema of
Gojjam had already established his control over the region since the mid1870s. Although he faced
stiff resistance from Moti (King) Abishe Garba of Horro, Adal‟s force ambushed Abishe and his
entourage at a place called Kokor. Thus, Ras Adal (Nigus Tekle Haymanot since 1881)
controlled the region until 1882, when he was defeated at Embabo by Menilek's commander,
Ras Gobana.
 After the Battle of Embabo:-
 Leqa-Naqamte
 Leqa-Qellem and submitted to Menilek peacefully, who promised them to recognize
 Jimma Abba Jifar and maintain their autonomy.
 Meanwhile,
 Garbi Jilo (Leqa-Billo)
 Tucho Dano (Leqa-Horda)
 Ligdi Bakare (Leqa-Naqamte) formed a coalition and defeated Menilek's army
 Genda Busan (Sibu-Sire) led by the Nadew brothers, Dasta, Dilinesaw and
 Mardasa Konche (Nonno Migira), and Tesemma at the Battle of Gurra Doba.
 Turi Jagan (Nonno Rogge) .

 Similarly, west of the Dhidhessa River, an alliance of:-

 Wachu Dabalo of Sibu, fought Menilek's local allies like Moroda
 Jorgo Dagago of Noole Kabba and others and Amante Bakare at Sambo Darro. Later,
however, they were defeated.

 In the Gibe region, Firissa of Guma fought Menilek's army from 1889 to 1901. The imperial army
faced similar resistance from Abba Bosso of Gomma, although defeated by Ras Demisew Nesibu
in early 1900. Also, Ras Tesemma Nadew‟s force incorporated Ilu Abba Bor into the imperial
state after fighting with Fatansa at Qarsa Gogila.

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  Of all the campaigns Nigus Menelik conducted before he became emperor, perhaps, the most
sustained bloody wars were those of against the Arsi Oromo. In Arsi:-
 Six different campaigns from 1882-6 were carried to control this vast region.
 Menilek encountered fierce resistance from the Arsi Oromo led by notables like Sufa
Kuso, Damu Usu, Lenjiso Diga, Gosa Dilamo and Roba Butta.
 Initially, the Arsi Oromo defeated Menilek's force at Dodota and Qalata. Yet, with
intelligence service of local supporters, Ras Darge Sahile-Selassie's force defeated the
Arsi Oromo at the battle of Azule on 6 September 1886. The battle of Azule was followed
by the Anole incident that inflicted heavy damage to the Arsi Oromo in 1887.
 In the east, Menilek's commander, Dejjach Wolde-Gabra'el, fought against Emir Abdullahi
(r.1885-1887) of the Harari and Bakar Ware of the Itu-Humbanna. Yet, the resisting forces
were defeated in the final engagement at Chalanqo on 6 January 1887. This was followed by the
appointment of Dejjach (later Ras) Makonnen Wolde Mikael as governor of the province (Harar)
by Emperor Menilek II.
 The Great Famine or Kifu Qen (Evil Day) of 1888-92 also contributed to Menelik‟s territorial
expansion to parts of southern Ethiopia. Accordingly, Menilek's army occupied:-
 Dawuro-Konta in 1889
 Kambata in1890
 From the early 1890s to 1894, Menilek's army controlled Bale, Sidama, Gamo Gofa and
Wolayta.
 In the campaign to Wolayta, Emperor Menilek and many notables such as
 Ras Mikael of Wollo,
 Fitawrari Gebeyehu Gurmu,
 Liqe Mekwas Abate Buayalew, were participated.
 Dejjach Balcha Safo,
 Ras Wolde-Giorgis, and
 Abba Jifar II of Jimma.
 Wolayta's resistance led by Kawo (King) Tona against Menilek's force was defeated in 1894 in
which large number of people lost their lives. This was followed by the incorporation of Gedeo,
Borana and Konso into the imperial state.
 Menilek's force incorporated Kafa, Beni-Shangul, and Gambella after the battle of Adwa.
 The process of the incorporation of Kafa paralleled the Wolayta experience in terms of human
cost. In 1897, the king of Kafa, Tato Gaki Sherocho, fought and lost to Menilek's army led by
Ras Wolde Giorgis.
 Beni-Shangul was incorporated after the Battle of Fadogno in 1897/98. This was followed by the
occupation of Maji in 1898/99. Tesema Nadew also controlled Baro (Sobat) and Nasir in
Gambella around this time.
Focus
Three events facilitated the success of Menelik's expansion as king of Shoa were:
 The Liche Agreement (1878) reduced the tensions with Emperor Yohannis. It freed Menelik
to concentrate on the conquest of new areas (expansion to south, southeast and southwest).
 The Battle of Embabo (1882) eliminated a strong rival of Menelik, King Tekle Haymanot of
Gojjam, from the resourceful regions of the southwest. Following the battle, Menelik got
royal recognition (recognition of Emperor Yohannes IV) to his expansion in that direction.
 His commercial relations with the Italians, mainly after the treaty he signed with Italy in 1883,
enabled Menelik to import firearms which his troops used for suppressing rebellions and local
resistance.

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  The process of territorial expansion was consummated with the singing of boundary
agreements with the neighboring colonial powers that continued until 1908. Most of these treaties
were signed after the victory of Adwa. After Menelik, the process of centralization and
establishing a unitary state continued by abolishing regional autonomies in the early decades of
the 20th century. In the process,
 Wollo (after the battle of Segele in 1916 when
Nigus Mika‟el was defeated),
 Begemedir (after the battle of Anchim at which were reduced to mere provinces by
Ras Gugsa Wole was defeated in 1930), Teferi-Mekonnen (Haile Sillassie I)
 Gojjam in 1932 and
 Jimma in 1933
6.3. Modernization Attempts
 The period from 1800 to 1941 also witnessed efforts to adopt western ideas and technology by
Ethiopian monarchs. Although several Ethiopian regional rulers were interested in European
technologies, Emperor Tewodros had preferable degree of information/contact about western
technologies than his predecessors. The former Kasa Hailu the later, Emperor Tewodros was
well aware of the importance of European technologies to transform his people and country. For
this purpose, he attempted to approach Europeans for the introduction of western science and
technologies.
 It is apparent that, Kasa‟s defeat by the well-trained and equipped Egyptian troops at the Battle
of Dabarki in 1848 had made him think putting the country “on an equal footing with European
powers.” As a monarch, Tewodros took a number of military, administrative and socio-
economic reform measures.
 As regards the army, Tewodros:-
 introduced military titles, like Yasr Aleqa, Yamsa Aleqa, and Yeshi Aleqa.
 tried to organize and replace the regional armies of the Zemene-Mesafint with
salaried national army.
 tried to manufacture firearms at his workshop, Gafat (near Debre Tabor) with
the help of European missionaries and artisans. At Gafat, about 35 cannons were
produced of which the biggest one was known as “Sebastopol."
 tried to build a small navy in Lake Tana.
 The administrative reforms of Tewodros were focused on the centralization of power
and securing financial base. Tewodros:-
 introduced a policy of “general pacification”, warning everyone should return to
his lawful avocation, the merchant to his store, and the farmer to his plough.
 tried to separate church and the monarchy. He reduced the church land and the
number of priests and deacons that brought him into conflict with the EOC which
precipitated his downfall.
 In the case of socio-economic reforms, Tewodros:-
 began the construction of Ethiopia‟s first embryonic road network to link Debre
Tabor with Gondar, Gojjam, and Maqdela.
 attempted to put an end to the slave trade.
 Other reform attempts include:-
 land reform and banning of polygamy.
 The use of Amharic became more developed, established a traditional library at
Maqdela that contributed for the development of literary Amharic. He wrote
letters after letters to different foreign powers including to Queen Victoria using
Amharic language.

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  With regard to religion, he tried to solve the doctrinal controversy that continued
from the 17th century within the EOC.
 However, Tewodros‟ reforms were not fully materialized owing to internal oppositions and
external challenges.
 Emperor Yohannes' reign also witnessed several important reforms and innovations. Among
these he:-
 was the first Ethiopian monarch to appoint foreign consul who served as his representative
in London.
 hired a French mechanic, a Hungarian gunsmith, and an Italian construction worker to assist
his modernization efforts of the country. Furthermore, he sent some individuals abroad for
modern education.
 was also the first to introduce modern style vaccine against smallpox replacing traditional
inoculation. His reign also witnessed extensive treatment of syphilis in several towns.
 Modernization attempts of the reign of Emperor Menilek had diverse elements. The post-Adwa
period was marked by the establishment of:-
 a postal service and telecommunications/ the telephone-telegraph system,
 the beginning of construction of railway line from Djibouti to Addis Ababa,
 the opening of a bank (the Bank of Abyssinia) and the introduction of paper money.
 In terms of administration, the emperor introduced a European style ministerial
system/ministers in 1907. Accordingly, he appointed:-
 Afe-Nigus Nesibu Meskelo (Minister of Justice),
 Azazh Metaferia Melke-Tsadiq (Minister of Imperial Court),
 Bejirond MulugetaYigezu (Minister of Finance),
 Fitawurari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde (Minister of War),
 Negadras Hailegiorgis Weldemikael (Minister of Commerce and Foreign
Relations), and
 Tsehafe-Tizaz Gebreselase Welde Aregay (Minister of Pen).
 Menilek II‟s reign also witnessed:-
 the opening of a hotel in 1907 (Itege Hotel),
 the opening of a modern school (Menilek II School in 1908) and
 the foundation of Russian Red Cross hospital in 1906 and Russian-run hospital
(Menilek II Hospital) in 1910.
 After Emperor Menelik II faced permanent ailment that incapacitated him, he designated and
eventually proclaimed Lij Iyasu and Ras Tesemma Nadew as heir to the throne and regent,
respectively.
 During his short stay in power, Lij Iyasu (1913-16) also took several reform measures. The reforms
are:-
 the banning of the Quragna system, a system that involved chaining the applicant and
defendant as well as creditor and debtor until justice was settled.
 the amendmemt of Leba Shay, a customary mode of detection of criminals or theft.
 the introduction of municipal police called Tirnbulle.
 the introduction of a policy of auditing of government accounts, and
 an attempt to integrate Ethiopian Muslims into the administration structure.
 the introduction of a flourmill that functioned mechanically and private industrial
enterprises like sawmill, a grinding-mill, a tannery, a soap-factory, etc.
 During the Dual Rule of Empress Zewditu and Ras Teferi (r. 1916-1930), there were several
modernization attempts in broader scope. The two rulers namely Ras Teferi and Empress Zewditu
had different views towards western culture. Because of his close link with foreigners, Ras
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 Teferi had keen interest to modernization by which he wanted to boost the country‟s image on
the international stage. This was marked by the entry of Ethiopia into the League of Nations and
his grand tour to Europe in 1923 and 1924, respectively. Some remarkable reforms based on
European model took place following his coronation as Emperor Haile-Selassie I in 1930. Some of
the reforms were:-
 the centralization of the government,
 the promulgation of Ethiopia‟s first constitution in 1931 (despite its drawbacks),
 the establishment of Imperial Body Guard in 1930, with the help of Belgian military
mission and
 the opening of Ethiopia‟s first Military Academy at Holeta by the help of a Swedish
military mission in 1934.
 Empress Zewditu was traditionalist.
6.4. Socio-Economic Developments
 The period from 1800 to 1941 was also marked by changes in socio-economic conditions
including trade, slavery and slave trade, agriculture, urbanization and manufacturing. Factors
for these changes included the socio-economic dynamics in the region and the world.
6.4.1. Agriculture and Land Tenure
 The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were times:-
 when agricultural economy grew and
 when the demand for land for cultivation and grazing increased.
 The system favored the powerful groups to control land that resulted in the change of property
right or the preexisting land tenure system.
 The role of agriculture in the local economy and the politics of the period could be understood
from the territorial competition and expansions to control surplus producing areas. This
altered people's relation to land, making some privileged and others unprivileged.
 The quest for land and surplus production were one factor for territorial expansion by
Menilek in the late nineteenth century.
 Land was required, among others, to settle and feed the warriors and their families. Hence, the
incorporation of the southern half of the country into the imperial state resulted in the redefinition
of access to resources in these regions.
 The state institutionalized different forms of surplus expropriation and mechanisms to ensure
political control in the regions peacefully submitted and those that resisted.
 The gegions peacefully submitted relatively enjoyed self-administration but were
subjected to pay qurt-gibir (fixed tax).
 The regions refused to peacefully submit were placed under the naftegna-
gabbar/gabbar-naftegna system whereby local peoples were made to pay tribute to the
former.
 Gradually, the naftegna-gabbar system led to the evolution of a new tenure regime in the
forcefully incorporated areas.
 Literally, naftegna means a person with a gun. In this context, naftegna refers to soldiers of
different social backgrounds who stationed in the southern territories under the imperial
banner. In the latter case, the major force of change was the settlement and exploitative nature of
the system that altered both settlement pattern and agricultural system.
 One effect of the institution of the naftegna-gabbar system was the creation of classes like
 landlords
 ballabat,
 gabbar and
 tenants.

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  The landholders were largely government agents while the local population were reduced in
time into gabbar and later tenants.
 One major factor that brought change to agricultural practices including land tenure system
was the beginning of the qalad system (land measurement) in the 1890s.
 Land measurement affected access to agricultural resources in diverse ways including changes
to customary rules of access to land.
 Qalad introduced fresh rules in which certain social classes gained access to land while at the
same time it resulted in the dispossession of the local peasantry in parts of the south. Later, land
was categorized into:-
 lam (cultivated),
 lam-taf (partly-cultivated) to facilitate taxation.
 and taf (uncultivated)
6.4.2. Slavery and Slave Trade
 Earlier in this unit, we have learned that both local and long-distance trade had flourished in the
nineteenth century. The major commodities traded were ivory, slaves, civet, and gold. Slavery and
slave trade had long history in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Most slaves in Ethiopia were kept as domestic slaves and some were sold to Egypt and the
Middle East and the Ottoman Empire through the Sudan, the Red Sea and the Gulf of
Aden ports.
 During the nineteenth century, in some parts of Ethiopia, slaves were required for
agricultural works, in the army and as sources of revenue through selling into slavery.
Thus, several regional and local rulers enslaved people for these purposes.
 Slaves were traded as commodities in local and international markets. For instance,
 It was in 1837 that slave raiders captured Bilile from Guma and sold her to a German
prince, Herman Pickler Muskau at Cairo who changed her name to Mahbuba and
made her his mistress.
 Similarly, Hika (later Onesimos Nasib) was kidnapped in 1869 in Hurumu when he
was four years old. He was sold at Massawa, later freed by a Swedish mission, and
translated the Bible into Afan Oromo at Menkulu (in Eritrea).
 Aster Gano was also sold into slavery from Limmu. But in 1886, she was
emancipated and assisted Onesimos in the translation of the Bible.
 During the nineteenth century, slave trade expanded in Ethiopia and the Horn due to
increased demand for slaves in foreign markets largely in the Middle East. This was
followed by the emergence of market centers from Bonga to Metemma and Massawa.
Selling slaves was source of revenue for many local chiefs.
 Slaves were acquired through:-
 raiding,
 kidnapping,
 war captivity,
 debt bondage, and
 purchase from open markets.
 Major sources of slaves were southern and southwestern parts of Ethiopia.
 Emperors Tewodros II, Yohannes IV and Menilek II tried to stop the slave trade although not
slavery itself. In 1923, Ras Teferi banned slave trade which eventually came out in a decree in
1924 to emancipate slaves. This was followed by the establishment of the Office for the Abolition
of Slavery in 1932. Freed slaves were kept under the overall supervision of Hakim Worqineh
Eshete.

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  The Italians proclaimed the abolition of slavery immediately after their occupation of the
country. After liberation, the Emperor issued a new decree in 1942 abolishing any forms of
slave trade and the institution of slavery itself. But, slavery continued especially in some parts
of the country well into the 1970s. The impact was obviously social and economic deterioration of
the source areas, families and suffering of the slaves themselves.
6.4.3. Manufacturing
 In many cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn, there were age-old indigenous ways of
producing/making tools. Such manufacturing activities involved:-
 simple procedures and techniques and
 production of limited quantity of items.
For instance, different items like furniture, dresses and food including local drinks, were
produced and processed by using traditional techniques involving manual labor.
 One result of the contact with the industrialized world since the mid nineteenth century was
the introduction of manufacturing technologies. Although evidences do not trace the exact period
of the beginning of modern industry in Ethiopia, there is a consensus that the strong interest of
rulers in the region for the introduction of western technologies and the subsequent contacts with
the industrial world since the mid nineteenth century contributed to the introduction of
manufacturing industries.
 The beginning of diplomatic relations and opening of legations in the post-Adwa period was
followed by the coming of many expatriates, who either came with the skill or became agents
of the introduction of modern manufacturing. Foreign citizens from Armenia, Greece, Italy
and India also brought the entrepreneurial capacity to develop manufacturing industries
locally. Among modern manufacturing industries were,
 Holeta Grain Mill set up in 1896 and
 Massawa Salt Processing established in 1904.
Up to 1927, about 25 factories were established in Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa, Asmara and
Massawa. These included:-
 cement factories,
 wood and clay workshops,
 tanneries,
 soap and edible oil plants,
 ammunition factories,
 breweries,
 tobacco processing plants and
 grain mills.
 Most of them were established by private entrepreneurs. Among these, Artistic Printing Press
and Ambo Mineral Water plant were established before the Italian occupation.
After 1928, including in the short lived Italian occupation, more than ten manufacturing
industries were set up.
6.4.4. Urbanization
 The period from the early nineteenth century to 194l marked the evolution of towns stemming
from political, socio-economic, demographic and ecological factors.
 During the period, the expansion of both local and long distance trade since the early
nineteenth century transformed old markets and socio-political centers into towns in Ethiopia
and the Horn. In this case,
 several towns located on the long-distance trade in western Ethiopia grew into both
towns and political centers.

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  the beginning of railway connecting Djibouti and Addis Ababa as of 1917 was followed
by the evolution of several fast growing towns. Towns including Dire Dawa, Adama,
Bishoftu, Metahara and others were results of the extension of the railway and the
expansion of trade.
 On the other hand, politico-religious centers in several parts of the region evolved into
towns. This was true mainly in the northern parts of Ethiopia.
 Many centers that once served as "royal camps" evolved into towns and parallel to this
many towns declined with the demographic change when "royal camps" shifted to
other centers. One of the towns that grew from such process was Addis Ababa. Entoto or
Dildila (its weather is cold and has steep land surface) was Menelik‟s royal court before
Addis Ababa or Finfine). Addis Ababa was founded in 1886.
 Empress Taytu Betul chose the place for its hot springs, Fel-Wuha (formerly
called Hora Finfinne).
 Similarly, as of the late nineteenth century, in southern Ethiopia, a number of
towns emerged when Menilek's generals established garrisons in suitable
locations in order to maintain control of the occupied provinces. The presence of the
governors and soldiers made such areas permanent areas of politico-economic and
religious activities. Such centers of administration known as katamas (garrison
towns) became centers of trade and eventually grew into towns. Towns including
Gobba, Ticho, Gore, Arjo, etc were garrisons that grew into towns. During the
Italian rule (1936-41), several of the above towns grew in size and other new
towns evolved because of socio-economic and political developments of the period.
6.5. External Relations
 One consequence of the Zemene-Mesafint was the end of the 'close door policy‟ that was
introduced by Emperor Fasiladas (1632-1667). Thus, beginning from the early 1800s, regional
rulers made independent foreign contacts and signed treaties. During the nineteenth century,
the agents of these external relations were mainly travelers. Travelers came to Ethiopia and
the Horn,
 with the motives of adventure and scientific research.They were also
 sometimes, to get involved in fostering friendship and trade relation on behalf of their
governments.
 Some of them, however, came with covert mission of colonialism. Meanwhile, various
rulers of Ethiopia and the Horn had also dispatched their own delegations to various
countries of the world.
One of the earliest private travelers was Henry Salt who reached the court of Ras Wolde-
Selassie of Tigray on 28 August 1805. He:
 came for scientific reasons, but he claimed that his mission was to establish friendship
between Great Britain and Ethiopia.
 returned to Ethiopia in 1809 and concluded agreement with the Ras.
Several British travelers including Christian Kugler also arrived in the 1830s.
Travelers from Germany like Eduard Ruppell (a scholar) arrived in 1846;
Captain W.C. Harris, leading an official British mission visited Shewa.
John Bell and Walter Plowden in the 1840s,
The Italian Geographic Society in 1869 and the like arrived for trade relation and scientific
purposes.
 The result of these contacts was the agreement/treaty signed between:-
 Negus Sahle-Selassie of Shewa and British Captain W. Harris in 1841.
 French Rochet d‟Hericourt, in 1843.

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  Walter Plowden and Ras Ali in 1849.
Furthermore, other regional lords had contacts with religious centers in the Middle East,
particularly with Jerusalem. During the period, Egyptians threatened the Ethiopian religious
community settlement at Deir Al-Sultan in Jerusalem. As a result, in the early 1850s, strong
lords like Ras Ali and Dejjazmach Wube sent letters to Queen Victoria of England to request
support against the Egyptians.
 External relations during the reign of Tewodros II seemed more elaborate and oriented
towards obtaining western technology and military support to defend foreign aggression.
 As with his predecessors, Emperor Yohannes IV tried to create strong relations with Europeans.
The major concerns of Emperor Yohannes IV were:-
 the restoration of the lost territories,
 the delimitation of boundaries and
 the defense of the sovereignty of the state against the threat and interference by foreign
powers. When he confronted external challenge like Egypt, he tried to solve through
negotiation than war. War was his last choice as he fought with Egypt in 1875/76 and
Mahdist Sudan in 1889.
 One of the major diplomatic relations Yohannes concluded was Hewett /Adwa Treaty. It was a
treaty signed between the Emperor and the British Rear Admiral William Hewett on behalf of
Egypt on 3 June 1884 at Adwa. The purpose was to safely evacuate Egyptian troops through
Ethiopia who were trapped by the Mahdist troops along the Ethio-Sudanese border. In return,
Bogos was to be restored to Ethiopia and the latter was to freely use Massawa for the transit of
goods and firearms. Based on the agreement,
 Emperor Yohannes facilitated the safe evacuation of Egyptian troops through his territory.
 Britain restored Bogos to Ethiopia. However, Britain secretly transferred Massawa from
Egypt to Italy in February 1885.
One consequence of the treaty was Mahdist determination to avenge Yohannes that led to the
battle of Metemma on 9 March 1889 which claimed his death.
 In terms of diplomatic relations and repulsing external threats, Emperor Menilek II was more
successful through maintaining the balance among powerful forces of the period. While he
was king of Shewa, he established commercial relation with Italy that later helped him to acquire
military equipment.
 Menelik‟s relations with Italy reached its climax with the signing of the Wuchale Treaty. It was
drafted by Count Pietro Antonelli and signed on 2 May 1889, at Wuchale, Wollo between
Emperor Menilek II of Ethiopia and Antonelli on behalf of Prime Minister Crispi of Italy. The
treaty has twenty articles and was written both in Amharic and Italian languages.
 The Italian version of Article III indicates the “effective occupation” of Italy to
legitimize itsfurther expansion towards the Mereb River. However, Article XVII has major
difference in the two language versions.
 The Amharic version states that Ethiopia could optionally conduct its foreign affairs
through Italy, the Italian version indicates that Menilek‟s foreign contacts must be
through the agency of Italy. As a result, based on the Italian version of Article XVII,
Italy announced that all foreign powers had to deal with Ethiopia only through Italy.
European powers gave recognition to this Italian claim except Russia. In January 1890,
the Italian government formally declared Eritrea as its colony.
 Italian action to colonize Ethiopia through tricky treaties; persuasion and the subversive
methods failed. This was because:-
 Menilek publicly abrogated the Wuchale Treaty unilaterally in February 1893 and

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  Tigrian lords including Ras Mangasha Yohannes, Ras Sebhat Aragawi and Dajjach Hagos Tafari,
began to fight against the Italians collaborating with Emperor Menilek.
 Italian determination to occupy Ethiopia and Ethiopian resistance against colonialism led to the
battle. This finally led to the Battle of Adwa, where the latter became victorious. After the victory
of Adwa, different foreign countries opened their legations at Addis Ababa to establish
relations on official basis.
 Furthermore, Emperor Menilek made boundary agreements with the then neighboring colonial
powers like:-
 French-Somaliland (the present day Djibouti) on 20 March 1897
 British-Somaliland (now Somaliland) on June 1897
 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on 15 May 1902
 The Italian colony of Eritrea on 10 July 1900
 British East Africa (Kenya) in 1907 and
 Italian-Somaliland in 1908. These boundary agreements shaped modern Ethiopian
boundary.
 International politics of the twentieth century also shaped Ethiopia‟s foreign relations. For instance,
during the First World War (1914-18) Lij Iyasu showed a tendency to side with the Central
Powers (Germany, Austro-Hungary, Bulgaria and Ottoman Empire) believing that the defeat
of the Allied powers (France and Britain) would allow Ethiopia to push Italy out of Eritrea
and Somalia. He also be friended the Somali nationalist leader, Sayyid Mohammed Abdille
Hassan, against Italy and Britain. Sayyid Mohammed Abdille Hassan (1864-1920) led the Somali
against the European occupation. He tried to attract support from the mass through his Pan-Somali
movement. In the history of the Somali, he is recognized as a forerunner of modern Somali
nationalism.
 One of the successes of Ethiopia‟s foreign relation in the early twentieth was her admission to
the League of Nations in 1923. A year later, Teferi made his grand European tour in 1924 which
shaped his ideas of modernization. Ethiopia‟s entry into the League of Nations, however, did not
save her from Italian invasion in 1935/36.
6. 5. 1. Major Battles Fought Against Foreign Aggressors and Patriotism
 Ethiopian people fought several battles against foreign threats during the period under discussion.
The major ones are the following.
 The Battle of Dabarki (1848): Dabarki was fought between Kasa Hailu of Qwara and Egyptian
forces in 1848. Although the forces led by Kasa Hailu lost the battle, the military imbalance
particularly, the modern artillery and discipline of Egyptian troops gave him a lesson to modernize
his military force, acquire modern technologies. This later initiated him to widen his vision and
mission when he became emperor.
 The Battle of Maqdela (1868): Tewodros II had early relation with Britain through the two
British citizens, Walter Plowden and John Bell. His main aim was to obtain help against
foreign threats. To this end:-
 In 1862, he sent a letter to Queen Victoria requesting assistance through Consul
Cameron. Cameron came back to Ethiopia via Egypt without bringing any response.
Suspecting him as plotting with Egypt, Tewodros imprisoned Captain Cameron and
other Europeans.
 On learning the imprisonment of the Europeans, Queen Victoria sent a letter through
Hormuzd Rassam which did not satisfy Tewodros. After some communications, the
British parliament decided to take military action. Subsequently, 32,000 troops led by
Sir Robert Napier were sent through Massawa. This force reached Maqdela guided by
 Dejazmach Bezibiz Kassa of Tigray (later Emperor Yohannes) and

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  Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta.
 On April 10, 1868, up to 8,000 Tewodros‟ soldiers including his general Gebriye were defeated
by the British at the battle of Aroge. On April 13, 1868, Tewodros committed suicide at
Maqdela. This was followed by:-
 the burning of his fortress and
 looting of manuscripts, religious and secular artifacts including his crown by the
British troops.
 The Battles of Gundet and Gura
 In the nineteenth century, Egyptians showed a keen interest to occupy Northeast Africa with
the ambition of controlling the source of the Nile. Following their occupation of the Sudan in
1821, they moved to occupy Ethiopia on several occasions. For instance, in 1875, Khedive Ismail
Pasha sent his troops to invade Ethiopia in three directions. Accordingly:-
 Mohammed Rauf Pasha led the Zeila front and the result was the occupation of the
Harar Emirate between 1875 and 1885.
 Werner Munzinger, the architect of the whole of Ismail‟s scheme for invasion of Ethiopia,
led about 500 Egyptian troops equipped with cannons and rocket tubes through Tajura.
But, Munzinger and his troops were all killed by the Afars at the Battle of Odduma.
 Finally, Colonel Arendrup and Arakel Bey led another 2,000 well-armed troops through
Massawa. Emperor Yohannes IV and Ras Alula mobilized about 20,000 forces and
encountered the Egyptians at the Battle of Gundet (16 November 1875) where the
Egyptian troopswere severely defeated. Notwithstanding their setback, Egyptians again
reorganized their forces to avenge Ethiopia and sent their army under the command of
Muhammad Ratib Pasha that assisted by General Loring, an American officer in
the Khedive‟s service and other military commanders most of them were Americans to
invade Ethiopia. However, the Ethiopian forces again defeated them at the Battle of Gura
(7–9 March, 1876).
 It is important to understand some Europeans were in the service of Egyptians. For instance,
 The architect of the whole of Ismail‟s plan, Werner Munzinger, was a Swiss born
adventurer and former French Consul in Northeast Africa.
 Colonel Arendrup himself was a Danish Citizen, and
 General Charles Stone was fellow American.
 The Battle of Dogali
 During the late nineteenth century, Europeans had interest to control the Red Sea area. With the
opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the Red Sea region acquired great strategic and commercial
importance. One of the colonial powers with interest in the Horn of Africa was Italy.
 The relations Italy had with the Horn began when an Italian private shipping company
(Rubatino) had bought the port of Assab from the local chiefs in 1869.
 In 1882, the port of Assab was transferred to Italian government.
 In 1885, Britain secretly transferred Massawa from Egypt to Italy. By using these bases
as spring board, Italy began to penetrate into northern Ethiopia.
 Subsequently, the Italian forces occupied Sa‟ati, Aylet and Wia in the then Mereb Milash
region. However, they were defeated decisively at the Battle of Dogali (1887) by Ras Alula
Engida (Alula Aba Nega), Emperor Yohannes‟s famous general and right hand man.
 Following this battle, Italy signed a Treaty of Neutrality with Menilek in October 1887 in a
bid to neutralize Menelik so as to isolate Emperor Yohannes.
 The Battle of Metemma

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  As indicated above, the Hewett Treaty caused clashes between the Mahdist and Ethiopian
forces that lasted from 1885 to 1889.
 The first clash was at Kufit between Ras Alula and Uthman Digna in September 1885.
Initially, the Ethiopian force was victorious. However, when Emperor Yohannes IV was in
northern Ethiopia to check the Italian advance to Mereb Milash, he heard the Mahadist
advance up to Gondar. The Mahdists caused a lot of destruction on churches and
monasteries, including the killing of the clergy and the laity.
 In January 1887, Yohannes ordered Nigus Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam to repulse the
Mahdists. A year later, the Mahdists led by Abu Anja, defeated Nigus Tekle Haymanot‟s
troops at Sar Wuha in Dembia. At this important juncture, Nigus Menelik and Nigus
Teklehaimanot conspired against the emperor, instead of directly facing the Mahdists. As
a result, Emperor Yohannes faced what can be called the triangular tension, namely the
Italians in the north, the Mahdists in the west and northwest, and his two vassals in the
center.
 Later, in another direction, the Mahdists were defeated at Gute Dilli (in Najjo-Wallagga)
by Menilik‟s commander Ras Gobana Dacci on 14 October 1888. Emperor Yohannes
made a national call:
“የኢትዮጵያ ህዝብ ሆይ! ኢትዮጵያ የተባሇችዉ ሀገር: 1ኛ እናትህ ናት፤ 2ኛ ክብርህ ናት፤ 3ኛ ሚስትህ ናት፤ 4ኛ
ልጅህ ናት፤ 5ኛ መቃብርህ ናት። እንግዲህ የእናትን ፍቅር፣ የዘዉድን ክብር፣ የሚስትን የዋህነት፣ የልጅን ዯስታ፣
የመቃብርን ከባድነት አስበህ ተነስ!”
Literally, “Oh, the people of Ethiopia, The country called Ethiopia is firstly your mother,
secondly your crown, thirdly your wife, fourthly your child, fifthly your grave. Accordingly,
rise up understanding the love of a mother, honor of a crown, the goodness of a wife, the
delight of having a child, and the shelter of a grave.”
Hence, on 9 March 1889, the Emperor (Yohannes IV) marched to Metemma where he died fighting
the Mahdists. Evidently, it has to be noted here that internal divisions and acrimonies among rulers
would result in a huge cost to the country and its peoples. Among others, Maqdela and Metemma are
very good testimonies.
 The Battle of Adwa and Its Aftermath
 The disagreement on the Wuchale Treaty finally led to the big battle between Ethiopia and
Italian forces. This was because Italians were determined to colonize Ethiopia whereas
Ethiopians were ready not to give in. To meet their intention, the Italians crossed the Mereb
River and arrived at Adigrat and proceeded to Emba-Alage.
 Following Emperor Menelik‟s proclamation for general mobilization, about 100,000
troops from every part of the country gathered at Wara-Illu (in today‟s South
Wollo).People marched to the front irrespective of gender, regional, and ethnic
differences to fight against the Italian aggression. Accordingly:-
 The force led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu Gurmu defeated the Italians at Emba Alage
and forced them to retreat to Mekelle.
 In January 1896, under the leadership of Ras Mekonnen, the Ethiopian forces
defeated Italians at Mekelle. At Mekelle, they came under siege that prevented
them access to a well which they used for drinking. The strategy was commonly
called the “siege of Mekelle” and was considered to be designed by Empress
Taytu. After some negotiations, the besieged Italian troops were set free and
joined their counterparts at Adwa.
 A month later, Ethiopian forces led by Emperor Menilek, Empress Taiytu and
war generals like Ras Mikael, Ras Makonnen, Ras Alula, Ras Mangasha and
Negus Takla- Haymanot and others encountered the Italians at Adwa.

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  The result of this battle was a decisive victory for Ethiopians but a huge blow to the Italians which
doomed their cololonial ambition over Ethiopia. At this battle,
 On the Italian side:-
 about 8,000 fighters were killed,
 1,500 wounded and
 3,000 were captured.
 On the Ethiopian side about 4,000-6,000 troops are said to have been killed.
Consequences of the victory of the battle of Adwa
 Italy recognized the independence of Ethiopia by the treaty of Addis Ababa that was signed on
October 26, 1896.
 A number of powers of the time (including Italy, France, Britain, Russia, the United States,
Germany, Belgium, Turkey, and others) also recognized the independence of Ethiopia and
opened their legations in Addis Ababa. Italy in 1896, Britain in 1897, France in 1897, USA in
1903 and Germany in 1905.
 Despite different interpretations on the results of the battle of Adwa, the heroic national campaign,
cooperation and common successes of peoples of Ethiopia had a positive implication for success
and national integration.
 Has witnessed independence and national pride.It has thus become a source of pride for
Ethiopians, Africans and the black race in general.
 Has had an enduring legacy in the relations between freedom fighters and colonizing powers.
The victory of black people on white colonizers initiated entire Africans fighting against
colonialism. The well-known Pan-Africanist, Marcus Garvey, inspired his followers in his
“Back to Africa” movement with the success of Ethiopians. He used phrases like “Ethiopia thou
land of our fathers” and in countries of Southern Africa, it sparked the emergence of “religious
separatist” movements known as Ethiopianism. The churches formed part of the general anti-
colonialist struggle. Ethiopianism became a symbol of anti-colonial movements. Japan also used
Ethiopia‟s experience when it fought against Russia in 1904.
 In Italy, the defeats at Adwa aroused internal oppositions against the government of Francesco
Crispi and downfall of Crispi government.
 General Barateri, the commander in-chief of the Italian army at battle of Adwa was imprisoned
by the Italian government. European powers with adjacent colonies with Ethiopia signed treaties
to delimate their boundaries.
6. 5. 2. Italian Occupation (1936-41) and the Patriotic Resistance
A. Background
 Following their defeat at Adwa in 1896, the Italians suspended their expansionist colonial
policy in Northeast Africa for a short time. However, they were just waiting the right time to
fulfill their interests in any possible way. Italy eventually got its ideological strength in 1922,
when Fascists led by Benito Mussolini held power. The Fascists were determined to restore
the power and glory of ancient Roman Empire by avenging Italy‟s shameful scar at
Adwa.
 Initially, Mussolini did not disclose his ambition against the sovereignty of Ethiopia rather he
was playing diplomatic „cards‟ till the coming of the „right time.‟ To achieve their goal of
occupation of Ethiopia, Italians followed two policies as it was the case before the Battle of Adwa;
1/ „subversion‟ and
2/ „rapprochement‟.

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 The policy of subversion aimed at affecting the unity of the empire via sowing dissatisfaction
in Tigray, Begemedir, Gojjam and Wollo. This responsibility was entrusted to Corrado Zoli, the
governor of Eritrea (1928-1930).
The Italian legation in Addis Ababa, headed by Guiliano Cora led the policy of „rapprochement‟,
a pseudo reconciliation tactic which was trying to persuade the Ethiopian government to
establish cordial relations between the two countries. For instance,
 the signing of the 1928 Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of Peace and Friendship was the
manifestation of the success of the rapprochement policy. Here, beside their legation in
Addis Ababa, the Italians had also consulates in provincial towns such as Dessie, Adwa,
Debre Markos and Gondar. These consulates played a significant role in propagating
dissatisfaction and gathering vital military and political intelligence. In addition to such
preparations, the Fascists were also able to get indirect diplomatic support from Britain and
France for their colonial project in Ethiopia. Here, although it is difficult to pinpoint one
particular year when the decision was made by Mussolini to launch the intended invasion,
1932 appears to have been a crucial year.
 Mussolini who made all necessary preparations to launch an invasion against Ethiopia was only
searching for a pretext, and then fortunately he found it in the Walwal incident. The Walwal
Incident (5 December 1934) was the result of the post-Awa boundary agreement limitations:
 lack of demarcation on the ground and
 lack of effective administrative control in the frontier regions. However, the Italians refused
to give back Walwal and even attacked the Ethiopian soldiers who were stationed nearby.
Thus, this situation gave birth to the so called Walwal Incident.

Surprisingly, although the number of Ethiopians dead during this border clash was three times as high as
the Italians, it was Italy which demanded totally unreasonable apology and reparation from Ethiopia. Then,
Ethiopia which refused to accept Italy‟s demand took the matter to the League of Nations and a period of
diplomatic wrangling followed to resolve the dispute. However, in the meantime Mussolini, who already
got the desired excuse, was finalizing his preparations to launch a total invasion.
B. The 1935 Invasion and After
 After they completed their preparations, the Italians waged their aggression via two major fronts:
 The northern (in this front the Italian force was first commanded byMarshal Emilio De
Bono, soon replaced by Badoglio) and
 The southern front (in this front the Italian force was commanded by Marshal Rudolfo
Graziani).
 The war was started in the northern Front when the Italians crossed the Mereb River on 3
October 1935 and launched a three pronged invasion and controlled Adigrat, Adwa and Mekelle.
In January 1936, Ethiopian counter offensive marched north through three fronts. i.e:-
 Ras Emiru Haile-Selassie led the western front,
 Ras Kasa Hailu (also commander of the entire northern front) and Ras Seyum Mengesha led
the central front and
 Ras Mulugeta Yigezu (War Minister) led the eastern front.
On 20 January 1936, the Ethiopian army launched a major offensive against the Italians intending
to isolate Mekelle, but failed to realize its objective due to lack of coordination among the above
mentioned commanders.
On January 24, the Ethiopian force lost to the Italians at the first Battle in Temben. This was
followed by an attack on the Ethiopian force which was stationed in what seemed to be an
impregnable natural fortress of Amba Aradom, to the south of Mekelle. The Italians scored yet
another decisive victory in which the commander of the Ethiopian army, Ras Mulugeta Yigezu,

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 lost his life. Besides modern weapons, the Italian force had superiority in the air. Moreover, the
forces of Ras Kasa and Ras Seyum were outnumbered by the Italian troops.This resulted in
another defeat at the Second Battle of Temben (27-29 February 1936). Ras Kasa and Ras
Seyum narrowly escaped and joined the Emperor at Korem.
 On the western front, the Ethiopian army under Ras Emeru put strong resistance against the
advancing force of the Italians. Thanks to Ras Emeru‟s better leadership quality, the number of
death of Ethiopian soldiers was less than what it had been in the northern front.
 A series of battles between the Ethiopian and Italian forces in the northern Front culminated in
Maychew on 31 March 1936. Although the Ethiopian army (especially members of the Kebur
Zebegna) under the command of the Emperor put strong resistance against the Italians, they
were not able to conclude the battle with victory. Many Ethiopian soldiers lost their lives from
 gunpowder and
 air bombardment during the battle. Then the Italian forces controlled Dessie and Addis
Ababa on 4 April 1936 and 5 May 1936, respectively.
 The Ethiopian army in the Southern Front was better equipped and well led. Ras Desta Damtew
(in the south) and Dejazmach Nesibu Zamanuel (in the southeast) were leaders of the Ethiopian
troops in this Front. The Ethiopian army lost to the Italians at two major battles in the
Southern Front:
 Qorahe (November 1935) and
 Genale Dorya (12-14 January 1936). In the ensuing battles, the Askaris (recruited from
Eritrea) deserted the Italians and joined the Ethiopian force which boosted the moral of Ras
Desta‟s troops. Ras Desta continued to challenge the Italians until he was captured and
executed in early 1937. The number of soldiers the Italians lost during the fighting in the
Southern Front was larger than the North, which slowed their advance to the center;
Badoglio who used an internationally outlawed poisoned gas on the forces of Ethiopia
entered Addis Ababa before Graziani even crossed Harar.
 On 2 May 1936, the Emperor fled the country and three days later, the Italians entered Addis
Ababa. Between Haile Selassie‟s departure and the Italian entry, Addis Ababa was beset by
burning of buildings, looting and random shooting. The major targets of the violence were:-
 the rich
 foreigners (many of them saved their lives by taking refuge in foreign legations) and
 the imperial palace.
 Here, the entry of the Italian forces into the capital in the middle of such chaos was a relief for
both the foreigners and the natives since the Italians were able to bring peace and order to the
city. At this juncture, some scholars suggested that the Italians deliberately delayed their entry
so that the people of the city would consider them as „angels‟ of peace, and easily accept their
rule. Anyway, after their control of the capital, Marshal Pierto Badoglio immediately reported the
situation to Mussolini. Benito Mussolini announced to the people of Italy and the world about
their control of Ethiopia using the phrase “Ethiopia is Italian!”

 The Italians immediately merged Ethiopia with their colonies of Italian Somaliland and
Eritrea. Then, they named the combination of their colonies Italian East Africa (IEA) or Africa
Orientale Italiana (AOI). The newly formed Italian East Africa had six administrative regional
divisions that replaced former international boundaries. These were:

1. Eritrea (including Tigray) with its capital at Asmara;

2. Amhara (including Begemidr, Gojjam, Wollo and Northern Shewa) with its capital at
Gondar;

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 3. Oromo and Sidama (including Southern and Southwestern provinces) with its capital at
Jimma;
4. Eastern Ethiopia with its capital at Harar;
5. Somalia (including Ogaden) with its capital at Mogadishu;
6. Addis Ababa (later changed to Shewa), the capital of the entire Italian East Africa.
 During the Italian occupation of Ethiopia, the following Italians served as governors of Italian East
Africa successively:
 Marshal Pierto Badoglio (till the end of May 1936),
 Marshal Rudolfo Graziani (till February 1937), and
 Finally Amadeo Umberto d‟Aosta (the Duke of Aosta).
 Generally, a top-heavy bureaucracy and corruption characterized the Italian administration of
IEA. For instance,
 The last governor of IEA, the Duke of Aosta himself characterized 50% of his officials as
inept and 25% as thieves.
 Marshal Badoglio himself reportedly pocketed about 1,700,000 Maria Theresa Thalers
confiscated from the Bank of Ethiopia, in the immediate aftermath of the conquest.
 In the economic respect, the Italians weakened and destroyed non-Italian foreign firms
and replaced them with governmental enterprises that controlled the industry, trade
and agriculture.
 The Italians were relatively successful in the sectors of trade and industry as compared to the
agricultural sector. For instance, they planned to settle Italian farmers in selected Ethiopian
areas such as Wegera, Chercher and Jimma. However, their agricultural plan was failed (they
only accomplished 10%) due to their failure to secure the control of the rural areas due to the
patriotic movement. As indicated above, the Italian administrative control was largely confined
to urban areas due to the strong patriotic resistance.Thus; their legacy was also largely reflected in
the towns than the rural areas, which were actually out of the Italian effective rule. Generally,
the legacy of the Italian rule can be summarized in the following brief points:
Architecture- the Italians left an indelible mark in towns such as Addis Ababa, Jimma,
Adwa, Gondar, Desse, Harar, Asmara, Mogadishu and others.
Introduction of urban facilities like clean water and electricity;
Social legacies (expansion of prostitution, adoption of European habits-including
eating and dressing styles, and adoption of Italian words);
The consolidation of cash economy;
Road construction and development of motor transport;
The sense of division, etc.
C. The Patriotic Resistance Movement
 The five-year Italian occupation (1936-41) was not a smooth experience. Rather, the Ethiopian
peoples opposed them in a number of ways. Among others, the patriots:-
 gave them hard times largely in rural areas. They continuously harassed them.
 continued their resistance in almost all regions and by all ethnic groups of the empire with
varying degree of intensification.
 The first phase of resistance was the continuation of the war itself. Among the highlights of this
phase was the resistance waged by three commanders of the Southern Front:-
 Ras Desta Damtew
 Dejjach Beyene Merid and
 Dejjach Gebre Maryam Gari.

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 An extension of this phase was a five pronged assault on the capital in the summer of 1936. The
campaign had involved:-
 Two sons of Ras Kasa Hailu (Asfawesen and Aberra),
 The veteran of Adwa Dejjach Balcha Safo,
 Balambaras (later Ras) Abebe Aregay, and
 Dejjach Fikremariam Yinnnadu.
 However, this phase of resistance was failed because of lack of effective means of
transportation and radio communication. Abune Petros, the Bishop of Wollo, who was the spirit
behind the patriots was executed and became a martyr of the resistance. The killing of the bishop
was unheard of in Ethiopia and shocked the nation, arousing the indignation of the people,
especially the clergy.
 The second phase covers from 1937 to the end of the Italian occupation in 1941. On 19
February 1937, two young Ethiopian patriots, Abreha Deboch and Moges Asgedom, hurled a
bomb at Graziani in the Genete-Le‟ul palace compound at Sidist Kilo, wounding him seriously
and killing some others. This was followed by a reign of terror waged by the Black Shirts; who
 chopped off heads
 burnt down houses with their inhabitants and
 disemboweled thousands in Addis Ababa.
 According to Ethiopian official accounts, about 30,000 Ethiopians of different ages, classes and
sex were killed in three days‟ campaign.
 Special targets of the Fascist terror were:-
 educated Ethiopians (including many members of the Black Lion Organization).
 The Ethiopian Orthodox Church. For instance, on 21 May 1937, in the monastery of Debre
Libanos alone, 297 monks were executed.
 The elimination of the intelligentsia was to create 'the missing generation' in Ethiopia's
intellectual and political history.
 This Fascist terror marked the transition from the conventional patriotic resistance to
guerrilla warfare that could eventually weaken the enemy forces. Different guerrilla units kept the
Italian troops under constant harassment.
 As the Fascist regime became intolerable to Ethiopians, there were women who led their own army
in the guerrilla wars, like:-
 Woizero Lekyelesh Beyan, whose career as a guerrilla fighter ended in January 1941,
when she was captured after an Italian air bombardment.
 Woizero Kebedech Seyoum (a daughter of Ras Seyum Mengesha and the wife of
Dejazmach Abera Kasa), started her patriotic activity before the fall of Addis Ababa to the
Italians. Thus, when her husband was fighting in the northern front, she maintained peace
and order in the province of Selalie representing her husband.
 Although it lacked coordination, patriotic resistance to Italian rule took place in the country in
numerous forms and tenacity. There was no unified command structure. In most provinces of the
country, similar acts of resistance were observed. Eritreans too were joining the resistance in big
numbers. A comprehensive list and explanation on each patriot in a module such as this would not
be possible. However, hereunder an attempt has been made to list a few patriots that we think can
represent different parts of Ethiopia. These were:-
 Dejjazmach Umar Samatar  Dejjazmach Gebrehiwot Meshesha
 Dejjazmach Belay Zeleke  Colonel Jagama Kello
 Dejjazmach Abbbai Kahsay  Zeray Dire
 Colonel Abdisa Aga  Major Matias Gemeda

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  Blatta Takele Woldehawaryat  Colonel Belay Haile-ab
 W/o Sinidu Gebru  Lij Haile Mariam Mamo
 W/o Shewareged Gedle  Captain Yosef Nesibu
 Ras Amoraw Wubneh  Dejjach Geresu Duki
 Ras Abebe Aregay  BekeleWoya,etc
 Dejjazmach Habte Mariam
Some patriots served as Yewust Arbegna. Contribution of Yewust Arbegnoch (“inner patriots”) was
great.such as:-
 They were patriots who lived and often worked with the Italians in towns but supplied vital
information to the patriots. Some members of this group used to give underground service to the
patriots fighting in the bushes
 They contributed in the collection of arms, medicine, food and intelligence reports
 They arranged secret killings of Italian officials
 They collected arms from corrupt officials and deserters
 In addition to the underground activities, there were women that led their own troops in battles of
resistance.
Note: The two Ethiopian nationals Zerai Deres and Abdisa Aga showed exemplary patriotism in Italy itself.
 Zerai Deres killed the Italian Facsst leaders at square in their own country where as
 Abdisa Aga conducted a long fight against the Fascist in their own country. He broke Italian prison
 The struggle continued but it suffered from serious internal weakness. That is:-
 The resistance was handicapped by the Ethiopian collaborators called the Banda who
exercised their corrosive activities in different areas.
 The resistance movement was divided and there was no one national organization to
coordinate the activities of the many patriotic groups dispersed in many parts of the
country.
 Relations between guerrilla groups were characterized by parochialism and jealousy. Some
guerrilla groups spent more time fighting one another than attacking the declared enemy.
 Despite these weaknesses, the patriots carried on a persistent resistance against Italian fascism,
until suddenly they got external support from Britain in 1941.
 Ethiopian struggle for independence was associated with World War II, when Italy declared
war on France and Britain on 10 June 1940.
 Mussolini decided to enter the war on the side of Germany in the hope of securing outside
support; the internationalization of the conflict was a good opportunity.
 For Haile Sellassie too, the situation was important. His requests for assistance were finally
answered by the British government that decided to drive out Italians from East Africa.
 On 12 July 1940, London recognized the Emperor as a full ally. The British launched a three
pronged attack on the Italians. That is:-
 In the north, General William Platt led the forces that attacked the Italians in Eritrea.
 In the West, in January 1941, Colonel Sandford and Major Wingate accompanied the
Emperor from the Sudan into Gojjam at the head of British and Ethiopian troops called
the Gedeon force.
 In the South, General Cunningham led the attack from Kenya. The advances were rapid
largely due to the demoralization that the patriots had caused among the Italians.
 Emperor Haile-Selassie entered Addis Ababa on 5 May 1941, exactly five years after Italian
entry to the capital.

UNIT SEVEN
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 INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS, 1941–1995
7.1. Post-1941 Imperial Period
7.1.1. Restoration and Consolidation of Imperial Power and External Relations
A. Ethiopia and Britain
 In the post-1941 period, Britain recognized Ethiopia‟s status as a sovereign state with mutual
diplomatic accreditation, but it continued to exercise the upper hand/preponderance/because of:-
 the role it played in the liberation of Ethiopia from Fascist rule.
 Britain preponderant influence in Ethiopia‟s domestic and international affairs in line with the
continuation of WWII (1939-45) which required adequate provision for the Allied defense to
win the war.
 Accordingly, despite protests, the British considered Ethiopia Occupied Enemy Territory
Administration (OETA). The 1942 and 1944 agreements that Emperor Haile-Selassie I was forced
to sign with the British show the ascendancy of the latter.
 The 1942 agreement:-
 Gave Britain a final authority over Ethiopia‟s foreign affairs, territorial integrity,
administration, finances, the military and the police.
 Enabled the British minster in Ethiopia enjoyed precedence over other foreign diplomats
in Ethiopia and Britain was to approve employment of other nationals by Ethiopian
government.
 Even more, British citizens held key posts in Ethiopian administration as advisors and
judges while at the same time they maintained total control over the country‟s police
force which was set up in February 1942. Additionally, British aircraft had exclusive
aviation rights and the emperor had to obtain approval from the Commander in Chief of
the British Forces in East Africa, Sir Philip Mitchell, to implement sovereign matters such
as declaration of war or state of emergency. Britain also decided details on disposal of
Italian prisoners of war and civilians and the administration of Italian properties in the
country. In terms of finance, the British assumed control over currency and foreign
exchange as well as import-exports.

 The Emperor resented such restrictions to his powers and made some diplomatic engagements.
With this and the help of the USA and friends of Ethiopia such as Sylvia Pankhurst, Britain
relaxed the restrictions imposed upon the Ethiopian government.
 The second Anglo-Ethiopian agreement, signed in 1944, shows some of the concessions the
emperor won from Britain. According to this agreement,
 the priority accorded to the British minster over all other foreign diplomats in Ethiopia was
lifted. The Ethiopian government could now employ non-British foreign personnel and it
regained control over a section of the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railway, a vital line of external
communication. Control over this route assured Ethiopia free access to foreign goods and
services including arms and ammunitions.
 The British also agreed to evacuate their army from the region once they equip
Ethiopia‟s military force- a task mandated to the British Military Mission to Ethiopia
(BMME).
 The BMME assisted the government of Ethiopia in organizing, training, and
administration of its army until 1951. Haile-Selassie I Harar Military Academy was
modeled after a British Military Academy called Sandhurst.
 Britain did not, however, yield to Ethiopia‟s territorial demands during the negotiation for
the 1944 Agreement.

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  The Ethiopian government requested union of Eritrea with Ethiopia claiming that
it was historically, culturally, and economically inseparable from Ethiopia. Both
Eritrea and Ogaden were part of the Ethiopian empire before they fell into Italian
hands in 1890 and 1936 respectively. But Ethiopia‟s claims to the two territories
were met with little sympathy from the British.
 Britain insisted that Ogaden should be merged with the former Italian
Somaliland and British Somaliland to form what they called “Greater Somalia”.
Similarly, the western and northern lowlands of Eritrea were intended by the
British to be part of Sudan.
 Further, they wanted to integrate the Tigrigna speaking highlands of Eritrea with
Tigray to form a separate state. As a consequence, in September 1945 at the
London conference of Allied powers Ethiopia‟s claims to Eritrea and Ogaden
were rejected.
 The territorial issues were resolved only after a decade.
 In 1948, the British left parts of Ogaden, and in 1954 they withdrew from the region.
 In Eritrea people were divided; i.e:
 those who wanted a union with Ethiopia rallied behind the Unionists.
 The Liberal Progressive Party and later the Muslim League rallied people who
sought for separation and independence.
In 1948, the question of Eritrea was referred to the UNSC by Britain, France, U. S. A. and
U. S. S. R. The UN appointed a commission of five men from Burma, Guatemala, Norway,
Pakistan and South Africa to find out actual wishes of Eritreans. After a period of
investigation:-
 Guatemala and Pakistan recommended granting independence to Eritrea. While
 Norway recommended union with Ethiopia
 South Africa and Burma recommended Federation.
On December 2 1950 UN Resolution 390V granted the Federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia
which came into effect in 1952. However, this arrangement did not satisfy both unionists and the
independence bloc; thus, sought to unmake the federation to fit their respective interests. On
November 14, 1962, the Eritrean Parliament, under pressure from the Ethiopian government,
resolved to dissolve the Federation and placed Eritrea under the imperial umbrella.

B. Ethiopia and the U.S.A
 The first official contacts between Ethiopia and the United States of America traced back to
1903 when the two countries signed a Treaty of Friendship and Commerce with the USA
delegate led under Robert P. Skinner. The relations between the two countries had been in the
doldrums because of the Tripartite domination of the Ethiopian diplomatic scene until the early
1940s. Following the Second World War, two super-powers, the Soviet Union and the United
States emerged.
 In Ethiopia and the Horn, British pre-dominance in 1940s was replaced by the dominance of
the United States in 1950s. In his efforts to ensure his sovereign political authority from British
domination, to modernize his country and consolidate his power, Haile-Selassie I turned
towards the United States as a powerful ally than Britain.
 American interest in the region began to grow especially after they acquired a communication
base in Asmara known as Radio Marina from the Italians. The radio station was later on
renamed Qagnew after the Ethiopian force that fought on the side of the Americans in the
Korean War (1950-3).

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 In 1943, the Ethiopian vice Finance Minister, Yilma Deressa, visited the US to request expertise
to assist the country's development. In response, USA:-
 extended the Lend-Lease Agreement with Ethiopia and
 sent a technical mission led by Perry Fellows in May 1944.
 Emperor Haile-Selassie I and the American President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, met in Egypt and
discussed recognition of an American Sinclair Company to prospect for oil in Ogaden at the
beginning of 1945. By granting a concession to the company, Ethiopia sought to reassert its rights
in the region as much as it was eager to exploit a lucrative natural resource.
 The renewed contact between Ethiopia and USA was concretized with the signing of two
agreements in the 1950s. i.e:-
 First, the Point Four Agreement enabled subsequent American assistance in education
and public health was signed in 1952.
 Second, the Ethio-US Treaty that granted a continued American use of the Qagnew base
in return for military assistance was signed in 1953.
These two agreements in general but the latter in particular defined the Ethio American partnership in
the following decades.
 Following the 1953 treaty, the USA:-
 launched a military aid program named the American Military Assistance Advisory
Group (MAAG) to equip Ethiopia‟s armed forces. The MAAG was to train 60,000
Ethiopian soldiers in three separate divisions.
 In the year between 1953 and 1968, over 2,500 Ethiopians received various forms of
military training in the US. It was in the army that American military assistance and
training was most noticeable. By 1970, sixty percent of US military aid to Africa went to
Ethiopia. In the period between 1946 and 1972, US military aid was over 180 million US
Dollar. Anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapons, naval craft, infantry weapons and some times
even uniforms like field jackets were of American origin. Civil aviation, road transport, and
education were other spheres that the Americans took active part.
 From 8 September to 15 December 1945, the founding conference of the UN was held at
San Francisco. There, the Ethiopian delegation approached American delegates for
assistance to form a civilian airline. Hence, an agreement was concluded with
Transcontinental and Western World Airline (TWA) that established Ethiopian Air
Lines (EAL) in 1946 with five C-47 warplanes that served during WWII and of which
three were converted to passenger version DC-3. In 1962, EAL entered the jet age.
Meanwhile the shortage of trained Ethiopian personnel slowed the progress towards the
Ethiopianization of the EAL. For almost three decades since the signing of the agreement
with the TWA in 1946, key management and executive posts of the Ethiopian airline
were seized by expatriates notably by the Americans. EAL got its first Ethiopian
national pilot, Alemayehu Abebe, in 1957 and Colonel Simeret Medhne
became the first Ethiopian General Manager of EAL in 1971.
 The Imperial Board of Telecommunication was established with the help of International
Telephone and Telegraph (ITT) organization between 1950 and 1952.
 In January 1951, with financial loan from the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD), the Imperial High Way Authority (IHA) was set up based on the model of
the US Bureau of Roads. It continued to be run by Americans until 1962. Together with ELA‟s
domestic network the improvement of road transport along with communication services played
important role in facilitating national integration and the speedy transport of such lucrative
commodities as coffee.

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  In the field of education, American presence was particularly evident in the university and high
schools. A variety of American scholarship programs under USAID and African American
Institute African Graduate Fellowship Program (AFGRAD) offered opportunities for many
Ethiopians to go to the United States for their second and third Degrees. Meanwhile, many
American volunteers came to Ethiopia to teach in Ethiopian schools under the Peace Corps
Program.

 Other foreign countries with significant presence in Imperial Ethiopia include:-

 Sweden and Norway whose advisors were entrusted to the Air force and navy
successively.
 Germany and Israel trained and equipped the Police Force while the Swedes supported
the Imperial Bodyguard and the Harar Military Academy was entrusted to British
trained Indians.
 In 1956, the Qoqa Dam was built with war reparations money that the Italians agreed to
pay. This was followed by the return of the Statue of Judah in 1972, which Italians had
taken during the occupation period.
 Russians established good relations with Ethiopia through their exhibition, library
around city hall, post office, mathematics and literature.
7.1.2. Socio-Economic Developments
 Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in the world where early domestication of plants
and animals took place.
 The mid-twentieth century witnessed that there was low development in industrialization,
meant that Agriculture was the leading economic sector in providing employment for about
ninety percent of the population, generating about seventy percent of the national GDP and
supplying almost hundred percent of the country‟s income from export trade. Therefore, the
landholding which was a primary means of production was vital. Generally,
 peasants in the northern and central highland parts of Ethiopia held land in the form of rist.
 in the 1970s, more than sixty-six percent of the peasant farmers cultivated less than 0.5
hectares.
 in southern Ethiopia, government grants were made by the Government for large number
of its supporters and tenancy was widespread. The disparity of landownership between
north and south Ethiopia by the middle of the twentieth century can be seen from the
proportion of tenants to landed peasants. It was only minority religious and occupational
castes who suffered from tenancy in the north while the tenant population as percentage of
total rural population in newly incorporated regions varied from 37 percent in former
Sidama Governorate General to a staggering 73 percent in Ilu Abba Bor, and 75
percent in Hararghe, whereas tenancy in northern provinces averaged 11 percent.
Tenants surrendered up to 60 percent of their produce to landlords who mostly lived in
towns or the capital.
 In addition to formal tributes, there were sundry/various/ payments that smallholder and
landless farmers had to make, such as “voluntary” contributions to self-help funds for projects
from which they rarely benefitted.
 Sharecrop tenancy arrangements in the country were so onerous that increasing production only
increased the exploitation of peasants.
 The extreme taxation to which smallholding peasants were subjected to was also potent enough to
discourage peasants from maximizing production beyond subsistence levels. From 1953 to 1974,
the annual growth rate of agricultural production was only 2.4 percent which was lower than

88
 the 2.5 percent population growth rate. As a consequence, Ethiopia ranked among the
countries with very low per capita income.
 The deteriorating condition of the country‟s economy posed a threat to the social and political
stability of the country and thus, the regime‟s power. This coupled with external pressure from
donors, induced the government to establish a Land Reform Committee in 1961. This later
became the Land Reform and Development Authority that grew to become the Ministry of
Land Reform and Administration. Yet no meaningful reform was implemented because it
would affect the vested economic and political interests of landlords who at that time had taken
hold of government.
 In 1960s and 1970s commercial agriculture was expanding especially:-
 in southern Shewa,
 the Setit-Humera region on the Sudan border, and
 in the Awash valley.
 The mechanization of farming in these areas led to eviction of tenants. Profitability of
agriculture:-
 led some landlords to work the land by themselves.
 Sometimes landlords rented the land under their ownership to whoever offered them better
price in cash (as opposed to the sharecropping tenancy practice); a price paid in advance
and for longer periods. The effect of all these was the eviction of tenants.
 Furthermore, the government attempted to enhance the productivity of small farmers through
launching comprehensive agricultural package programs. The most notable in this regard were:-
 The Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit (CADU) and
 The Wolayta Agricultural Development Unit (WADU).
 CADU was launched in 1967 through the initiative of the Swedish International Development
Authority (SIDA) while the World Bank supported WADU.
 The major objective of the package programs was demonstrating the effectiveness and
efficiency of agricultural packages to pave the way for subsequent nationwide emulation of the
intensive package approach. Nonetheless, the plan was conceived and implemented without
undertaking the crucial task of land reform, thereby leaving the targeted population (small
peasant producers) at a disadvantageous position vis-a-vis big landlords when it comes to the
distribution of benefits. Although few participant small farmers gained real benefit, farmers with
large land-holdings took the lion‟s share of the benefits accrued from these projects. The
unintended outcome of CADU was aggravating tenant eviction. WADU initiated by the World
Bank was more successful in promoting re-settlement.

 Since the 1950s, the government formulated strategic plans for economic development and this
came in a series of five-year plans. i.e:-
 The First Five Year Plan (1957-1961) targeted the development of infrastructure.
 The Second (1962-1967) turned towards mining, manufacturing and electricity. The Plan
also mentioned major constraints to the development of the agricultural sector, although in
very general terms.
 The Third (1968-1972) gave priority to large scale agricultural development and „bringing
higher living standard‟. The package projects noted above were part of the third plan.
 Following these plans, the Ethiopian economy witnessed some progress particularly after
1950. i.e:-
 Overall, domestic output increased nearly three and a half times and even better progress
was registered in manufacturing. The number of industrial enterprises grew to over four
hundred and the industrial working force to nearly sixty thousand.
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  The electricity supply and infrastructure expanded considerably. Road and air
communication enabled linkage of parts of the country.
 The emergence of new towns and the development of city life hastened urbanization.
 Moreover, public revenue and expenditure both grew nine times and tenfold,
respectively.
 Banking facilities expanded and the State Bank of Ethiopia was formed in 1942. In 1963
it was divided into the Commercial Bank and the National Bank of Ethiopia. Also a
private bank, Addis Ababa Bank was established in 1963.
 The capital Addis Ababa became a continental capital when the UN Economic
Commission for Africa (ECA) and the Organization of African Unity (OAU) were
established in 1958 and 1963 respectively.
 Overall, there was relatively highlevel of modernization that was reflected in many facets
of life: music, sports, cuisine and dress styles.

 Yet, much of Ethiopia remained traditional with a low living standard and Ethiopia was a least
developed country in global terms. While the manufacturing sector contributed less than five
percent of the national income, industrialization was spatially limited in the capital and its
vicinity in addition only to Asmara and Dire Dawa. The manufacturing sector only produced
light consumer goods. Moreover, industrial investment was also primarily of foreign origin.
For example, the Ethiopian share in capital was hardly more than twenty percent for Wonji-Shewa
and Methara sugar factories which were largely Dutch-owned. Above all, the absence of
meaningful land reform constrained the forces of production in the countryside where the
majority of the population lived.
Consolidation of Autocracy
 The post-liberation period witnessed the climax of the emperor‟s power. As in the period before,
at the center of post-1941 national policies was the state‟s enduring interest to curb the political
and economic bases of the power of regional lords in favour of the monarch. After he was
restored to the throne in May 1941, Emperor Haile-Selassie I embarked on consolidating his
power. This was made possible through:-
 the bureaucratization of government,
 the building of a national army and
 a centralized fiscal system.
 In order to fill-in the expanding bureaucracy, education was promoted at both school and
college levels. While primary schools had already been established prior to 1935, secondary
schools were opened in the post 1941 period. i.e:-
 The Haile-Selassie I Secondary School, founded in 1943 and became the two most
 The General Wingate School established in 1946 popular and prestigious
secondary schools
 A significant number of the educated elites in the 1950s attended either of these two schools.
 In 1950, the University College of Addis Ababa (UCAA) was inaugurated. This was
followed by the Engineering and Building College in Addis Ababa, the College of
Agriculture in Alamaya (Hararghe), and the Public Health College in Gondar. These
various colleges were brought together to form the Haile-Selassie I University in 1961
which again was re-named Addis Ababa University after the outbreak of the
Revolution in 1974.

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 The post-1941 political order was dominated by Haile-Selassie that both the state and the
country came to be identified with the emperor.i.e:-
 Significant urban landmarks such as schools, hospitals, theatre halls, stadiums, main
avenues and squares in the country bore the name of the Emperor.
 It was common for students to chant songs praising the emperor who would then gift
them with sweets or fruits on holidays such as Ethiopian Christmas on January 7.
 The emperor‟s birthday and coronation day were national holidays where large sum of
money was spent.
 Yet another major pre-occupation of the imperial regime was the strengthening of the military
and security apparatus. The ministries of Defense and Interior, in charge of maintaining public
security, consistently received the highest budgetary allocations. For example, out of the country‟s
total budget of ETB 38 million in 1944/5 fiscal year, nearly 11 million was allocated for the
Ministry of Interior of which security absorbed almost 5 million and about 8 million went for
war. Figures show over 80 million allocation for Ministry of Defense and nearly 60 million for
Ministry of Interior, out of about 400 million ETB in 1967. Ironically, although the emperor
anticipated that the military that was composed mainly of the army, the police force and the
Imperial Bodyguard would suppress opposition to the regime, they themselves rebelled more
than once. It failed in 1960. It was more successful in 1974.
 The traditional aristocracy although made to enjoy urban and rural property, had lost most of
its political privileges. Based on the traditional shum shir, the emperor appointed and demoted
his ministers, most of whom had humble origins. In 1943, the emperor appointed eleven
ministers to draft laws and appoint junior officials but their subservience to the monarch was
stated in explicit terms. For example, it was only in 1966 that even the prime minster was allowed
to select his cabinet members to be approved by the emperor.
 Ras Bitweded Mekonnen Endalkachew served as prime minister from 1942. Next to
Mekonnen Habte-Wold (1949-58), whose brother, Aklilu Habte Wold, became the last
prime minister of the imperial regime (1961-74)
 Yilma Deressa left the strongest mark on the Ministry of Finance.
 The most powerful of the ministers in the post-1941 political order was Tsehafe-Tizaz
Wolde-Giorgis Wolde-Yohannis who headed the strategic Ministry of Pen in the period
1941-55. Besides Wolde-Giorgis held the portfolios of Justice and Interior on various
occasions that he was the defacto prime minister in the above stated period. Wolde-
Giorgis‟access to the emperor and the latter‟s trust in him made him so powerful.
 In general, members of:-
 royal family,
 leading nobility and
 the Abun still were members of the crown council, which was an advisory body to the
emperor. In 1959, the Emperor‟s private cabinet was set up as a high-level advisory body to
the emperor and developed into agency doing intelligence.

 In 1955, Haile-Selassie promulgated a new constitution, revising the first constitution issued in
1931. American advisers like John Spencer as well as Tsehafe-Tizaz Wolde-Giorgis Wolde-
Yohannis and Tsehafe-Tizaz Aklilu Habte-Wold were in the drafting committee of the 1955
revised constitution. More than its predecessor, the 1955 revised constitution provided the
basis for the consolidation of absolutism in Ethiopia. About 36 articles of the 1955 constitution
dealt with the question of imperial succession and the emperor‟s privileges. The constitution
clearly states:-
 the Emperor‟s personality as sacred,

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  the Emperor‟s dignity inviolable and his power indisputable.
 Some Human rights provisions like those of speech and press were accompanied by
nullifying phrases like within law limits.
 However this constitution introduced:-
 universal adult suffrage and
 elected chamber of deputies for four years term and that of the senate six years with
certain property qualification.
 In the final analysis, however, neither the constitution nor the Parliament that it created put a
limit to the autocratic power of the emperor. He was the head of the three branches of
government: the executive, the legislative and the judiciary. The idea of a constitutional monarchy
was never materialized. Human rights and civic liberties were restricted and violated. Regional
identities, needs and feelings were ignored in the interest of centralization.
 As the years progressed, the emperor started to dedicate his attention to foreign affairs. i.e:-
 He played a significant role in the Non-Aligned Movement and
 He also contributed his share in the drive for African unity and this increased his
international stature that finally resulted in the birth of the Organization of African
Unity at the summit of heads of African states held in Addis Ababa in 1963. But his
preoccupation with international affairs detached the emperor from the domestic
affairs that he became careless of the signs of trouble at home.
7.1.3. Oppositions and the Downfall of the Monarchical Regime
A. Plots and Conspiracies
 Various sectors of the society opposed the imperial rule before the 1974 Revolution broke out.
 Before the 1960s opposition to the regime took in the form of plots and conspiracies.
 After the 1960 Coup d‟état, however, oppositions gained wider mass support and came
out more open.
 Some leaders of the resistance movement against fascist rule were opposed to the restoration
of the emperor to the throne for he fled the country when it needed him most whereas others
wished for a republican government. Such misgivings combined with the privileges and
rewards accorded to exiles and people who served the colonial administration exacerbated
the resentment against the monarchy leading to rebellions.
 One notable patriot who resented the fact that he was not given a stature recognizing his
contribution to the Resistance was Dejazmach Belay Zeleke.
 The emperor made Belay governor of a southern province of Gojjam with the rank of
Ras because he wanted to remove him from his base in Bichena in eastern Gojjam.
 Belay:-
 rejected the offer and
 was even more dissatisfied at dignified positions of Ras Haylu Belaw (Governor
General of Gojjam) and Bitweded Mengesha Jembere (Deputy Governor
General of Gojjam).
 In February 1943, forces from Debra-Marqos and Addis Ababa invaded Belay‟s district. After
fighting for three months, Belay surrendered, was detained in Fiche from where he tried to
escape and return to Gojjam a few months later, but was captured with his brother Ejigu.
Taken back to the capital, Belay was finally hanged and killed in public.
 Bitweded Negash Bezabih was a vice minister and Senate President in the emperor‟s
administration after liberation. He plotted to assassinate the emperor and proclaim a
republic in 1951. In the process, some military officers like Beqele Anasimos were
attracted to the plot, but Dejach Geresu Duki, another patriot, whom the plotters had

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 unsuccessfully approached to recruit to their cause, exposed them. Finally, the plotters were
tried and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment after being arrested during one of their
clandestine meetings.

 The most fierce and sustained opposition to the emperor came from Blatta Takele
Wolde- Hawaryat,who couched a plot in constitutionalist terms using Yohannes Iyasu
as front and with the support of some contingents of the army. But the plot was
uncovered and he was detained. In 1945, Blatta Takele Wolde-Hawaryat was released and
appointed as deputy Afe nigus. Yet, he was involved in another plot in 1946 and was
detained up to 1954. Upon his release, he once again became Vice Interior Minister
and Afe nigus. He tried to assassinate the emperor on November 17, 1969, but his final
plot failed and he barricaded himself in his house and engaged in a shoot-out with the
police in which he was killed.
 The most serious challenge to the emperor‟s authority came in 1960 in the form of a coup
attempt. The abortive Coup d'etat of 1960 was led by the Neway brothers:-
 Brigadier General Mengistu Neway and
 Girmame Neway.
 Girmame:-
 attended Haile-Sellasie I Secondary School, and then the University of Wisconsin where
he received his B.A and M.A. Degrees from Columbia.
 was also president of Ethiopian Students Association during his stay in the USA. Upon
his return to Ethiopia, Girmame became the president of a clandestine alumni
association of his former school.
 As governor of Wolayta, Girmame‟s activities were alarming to the regime. He:-
 monitored police activities,
 introduced a settlement program in which he distributed government holdings to landless
peasants and
 ordered written tenancy agreements.
 As a result, he was then summoned back to Addis Ababa for explanation. However, unable to
criticize Girmame‟s intentions Haile- Selassie sent him to Jijiga where he continued as radical
reformer. In Jijiga, Girmame:-
 oversaw the digging of new wells while improving the old,
 set up clinics, schools etc.
 But Girmame‟s actions were not liked by the regime which convinced Girmame of the need for
change. Together with his brother General Mengistu Neway, the head of the Imperial
Bodyguard, and others the two brothers:-
 started detaining ministers and other members of the nobility when the emperor was
on state visit in Brazil.
 took over the radio station and spoke about the backwardness of the country than other
newly independent African states. The crown prince Asfawosen was said to be a salaried
constitutional monarch. The prince delivered a speech on Radio Addis explaining the
rationale of the coup in which he promised the establishment of new factories, schools
etc.
 On 14 December 1960, a new government was declared that was to be headed by Ras Emiru
Haile- Selassie. Major General Mulugeta Buli was chosen as chief of staff of the armed
forces while Brigadier-General Tsige Dibu was to lead the Imperial Bodyguard and the Police
Force, and Colonel Workneh Gebeyehu was security chief.

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  However, the army and the air force refused to side with the rebels and with the support of the
Americans and the blessing of the patriarch, the loyalists led by General Merid Mengesha, Ras
Asrate Kassa etc attacked the plotters. The rebels asked for a cease-fire which the loyalists
rejected. Finally, they had to run for their lives but only after killing the ministers and other
dignitaries they had detained at Geneta L'uel palace. In the meantime, the emperor entered the
capital. Finally,
 Girmame died fighting in the outskirts of the capital and
 Mengistu was captured and hanged after trial.
 The regime made some concessions after the failed coup attempt, but failed to address
the root causes that triggered the coup itself. Thus, opposition to the imperial regime was
only to grow stronger that led to the outbreak of the 1974 Revolution.
B. Peasant Rebellions
The post-liberation period also witnessed growing opposition among peasants in different parts of the
country against Haile-Selassie‟s regime thereby giving the opposition a broader dimension. Peasant revolts,
although on a small scale, were especially numerous in the southern territories, where the imperial
government had traditionally rewarded its supporters with land grants thereby reducing the local peasantry
into tenancy. It is not possible in the space of a brief essay such as this to discuss the numerous peasant
rebellions in the entire country. But an effort will be made to canvas major eruptions in the country with
the intent of showing some of the deficiencies of the system.
The Woyane Rebellion
 The first peasant resistance against imperial rule took place in Tigray, known in history as the
Woyane rebellion. The term Woyane means 'revolt' in Tigrigna language. A combination of
longrunning problems stemming from the inequities of the system and short-term factors caused
the eruption. i.e:-
 Peasants felt victimized by corruption and greed of the territorial army unit stationed
in the region and general administrative inefficiency that led to the shiftnet of peasants
who possessed armament left by Italians. The peoples of Wejjerat and Raya-Azebo had
wanted to maintain their local autonomy that the government violated.
 Another cause for the rebellion was the 1942 land decree which forced peasants to pay
tax arrears whose collection was problematic.This rebellion had the support of
members of the nobility who perceived their position to be endangered by the expansion of
central authority. The nobility took advantage of the popular discontent against government
officials and their militias and put strong resistance against government forces thanks to the
able leadership of Blatta Haile-Mariam Reda. Finally, the government‟s retribution against
the Raya-Azebo on allegation of cattle raids on Afar territory sparked the general
rebellion. As such, the Woyane rebellion was as a continuation of the government‟s
punitive campaign against the region‟s peasants in the late 1920s. The dress rehearsal for
the major confrontation took place on January 11, 1942 where the imperial force was
crushed and humiliated by Raya-Azebo peasants. On May 22, 1943, the rebels scored an
astounding victory fighting an even larger and well-equipped government army in Addi
Awuna, 15 kms away from Hewane in southern Tigray. Soon small towns around
Meqelle like Qwiha and Enda-Iyyasus, and Meqelle itself on October 14, 1943 fell in
rebel hands. They then expanded to Kilte-Awlalo, Wuqiro etc in eastern Tigray. Such
initial advances of the rebel forces, however, did not last long.
 In October 1943, the imperial army under the command of Abebe Aregay with the support of
the British Royal Air Force crushed the rebellion. In line with this:-
 The government exiled or imprisoned the leaders of the revolt.

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  The emperor took reprisals against peasants suspected of supporting the Woyane.
Meanwhile, the imperial regime reversed the 1942 land decree, although the Wejjerat
and Raya-Azebo lost their automous status, and Raya-Azebo was made part of Wollo.
The Yejju Rebellion
 Overt dissidence of Yejju peasants in Wollo during Haile-Selassie‟s rule occurred three times.
i.e:-
 In 1948, peasants rose against the system after their appeal against land alienation was ignored
by the government. With Qegnazmach Melaku Taye and Unda Mohammed in the forefront,
peasants stormed and freed inmates held in Woldya prison. The nech lebash were called to quell
the unrest and eventually the leaders were publicly flogged.
 Throughout the 1950s, localized skirmishes between government forces and peasants expanded to
Qobo, Hormat, Tumuga, Karra-Qore etc led by prominent figures like Ali Dullatti (Aba Jabbi).
 In 1970, peasants revolted against the introduction of mechanized agriculture that encroached
on pastureland. They killed Qegnazmach Abate Haylu who was a member of the local nobility
and direct beneficiary of the new development.
 Finally the rising was suppressed by the local militia.
The Gojjam Peasant Rebellion
 In 1968, another violent peasant uprising set off in Gojjam caused by the government‟s attempt
to implement new tax on agricultural produce which the parliament adopted in November 1967.
This rebellion was not, however, without its antecedents. The nobles of Gojjam refused to accept
any limitation upon the prevailing land tenure system and successfully battled the regime over
this issue. Although the expansion of central authority by appointed officials and the
development of infrastructural works required a parallel increase in tax payments, it was
fiercely resisted by the local gentry. Against this background, the then governor of Gojjam,
Dejach Kebede Tesema,
 initiated land assessment and classification to determine taxation.
 then raised tax rate from what it had been in the pre-1935 period.
 In 1950, a revolt broke out in Mota, Qolla-Daga Damot and Mecha districts led by people like
Dejach Abere Yimam. As a result,
 tax rate was reduced by 1/3,
 Kebede was removed and replaced by Haylu Belew, a hereditary ruler of Gojjam. Later,
Haylu‟s Shewan successor named Dejjazmach Tsehayu Enqu-Selassie forced handouts to
build the emperor‟s statue in Debra Marqos. Besides, peasants were ordered to pay tax
arrears and register their arms with fees. Meanwhile, peasants were victimized by the
ravages committed by the nech lebash in the pretext of eradicating banditry. With all
the above unfolding, an attempt was made to introduce the new agricultural tax and this
finally sparked the 1968 uprising led by veterans of the resistance period, who had taken
titles for themselves such as leul and fitawrari. As a result,
 The government was forced to transfer DejazmachTsehayu to Kafa,
 declare amnesty,
 abandon the new tax, and cancel all tax arrears of taxation going back to 1950.
 Despite these concessions, the rebellion spread throughout Gojjam except Agaw-Midir and
Metekel which alarmed the government. Finally, the rebellion was subdued by:-
 the combined forces of the army
 police and by the end of 1968.
 nech lebash
The Gumuz Rebellion

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  The Gumuz staged major armed rebellion against the regime of Emperor Haile-Selassie in 1952/3.
The movement is named after one of its famous leaders, Aba Tone. Aba Tone served the imperial
regime with a position of Aba Qoro (head /chief of a sub- district) responsible for:-
 collection of taxes,
 maintenance of law and order as well as
 mobilization of the people for public works in time of peace and for war in cases of
conflict.
 As with the other peasant rebellions, the Aba Tone armed uprising had its roots in:-
 administrative injustice,
 land and
 taxation policies of the imperial regime.
 Aba Tone sided with the local people who were discontented with the system of government and
administration of Emperor Haile-Selassie in general and heavy taxation and mal-
administration in particular. Although Aba Tone reported the complaints of the peasants to
higher government authorities in Najjo and Gimbi, they were not in a position to solve the
problem. Meanwhile, the Gumuz were determined not to pay taxes unless the government took
appropriate measures to address their concerns.

 Finally, an open clash broke out between the policemen and the Gumuz when tax collectors
with the backing of the police force attempted to force the people pay land taxes. The situation
soon grew into an open rebellion against the government leading to a general breakdown of law
and order in the region, particularly in places like Gaba Robi and Tullu Lubu where the first
clash had occurred. In the event of the initial combat between the government‟s expeditionary
forces and those of Aba Tone the latter had obtained an upper hand over the former.
Nevertheless, the government forces were soon reinforced with more weapons and manpower.
Aba Tone and his followers were outgunned and outnumbered and thus, the government was able
to put down the uprising. Aba Tone was captured and later released on pardon.
The Gedeo Peasant Rebellion
 As in many parts of rural Ethiopia, the major source of peasant discontent in Gedeo was land
alienation. The dispossession of land from the indigenous peasantry was unabated particularly
following the introduction of land measurement in the 1920s.
 In the 1960s, the Gedeo witnessed an unprecedented level of land expropriation by members of
the northern nobility who were vying for coffee farms. The major contender in this regard was
the emperor‟s daughter, Princess Tenagneworq. This coupled with the denigration of their
culture exacerbated Gedeo‟s resentment against the system. Petitions and appeals to higher
authorities to curb the continued land alienation proved futile. Then peasants:-
 refused to pay erbo (1/4 of agricultural produce payable to landlords),
 armed themselves with traditional weapons like spears, swords and arrows and clashed
with the imperial army at Michille in 1960. That is why it was known as the Michille
rebellion. Over a hundred peasants lost their lives in the fight while much of their
property was destroyed. Finally, Afe Nigus Eshete Geda, fined the elders locally called the
hayicha accused of supporting the rebellion.
The Bale Peasant Rebellion
 The Bale peasant uprising, which lasted from 1963 to 1970, presented the most serious challenge
to the Ethiopian government. The causes of the uprising were multifaceted. i.e:-
 The indigenous peasants largely became tenants on their own land after the introduction
of the qalad that initiated land measurement in 1951.

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  Peasants also suffered from high taxation, religious and ethnic antagonism that reached
to unprecedented level after the appointment of Warqu Enquselassie as governor of the
territory in 1963. The predominantly Muslim population resented the imposition of
alien rule from the northern and central highlands parts of the empire and thus,
political and cultural domination by Christian settlers.
 Further, the government of Somalia extended material and moral support to the rebels
as part of its strategy of reestablishing a “Greater Somalia”.

 The revolt broke out in El Kerre led by people like Kahin Abdi. Initially, rebel groups conducted
hit-and-run raids against military garrisons and police stations separately. Soon, however, they
tried to coordinate their military activities under an umbrella organization named the Western
Somali Liberation Front (WSLF), engaging in conventional wars against government forces.
 Haile Selassie tried to win loyalty of the people by developing alliances with notable Oromo
leaders. Although this strategy enabled the emperor to recruit some members of local ruling houses
in the service of the imperial system, it failed to contain the popular revolt. Instead, it quickly
spread to Wabe, Dallo and Ganale under the able leadership of Waqo Gutu and others.
 In Gola-Abbadi forest, rebels went to the extent of attacking two government airplanes
which campaigned against them with support from the Americans and Israeli.
 Further, the rebels killed Girazmach Beqele Haragu of Adaba and Fitawrari Wolde-
Mika‟el Bu‟i of Dodola in 1965 and 1966 respectively.
 In December 1966, the government put Bale under the martial rule of Wolde-Selassie
Baraka, the head of the army‟s Fourth Division.
 In 1967,
 the army, police,
 Territorial Army (beherawi tor)
 settler militia (nech lebash) and launched massive operations against the province.
 volunteers (wedo zemach)
 Meanwhile, the rebels lost Somali support after Mahammad Siad Barre took over the Somali
government in 1969 and found it impossible to sustain their campaigns in southeastern
Ethiopia. The rebellion ended in 1970s after some of its popular leaders including the self-styled
general Waqo Gutu surrendered to government forces.
C. Movements of Nations and Nationalities
 Oppositions to the imperial rule did not come only from individuals, peasants, students and the
army. The question of nations and nationalities for equality, freedom and autonomy was also
assuming a siginificant development towards the end of the imperial regime. Among the movement
of nations and nationalities of this period, the Mecha-Tulama movement of the Oromo deserves a
special treatment here.
 In January 1963, the Mecha-Tulama Welfare Association (MTWA) was formed with the
objective of improving the welfare of the Oromo through the expansion of educational,
communication and health facilities in Oromo land. Founding members of the
association included
 Colonels Alemu Qitessa
 Colonel Qedida Guremessa
 Lieutenant Mamo Mezemir
 Beqele Nedhi, and
 Haile-Mariam Gemeda.

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  In the next two years, the association attracted large number of Oromo elites, including
such high-ranking military officers as Brigadier General Taddesse Birru.
 Although the Mecha-Tulama Association had its root in the will and commitment of a few
Oromo elites to mobilize support for the development of Oromo inhabited territories, it soon
transformed into a pan-Oromo movement coordinating countrywide peaceful
resistance against the regime. This is evidenced by the successful rallies the association
organized in, Gindeberet, Dandi, Arsi (Dera and Iteya), etc.
 The association raised contentious issues such as land and expressed its dissatisfaction
with the condition of the Oromo in the society during mass rallies as well as in private
meetings. The regime was alarmed by the activities of the association and determined to
curb the movement before it crystallized into an organized liberation front.
 Meanwhile, leaders of the association plotted to assassinate the emperor and change the
regime on the anniversary of his coronation in November 1966, but the plot was foiled
by security forces. This coupled with a bombing incident in one of the cinemas at the
capital in which the association was implicated led the government to move swiftly and
violently to ban the association‟s activities.
 Mecha-Tulama was dissolved in 1967 following the imprisonment and killing of its
prominent leaders such as Mamo Mezemir and Hailemariam Gemmeda by the
regime‟s forces. Brigadier General Taddese Birru was captured while retreating to the
bush and eventually sentenced to death. Later the death sentence was commuted to life
imprisonment and he was exiled to Gelemso where he stayed until the outbreak of the
1974 revolution. In 1975 the Derg executed Tadesse on allegation of instigating armed
struggle.
 The brutal suppression of the Mecha-Tulama Association, however, did not end the
struggle of the Oromo for justice, equality and liberty. In 1971 an underground
movement called the Ethiopian National Liberation Front (ENLF) was formed by
Oromo elites, perhaps by former members of the association. The Front maintained
contact with student circles and other opposition figures in and outside Addis Ababa.
The aim was to coordinate local resistance towards a common goal of liberation, although
thwarted by the regime‟s security forces. The regime‟s unwillingness to accommodate the
legitimate and peaceful demands of various Oromo groups for equality within Ethiopia
transformed Oromo nationalism into militancy for self-determination. In 1973, some
members of the ENLF and other Oromo nationalists formed the Oromo Liberation Front
(OLF) with the aim of establishing an independent State of Oromia.
 The following year (1974), OLF launched an offensive against the imperial regime in
Hararghe. After the revolution, OLF increased its military activities because the Derg would
not allow the Oromo to elect their rulers and use their language in schools and newspapers.
Accordingly, the armed struggle which set off in the eastern part of Ethiopia extended to other
Oromo inhabited areas such as Arsi and Wallagga. But the biggest military challenge to the
imperial regime came from Eritrea.
 As we have discussed above, Eritrea was integrated into the Ethiopian empire. The measure
consolidated internal and external opposition to the union and led to the formation of
liberation movements based in Eritrea and abroad. Although some liberation movements
had taken shape as far back as the late 1940s, they did not seem to have much of an impact.
 In 1958, a number of Eritrean exiles had founded the Eritrean Liberation Movement
(ELM) in Cairo.

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  In 1961, the ELM evolved into the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) or Jabaha in Arabic.
Hamid Idris Awate who fired the first bullet of the Eritrean armed struggle (he is the
one who „started the armed struggle‟).
 By 1966 the ELF challenged imperial forces throughout Eritrea.
 In June 1970, two splinter group liberation movements emerged from the ELF. These
were the Popular Liberation Forces (PLF) and the Salfi Natsenet Eritrea (Front for
Eritrean Independence). The PLF was formed in the Red Sea area led by Osman Salah
Sabbe while Salfi Natsenet Eritrea (Front for Eritrean Independence) emerged under
the leadership of Isayas Afeworqi.
 In early 1972, a new coalition of forces composed of Eritrean Liberation Front-Popular
Liberation Front (ELF-PLF) led to the founding of the Eritrean People‟s Liberation
Front (EPLF) or Sha'abiya in Arabic. After a long and bloody civil war, the EPLF was
able to establish its hegemony over the independence movement. Finally, the EPLF
succeeded in achieving de facto independence in 1991 and which eventually was
comfirmed through referendum in 1993.
D. The Ethiopian Student Movement (ESM)
 The regime was not only challenged in the provinces. In fact, the Ethiopian student movement was
building up in the center as a strong opposition against the regime. Although the movement started
within the university, students had turned into a radical opposition and were already marching on
the streets from 1965 onwards and by 1968, it was spreading to high schools. The parliament‟s
rejection of tenancy reform bill in 1964 triggered student protest in the following year
demanding “Land to the Tiller”.

 Factors that contributed to sharpening the students‟ ideology include:

 the 1960 coup, students‟ increased awareness of the country‟s socio-economic and political
conditions vis a vis other African countries which they learned from scholarship students
from different parts of Africa, and
 the Ethiopian University Service (EUS). Launched in 1964, the EUS required the students
to teach and offer other services to the community usually in the provinces. In 1964, the
emergence of a radical group of students with Marxist-Leninist leanings known as “the
Crocodiles” marked the increased militancy of the students. Side by side with the
radicalization of the movement, students formed the University College Union (UCU) to
coordinate their activities in 1962 and then the National Union of Ethiopian University
Students (NUEUS) 1963.
 In February 1965, the Main Campus Student Union (MCSU), and the University Student
Union of Addis Ababa (USUAA) with its paper Tagel (Struggle) were established.
 Outside the country, students were organized under the Ethiopian Students Union in North
America (ESUNA) with its paper called Challenge and the Ethiopian Students Union in
Europe (ESUE) with its paper Tateq (Gird yourself) in the USA and Europe.
 ESUNA had gave ideological support to MCSU and USUAA. Throughout the 1960s a rallying cry
of student demonstrations was “land to the tiller”, but other local and global issues were also
raised. For example, students protested against the minority white regime in Southern Rhodesia
(Zimbabwe) in 1968, while at other times they expressed their solidarity with the people of
Vietnam. In the national arena, students protested against:-
 Shola Destitute Concentration Relief Camp and fashion show (in 1966) and
 educational reform (in 1969).
 With the students‟ demands for the respect of the rights of nations and nationalities, the
government was alarmed and started taking measures against leaders of the movement ranging

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 from press campaigns to detentions and killings. Furthermore, the regime deported large
number of students to the torrid Gibe river valley in 1972. Meanwhile, students‟ opposition
was aggravated to armed hijacking of Dc-aircraft.

 By early 1970s, the student movement coupled with other under-running issues such as:-
 rising inflation,
 growing discontent of urban residents
 corruption and all prepared a fertile ground
 widespread and yet covered-up famine especially in Wollo for a revolution.
7.2. The Derg Regime (1974-1991)
 The mass uprising that finally put an end to the old regime came in February 1974.
 From January 8 to 15 1974, soldiers and non-commissioned officers stationed at a
frontier post Negele-Borana mutinied protesting their bad living conditions. In the
process, they detained the commander of the ground forces who was sent to pacify the
situation. The soldiers made the commander eat their food and drink their water so that he
could witness the kind of life they were living.
 In addition, soldiers of the Second Division in Asmara, the Fourth Division in
Addis Ababa and the Air Force in Debre-Zeyt (Bishoftu) mutinied demanding
salary increment and political and economic reforms. The various units then set up a
coordinating committee which became a precursor of the later Derg, in order to coordinate
their actions.
 Teachers throughout the country protested against:-
 the implementation of an education reform program known as Sector Review,
which they deemed was disadvantageous for the poor and biased against them.
Although the Ethiopian Teachers Association (ETA) had coordinated
demonstrations against the program already in December 1973, it called for a
general strike demanding a number of other social reforms on 18
February1974.
 On 18 February 1974 (the same day with ETA‟s call for strike), taxi drivers went on strike
demanding increase in transport fees (fifty percent) due to rise of petrol prices that
followed the Arab-Israeli Yom Kippur war of 1973. Students, workers and the
unemployed youth joined the protests and vehicles particularly buses and luxury
private automobiles were attacked.
 The government responded by:-
 suspending the Sector Review
 reducing petrol prices and
 raising the salaries of soldiers
 In spite of the government had taken the above measures, the uprisings continued
 On February 28 the cabinet of Prime Minister Aklilu Habte-Wold resigned. He was
replaced by Endalkachew Mekonnin who was an Oxford-educated member of the
aristocracy. Although Endalkachew seemed to gain the support of a group of officers
within the army, promised to introduce reforms, including constitutional reform and
included highly educated and progressive ministers into his cabinet, the protests
continued.

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  On March 8, the Confederation of Ethiopian Labour Unions (CELU) staged a
successful general strike.
 It was only a matter of time before the strikes and demonstrations spread to the provinces. A
major popular demonstration was made on April 20 by about 100,000 Muslim residents
of the capital and their Christian sympathizers who came out demanding religious
equality.
 In the meantime, the soldiers, through their various committees, were also taking their own
measures. i.e:-
 The coordinating committee of soldiers and Non-Commissioned Officers (NCOs) set up
in February had been joined by officers, such as Colonel Alem Zewd Tessema of the
Airborne Brigade, who then became its leader.
 In April, the Committee, perhaps with an involvement of Endalkachew, arrested Aklilu
and hundreds of other high-ranking officials of the regime.
 The Minister of Defense, Lt. General Abiy Abebe, who had noticed the growing power of
the Committee as well as series of demonstrations and strikes, set up what was called the
National Security Commission to restore order and respect for the authority of the
government.
 The leading opposition against the Endalkachaw cabinet were the students. Not only did they
staged their own demonstrations against the cabinet but they also encouraged other sectors of
society to join in the revolutionary tide. But the students were less organized to achieve their
goals and eventually, the struggle was hijacked by the soldiers.
 The Derg was officially formed on June 28 1974 when it held its first meeting at the
headquarters of the Fourth Division. “Derg” a Ge‟ez word for “Committee” was the shorter
name given to the Coordinating Committee of representatives from various military units:
 the Armed Forces,
 the Police and
 the Territorial Army.
However, officers above the rank of major were suspected of supporting the old
regime and therefore were not included.
 Hence, Major Mengistu Haile-Mariam of the Third Division of Hararghe, and the vice-
chairman, Major Atnafu Abate of the Fourth Division, came to be key figures.
 For some time the Derg exercised power parallel with the Endalkachew‟s cabinet and the
emperor tied up in a dual state, trying to keep a balance between the two. However, on August
1, Endalkachew was imprisoned and replaced by Lej Mikael Emiru as prime minister.
Meanwhile, the Derg continued arresting other members of the regime whom it considered
obstacles to the revolution.
 The Derg also tried to define its ideology and declared the motto, “Ethiopia Tikdem” (“Ethiopia
First”), “Yaleminim Dem” (“Without any bloodshed”).
 The Derg continued systematically working to isolate the emperor and removing the supports
of his imperial power.
 A strong propaganda campaign was launched against the regime and the widespread corruption of
government functionaries. Two enterprises:-
 Anbessa Bus Company and in which the emperor and the imperial family had more fifty
 the St. George Brewery percent stake were nationalized.
 Moreover, a British documentary film of (Jonatan Dimbilby) disclosing the hidden horrors of
the Wollo famine precisely served the awaited interest of the Derg.
 Finally, on September 12, Emperor Haile-Selassie I was deposed and detained at the Fourth
Division headquarters. The Derg then:-

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  proclaimed itself the Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC) and assumed
full powers.
 Immediately, banned all strikes and demonstrations.
 Very soon,
 civilian revolutionaries, who had started calling for the establishment of a provisional
people‟s government, started gathering around the Confederation of Ethiopian Labor
Unions (CELU), the University teachers‟ group known as Forum, and the students.
 Sections of the military, the Army Engineers Corps, the First Division (the former
Bodyguard), and the Army Aviation, also opposed what was to become a military
government.
 However, the Derg was not prepared to make compromise on any ground. Instead, it
imprisoned the leaders of CELU and a leader of the Forum group.
 On October 7, the militant Engineers were violently crushed in a tank assault which
took the lives of five soldiers and there was massive arrest afterwards. The motto of
“Ethiopia First, without any bloodshed” thus failed as early as then.
 On November 23, an even more violent phase commenced. Lieutenant General Aman
Mikael Andom, Chairman of the PMAC was shot dead after a disagreement within the
Derg over the Issue of Eritrea. Aman Mikael Andom who was of Eritrean origin believed
in peaceful approach against some radical members of the Derg particularly the First Vice-
Chairman Mengistu Haile-Mariam, who advocated for a military solution.
 The killing continued and the Derg announced execution of some 52 prominent members
of the old regime who had been detained and half a dozen other leaders of the military
units who had opposed the Derg as a “political decision.”
7.2.2. Attempts at Socio-Economic Reform
 The Derg took a series of measures that aimed at fundamentally transforming the country. i.e:-
 In December 1974, what was called the Edget Behibiret Zemecha (Development Through
Cooperation Campaign) was inaugurated. In this campaign, all high school and university
students and their teachers were to be sent to the countryside to help transform the life of
peasants through programs such as:-
 literacy campaigns and
 the implementation of the awaited land reform proclamation. However, the
campaign was opposed by most of the civilian left as a system that the Derg
designed to remove its main opponents from the center. To appease the
oppositions, the Derg changed its slogan of “Ethiopia First” to “Ethiopian
Socialism”. It also adopted slogans like Ethiopian Unity or Death, Revolutionary
Motherland or Death, and later Every Thing to the War Front, Produce while
Fighting or Fight While Producing etc
 In 1975, banks and insurance companies were nationalized following a series of proclamations.
Over seventy private commercial and industrial companies were then nationalized.
 Finally, in March 1975 the Derg made a radical land reform proclamation. The proclamation:-
 abolished all private land ownership and set the upper limit on family holdings at ten
hectares.
 provided the establishment of peasant associations which were to be implemented with
the cooperation of the zemach.
 On 26 July1975, another proclamation nationalized all urban lands and extra houses.
 In April 1976, PMAC proclaimed National Democratic Revolution Program (NDRP) and set
up the Provisional Office for Mass Organization and Affairs (POMOA) with the objective of

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 organizing and raising the political consciousness of the masses. The campaigns showed Derg‟s
belief in mass mobilization to achieve a cause. There were also other campaigns:-
 the “Green Campaign” of 1978 aimed at bringing about rapid economic development
 the literacy campaign aimed at irradiating illiteracy, and
 the “Red Star Campaign” of 1982 that aimed at solving the Eritrean problem.
 Of these campaigns, only the literacy campaign registered some degree of success.
 The land reform proclamation did put an end to landlord exploitation but it has failed to make
the peasant master of his land because now the state took over as ultimate owner, with the peasant
associations serving as its agents.
 The cooperatives only led to monopolistic government enterprises such as Ersha Sebil Gebeya
Dirijit (Agricultural Marketing Corporation), resettlements and villagization. On the other
hand, nationalization killed private initiative and introduced a highly bureaucratized
management of resources. The state, with its significant role and growing proportion now gained
tremendous capacity to reward or penalize. The Derg used peasant associations to control the
countryside and the urban dwellers‟ associations (kebele) to control the towns. The kebele
became battleground when the struggle between the Derg and the Ethiopian People‟s
Revolutionary Party (EPRP) (formed in Berlin in 1972) reached its bloodiest phase in 1976/7.
The EPRP targeted kebele leaders and assassinated them while they in turn led the
government‟s campaign of terror against the EPRP called the “Red Terror”, as opposed to the
“White Terror” of the EPRP.
 Initially, the leftist opposition to the Derg came from two rival Marxist-Leninist political
organizations called:-
 the EPRP and
 the All-Ethiopian Socialist Movement (acronym in Amharic, Meison).
 In October 1976, the Marxist Leninist Revolutionary Organization (MLRO) was formed with
its first Secretariat being Tesfaye Makonin. Later, it was merged to form the Ethiopian Marxist
Leninist Democratic Union (UMLO) but was purged by the military junta in June 1979.
 After the land reform proclamation, Meison ceased its opposition to the Derg by adopting what it
called “critical support” and tactically formed an alliance with Derg which helped it gain more
organizational strength. In the meantime, the Derg pushed by the dominant leftist political
culture systematically abandoned “Ethiopian socialism” and embraced Marxism-Leninism.
 With the setting up of the Provisional Office for Mass Organization and Affairs (POMOA),
Derg proclaimed the National Democratic Revolution Program which was the Chinese model
for socialist revolution and had identified feudalism, imperialism and bureaucratic
capitalism as the three main enemies of the people. In a few months, Derg‟s leftist political
organization known as Abyotawi Seded (Revolutionary Flame) was launched.
 In 1977, an alliance called Emaledeh (the Union of Ethiopian Marxist–Leninist Organizations)
was established as prelude to the formation of one vanguard party. The Emaledeh was
composed of:-
 Meison
 Abyotawi Seded (Revolutionary Flame)
 Wezlig (Workers League) founded by a onetime president of the Ethiopian Students‟ Union
in North America, Dr. Senay
 Malerid (the Ethiopian Marxist–Leninist organization) and
 Ech’at (the Ethiopian Oppressed Masses Revolutionary Struggle) founded by Baro
Tumsa.

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 That said, the Emaledeh was beset by power struggle from the outset as each organization
competed for supremacy instead of working together to realize the original objective of the
organization. Meanwhile, the struggle between the EPRP and the Derg and its allies had created
a civil war scenario since September 1976 when EPRP militants were arrested and executed by
the Derg and supporters of the Derg were assassinated by EPRP squads. EPRP had also attempted
to assassinate Mengistu himself in mid-September. In what followed, the Derg attacked EPRP
with large-scale arrests of its members and sympathizers and massive search and destroy
campaigns, particularly in Addis Ababa.
 In late 1976, the Derg itself was ideologically divided and with the internal struggles. In
consequence:-
 Mengistu had eliminated two powerful members of the Derg and potential rivals of his
power and influence, Major Sisay Habte and Major Kiros Alemayehu.
 Many other key members of the Derg were accused of being EPRP members or
sympathizers. On their parts, other members such as Lieutenant Alemayehu Hayle and
Captain Moges Wolde-Mikael resented the growing dictatorial power of Mengistu and
his alliance with Meison and other pro-Derg leftist organizations. With the help of the
chairperson, Brigadier General Teferi Benti, they then successfully re-organized the
structure of the Derg in such a way that Mengistu was marginalized.
 On 3 February 1977, Mengistu hit back with a coup against Teferi. Eventually, Teferi
and other anti-Mengistu Derg members were executed. After the coup, Mengistu Haile-
Mariam:-
 assumed the chairmanship of the Derg and the post of commander-in-chief of
the armed forces.
 filled the top positions in the Derg with his loyal supporters. Within just a year,
the only remaining outstanding Derg member, Lt. Colonel Atnafu Abate, was
charged of impeding the revolutionary process was executed. Then Mengistu and
his civilian left allies unleashed what they called the “Red Terror” initially
targeting the EPRP and later including other opposition organizations, including
EPLF and the Tigray People‟s Liberation Front (TPLF) and Meison after its
break up from the Derg. EPRP had to take its only option of turning to rural
guerrilla warfare as internal split within it hastened its collapse.

 In the meantime, the Derg faced another challenge. In the summer of 1977, the government of
Somalia led by Siyad Barre waged a large-scale war against Ethiopia. The Somali National
Army crossed the border into Ethiopia and carried out military operations in Degahbour,
Kebridehar, Warder and Godey taking control of Jijiga and large scale pockets of western
regions in the first two weeks of the war. Within a couple of months, the cities of Harar and Dire
Dawa were endangered. Yet Somalia‟s invasion did not last long. The government mobilized a
force of about 100,000 peasant militia and other forces that were trained at Angetu, Didessa,
Hurso, Tateq and Tolay in a short time with the help of USSR advisors and equipment. Finally,
with 17,000 Cuban troops and the help from Southern Yemen Democratic Republic the
Somali National Army was defeated at Kara-Mara near Jigjiga on March 4, 1978. The
aggression of the State of Somalia had been checked. The defeat led to the weakening of Siyad
Barre‟s government and contributed to its fall. At the same time, the aggression of the State of
Somalia made it possible for the Derg to rally the population to its side.
 In early 1977, the Derg had severed relations with the USA as the American cultural and
military institutions ended their operation in the country. This was preceded by the
termination of the Ethio-USA 1953 mutual defense agreement. After a month, Mengistu

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 concluded agreements with Moscow for economic, cultural and military co-operation. The
relations between Ethiopia and the Soviet remained strong until the end of the military regime.

 In the north, Eritrean insurgents had encircled Asmara while a pro-monarchy organization,
the Ethiopian Democratic Union (EDU), was marching inroads from the Sudan in the Satit-
Humera region. Yet,
 by the end of 1978, the EPRP had been contained in the towns. And the Eritrean insurgents
had been pushed back.
 EDU was crushed near the Ethio-Sudan borderland in places like Metema, Abder Raffi and
Satit-Humera.
 The Union of Ethiopian Marxist-Leninist Organizations fell apart once Meison defected the
Derg and its leaders were consequently either killed or arrested as they tried to retreat to the
countryside. The other three member organizations Ech’at, Wezlig, and Malerid were
successively expelled from Emaledeh and their leaders and members executed or detained. It
was only Mengistu‟s Seded that remained as the authentic Marxist-Leninist organization in
the country.
 The strategy of merging political organizations for party formation was then replaced by
recruitment of individuals loyal to Mengistu Haile-Mariam. In December 1979, the
Commission for Organizing the Party of the Working People of Ethiopia (COPWE) was
established with this motive. In September 1984, the Workers‟ Party of Ethiopia was
inaugurated during the celebration of the tenth anniversary of the coming of the Derg to power.
It was given that Mengistu became the new party‟s secretary-general.

 In order for the government to have a more direct societal control, there was the need for
restructuring of mass organizations, which took place after the formation of the party. It started
with workers who had challenged the Derg right from the start. i.e:-
 on January 6 1977, the Confederation of Ethiopian Labour Union (CELU) was replaced
by a government-controlled All Ethiopia Trade Union (AETU) which was later re-named
Ethiopian Trade Union (ETU). This was followed by the formation of the All Ethiopia
Peasants‟ Association (AEPA) which ensured the government‟s control over peasants.
Later AETU was renamed Ethiopia Peasants‟ Association (EPA).
 The Derg, Established in 1980, the Revolutionary Ethiopian Women‟s Association
(REWA) and Revolutionary Ethiopian Youth Association (REYA) played similar role,
rallying women and the youth behind the state.
 It was when Shengo (PMAC National Assembly) proclaimed the People‟s Democratic
Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) in 1987 that such elaborate organizational set-up designed to
ensure total control of society reached its peak.
 With the birth of the PDRE, the Derg officially ceased to exist. A typically Communist
constitution already on its way, Colonel Mengistu had become:-
 President of PDRE,
 secretary general of WPE and
 Commander in chief of the national armed forces with Fisseha Desta as Vice President
while Fiqre-Sellassie Wegderes headed the Council of Ministers as Prime Minister
with five deputies. Finally it turned out that Mengistu could not stay in power more than
four years after he was proclaimed president of PDRE.
 The dictator, who had maneuvered the urban left and had gone ruthless in the process, fell under
the attack of rural-based guerrilla movements. Rural-based movements fighting for national

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 self-determination thrived as liquidation of the urban-based multi-national movements like the
EPRP and Meison intensified in the center. These included:-
 the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), active mainly in the Wallagga region,
 the Islamic Front for Liberation of Oromia, based in Hararghe,
 the Afar Liberation Front,
 the Sidama Liberation Front, Some of these fronts appeared only in the last
 the Beni Shangul Liberation Front and days of the Derg.
 the Gambella Liberation Front.
 The two significant liberation fronts which could be considered to have jointly brought
about the downfall of the Derg were the EPLF and the TPLF.
 In 1984/5, a more devastating famine than the one in 1973/4 indicated the failure of the Derg‟s
economic policies especially in agricultural production and marketing. In the late twentieth century,
Ethiopia had experienced two major famines that had rose up national and international
mobilization and created bad image on the country in international scene. These were:-
 the 1972-4 and
 the 1984-5 famines
 These famines caused by a variety of interrelated factors which include:-
 environmental crises (notably drought) and
 economic, social causes as well as political factors.
 The state responded to the economic, social and political factors by resettling the affected people
in less affected areas of western Ethiopia. The government responded to the famine by ignoring
the problem for some time and then only to introduce its controversial policy of massive
resettlement of the affected peasants, mostly of Tigray and Wollo provinces, in south-western
Ethiopia. The villagization program that followed the resettlement further alienated the majority
of peasants. It was in this context that the guerrilla forces scored remarkable victories against
the regime forces towards the end of the decade. International politics too did not carry on
serving Mengistu‟s interest as his ally, the Soviet Union ceased to be the source of his
external support. i.e:-
 Mikhail Gorbachev‟s policy of perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost, (openness) in
1985 aimed at making Soviet communism more efficient and humane was a failure and
the Soviet Union collapsed as a major world power.
 Even worse, the United States who the Derg had never been friendly with became the
sole arbiter of international affairs. Although Mengistu now tried to improve relations
with the Americans, they were more directed towards to his opponents, the EPLF and
the TPLF, who they believed had fully abandoned Marxism Leninism. In March 1990,
the Derg proclaimed a mixed economy policy which seemed to come just late.

 The government‟s military failure came after defeating the invading force of Somalia; the
Derg turned its forces to the north, with the rather too assured slogan that “the victory scored in
the east will be repeated in the north.” Initially the plan seemed to go well when the EPLF forces
pulled back under the massive assault launched by the Derg, which regained control over the rebel‟s
major strongholds in 1976/7. However, the retreated EPLF forces were not driven out of their
fortress at Naqfa in northern Eritrea.
 In March 1988, EPLF scored a major victory at Afabet, north of Asmara, from its
stronghold in Naqfa-Raza. When in 1990, EPLF forces captured the port town of
Massawa, it became only a matter of time before the capital, Asmara, also fell to them.

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  The final decisive blow to Mengistu‟s regime came to be administered by the TPLF that
aimed to secure the self-determination of Tigray within the Ethiopian polity. The TPLF,
at its inception, was grounded on the cumulative grievances of Tigray people against the
successive regimes of Ethiopia. To address the problems, Tigrayan students created the
Political Association of Tigrayans (PAT) and the Tigrayan University Students‟
Association (TUSA) in the early 1970s. PAT developed into a radical nationalist group
calling for the independence of Tigray, establishing the Tigray Liberation Front (TLF)
in 1974. In TUSA, there emerged a Marxist leaning group favouring national self-
determination for Tigray within a revolutionary transformed democratic Ethiopia.
Whereas the multinational left movements such as the EPRP and MEISON advanced
the view that the problem of Ethiopian nationalities could be resolved through class
struggle, the Marxists of TUSA argued that due to the existing inequalities among
Ethiopian nationalities, revolutionaries must use the struggle of Ethiopian nationalities for
selfdetermination as the launching pad for the ultimate socialist revolution.

 In February 1974, the Marxists within TUSA welcomed the Ethiopian Revolution, but opposed
the Derg as they were convinced that it would neither lead a genuine socialist revolution nor
correctly resolve the Ethiopian nationality question. Three days after the Derg took power, on 14
September 1974 the Mahber Gesgesti Bihere Tigray (Association of Progressives of theTigray
Nation), also known as Tigrayan National Organization (TNO) was established. TNO was to
prepare the ground for the future armed movement of Tigray.
 The TPLF started in February 1975 as a small guerrilla band in the northern region of Ethiopia
and eventually grew to provide the core of the Ethiopian government. Before it turned to confront
the Derg, the TPLF was engaged in a bloody struggle with:-
 EPRA (the Ethiopian People‟s  EDU
Revolutionary Army, the armed  TLF
wing of the EPRP)  ELF

 The Derg initially thought that TPLF was a mere creation of the EPLF to be vanished once
EPLF was crushed and thus underestimated its potentials. This made it possible for TPLF to
strengthen its forces and when the Derg opened offensives against it in the early 1980s, TPLF,
which had built strong army was able to successfully fight back.
 In February 1989, TPLF scored its most decisive victory at Enda-Selassie, Western Tigray, after
a series of other military successes. At the victory of Enda-Selassie, tens of thousands of
government troops were captured and their commanders were either killed or captured. This
resulted in the withdrawal of all government troops from Tigray. TPLF then took control of the
whole of Tigray and then started marching into the neighboring provinces. Meanwhile, the
prevalent accumulated dissatisfaction with Mengistu‟s regime and the exhausting war in the
north had been high especially in the higher echelons of the army.
 In May 1989, commanders of almost all military units, coordinated and led a coup against
Mengistu when he left the country on a state visit to the German Democratic Republic, East
Germany. However, the coup was poorly organized that loyal palace troops encircled the
leaders before they could even announce their intentions to the public. Mengistu returned
triumphantly to take his revenge which he did. The coup leaders were all imprisoned or
executed.
 TPLF, which after liberating Tigray, continued to move forward and made the necessary
organizational adjustments forming a bigger front known as the Ethiopian Peoples‟
Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). The member organizations were:-

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  TPLF
 the Ethiopian People‟s Democratic Movement (EPDM),
 a fragment group of the EPRP which had begun to play a significant role in many of the
military campaigns,
 the Oromo People‟s Democratic Organization (OPDO) and
 the Ethiopian Democratic Officers‟ Revolutionary Movement (EDORM).
 Other Liberation Fronts including:-
 the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF)
 Afar Liberation Front
 Sidama Liberation Front also became active
 Gambella Liberation Front and
 Beni Shangul Liberation Front
 In 1990 and 1991 in consecutive and stunning campaigns, EPRDF forces drove the Derg out of:-
 Gondar
 Gojjam, and Wollo and
 parts of Wallagga and Shewa and approached the capital from the north and west.
 In 1990 Oromo forces dismantled the Derg army of the 131st Brigade in battle that
liberated Asosa and Bambasi in the then Wollega province.
 In the meantime, negotiations for a peaceful end to the conflict were underway between the
government and the EPLF and the TPLF in Atlanta, Nairobi, and Rome. In May 1991,
while the last of these negotiations were going on in London, series of events put an end to the
regime. i.e:-
 On May 21, Mengistu fled the country first to Nairobi and then to Harare (Zimbabwe).
There remained no resistance left that the Derg troops could put. In London, the
government delegation could not bargain anymore after the flight of the president.
 EPLF forces entered Asmara and Assab and announced the de facto independence of
Eritrea. The PDRE Vice President, Lt . General Tesfaye Gebre-Kidan appealed for an
end to the civil war on May 23 1991.
 Prime Minister Tesfaye Dinqa left for the London peace conference mediated by the
U.S.A‟s Foreign Affair African Service head Mr. Herman Cohen on May 27 1991.
 In the early hours of May 28 1991, EPRDF forces triumphantly entered Addis Ababa.
7.3. Transitional Government
 On 1 July 1991, a handful of organizations of which some were organized along ethnic lines
assembled to review the draft Charter prepared by:-
 the EPRDF and
 the OLF
 The gathering was called the Peace and Democracy Transitional Conference of Ethiopia. The
USA was at the forefront in providing the necessary diplomatic backing for the Peace and
Democracy Conference. The Conference was attended by delegates from:-
 The UN  The G7
 The OAU  The US
 The USSR  Sudan
 Kenya  Djibouti
 Eritrea
Eritrea was represented by its future president, Isayas Afeworki.
 The Conference debated and approved the Transitional Charter on the basis of which the
Transitional Government of Ethiopia was created.
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 Representatives of 27 organizations formed a Council of Representatives (COR) which
acted as a legislative body („Parliament‟). This transitional parliament had 87 seats
of which 32 were taken by the EPRDF and the remaining 55 seats were divided among
the 23 non-EPRDF organizations.
At the same time, a Council of Ministers was formed as an executive branch, with Meles
Zenawi as the President of the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE). Meles
Zenawi then appointed a Prime Minister (Tamirat Layne) and a seventeen-member
Council of Ministers. Key posts were given to members of the EPRDF and OLF.
 In December 1994, the constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE)
was ratified, taking effect following federal elections in mid-1995. The constitution stipulates
that the country woud have nine federated states based on identity and settlement patterns. The
federal arrangement sought to decentralize power to the regional states by accommodating the
country‟s various ethno-linguistic groups. After the election, Meles Zenawi assumed the
premiership while Dr. Negasso Gidada became head of state.
 Meanwhile, EPLF set up a Provisional Government of Eritrea in 1991. This was followed by a
referendum to decide the fate of Eritrea in which the majority of the population voted for
independence from Ethiopia. In May 1993, the Government of Eritrea was formed with
Isayas Afwerki becoming the first elected president of the country after independence.

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