SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

CHAPTER 6: ADOLESCENCE
CUE SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood and
adulthood, and it can therefore be seen as a developmental bridge
between being a child and becoming an adult.
Demarcating adolescence: 11 – 13 years and ends between 17 -21
years depending on biological and socio-cultural factors.
6.2.5 Body image BODY IMAGE AND EATING DISORDERS
and eating Defining Body image
disorders (452-456)
 Body image is a person’s subjective picture or mental image
of their body.
Anorexia is an  It is a combination of thoughts and feelings that one has
eating disorder
whereby a person about their body.
has a fear of gaining
weight. Anorexia
Main characteristics:
- Body weight is significantly below the average (15% below
average is often used as a criterion)
- One or more of the following occur: Self-induced vomiting, self
-induced purging, excessive exercise, use of appetite
suppressants and/or diuretics.
- A severely distorted body image where the patients may
genuinely view themselves as obese despite having skeletal
frames.
- Other mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety,
and/or bulimia nervosa are often present.
- Physical symptoms such as excessive growth of fine hair on the
body may occur.
- Menstrual problems, especially amenorrhea (absence of
menstruation) are common.
Anorexia usually occurs between puberty and 25 years of age.
More than 90% of all sufferers are all female. The incidence among

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

females is about 0,5% and among males approximately one tenth

that of females.
YouTube link for in-depth/audio-visual understanding
https://youtu.be/8XMN0MhmoAM
Bulimia

it's also an eating Characterized by repeated episodes of binge eating during which
disorder whereby the individual consumes in an excessive amount of food.
a person doesn't
want to gain weight.Followed by a compensatory action to prevent weight gain, such as

self-induced vomiting and/or the misuse of laxatives and enema,

fasting ore excessive exercising.
Unlike anorexic patients, bulimia sufferers do not necessarily have
an abnormally low body weight.
They are however overly concerned about body weight and fear
becoming fat.
More than 90% of bulimia sufferers are female. The prevalence of
bulimia among adolescents and young females is approximately 1%
to 3%. Among males the incidence is approximately one tenth that
of females.

it's an eating disorder Obesity

where a person has too Obesity is commonly defined as having too much body mass. A
much body mass.
disorder involving excessive body fat that increases the risk of
health problems.
- A BMI of 30 or higher is the usual benchmark for obesity in
adults.
- A BMI of 40 or higher is considered severe (formerly “morbid”)
obesity.
- Childhood obesity is measured against growth charts.
- The main symptom is excessive body fat, which increases the risk
of serious health problems.
Symptoms:
 breathlessness.

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

 increased sweating.
 snoring.
 difficulty doing physical activity.
 often feeling very tired.
 joint and back pain.
 low confidence and self-esteem.
 feeling isolated.
Main Causes:
 Calories
 Diet and lifestyle factors contribute to development of
obesity and overweight.
 Lack of physical activity is another important factor related
to obesity.
 There are some genes associated with obesity and
overweight. (genetics)
 Underlying medical conditions may contribute to weight
gain. (Medical Conditions)
Three types of Obesity:
 Class 1 (low risk) obesity if BMI is 30.0 to 34.9.
 Class 2 (moderate risk) obesity if BMI is 35.0 to 39.9.
 Class 3 (high-risk) obesity, if BMI is equal to or greater than
40.0.
Youtube link for in-depth/audio-visual understanding
https://youtu.be/iQUJ1HV0PWc
GENDER AND CULTURAL DIFFERENCES/INFLUENCES
- Overall, evidence suggests that males from a range of cultural
groups engage in more extreme body change strategies and
binge eating than Whites. especially in western cultures.
- On the other hand, there is no consistent pattern which
summarizes the nature of body image concerns across the
different cultures.

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

- Gender: Research consistently reports that girls and women

This has to do with the experience body dissatisfaction more frequently than boys and
pressure females face in
the Western cultures for men. However, more inclusive research shows that males and
being slender.
those who identify as male are also vulnerable to body
dissatisfaction at similar rates to females and those who
identify as females.
*For a long-time eating disorders have been associated with
NB
Western culture where slenderness is prominent.

6.3.1.1 Jean Piaget: JEAN PIAGET: FORMAL OPERATIONAL THINKING

Formal Operational Grade 7
 The formal operational stage begins at approximately age
Thinking (473-477)
twelve (12) and lasts into adulthood.
 This is the last stage of cognitive development and extends
into adulthood.
 As adolescents enter this stage, they gain the ability to think
in an abstract manner by manipulating ideas in their head,
without any dependence on concrete manipulation.
 In the formal operational stage, children tend to reason in a
more abstract, systematic, and reflective way. They are
more likely to use logic to reason out the possible
consequences of each action before carrying it out.
 They have the ability to take on more responsibilities than
they did in earlier stages of development, but they are still
considered to be young children.
 He/she can do mathematical calculations, think creatively,
use abstract reasoning, and imagine the outcome of
particular actions.
By the time a child enters the formal operational thinking stage,
they should be able to:
- Arrange items in a logical order.
- Build friendships based on empathy.

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

- Understand that 5mL of water in one glass is the same

amount as 5mL of water in a separate glass.
- Recognize that a ball of pizza dough is the same as flattened
pizza dough.
Piaget identifies the following characteristics of formal operational
thinking:
1. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning formal operational thinkers are able to reason
from the general to the specific when faced with a problem ,they
begin with a general hypothesis or theory of all possible factors
that ay affect the outcome and come to a conclusion about what
might happen. They then test these hypotheses.

2. Propositional thinking
Formal operational thinkers can evaluate the logic of verbal
statements (propositions) without referring to real-world
circumstances. They start to understand that the world exists
beyond what they can physically see, hear, or touch. In the
concrete operational stage, children begin to apply the rules of
logic to things and rules that they know exist. reality is not the ony possibility
3. Combinatorial analysis
The ability to organise various possible combinations inherent in a
problem. The analyse all the possible combinations of variables
(factors) ensuring that all possible values of all possible variable

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

inherent in the problem will be investigated.

4. Relativistic thinking absolute right answers exist and are known by an authority.
biased thinking
belonging to a The formal operational thinker recognises the subjective
particular
individual or construction of knowledge and the possibility of differences in the
culture happen.
In relativism, the interpretation of some facts.
philosophy is there
are no absolute *By using Metacognition, they are more likely to assess how they
truths, only versionsare thinking and transform it into a more effective form of
of truth colored by
the context of the problem-solving.
individual or culture.
Evaluation of the Theory: The theory places a strong emphasis on
maturation.

6.3.3 Practical PRACTICAL COGNITION: THE EFFECTS OF ADOLESCENT’S

Cognition (488- COGNITIVE ABILITIES ON CERTAIN AREAS OF THEIR DEVELOPMENT
496)
1. Implications for the classroom
- Adolescents' cognitive developments prepare them for new
challenges in the classroom.
- In inductive reasoning, a person reasons from the particular to
the general.
- EXAMPLE: to explain the general personality of a character in a
novel or drama, the student or learner must take into account
all the specific behaviours, emotions and thoughts of the
specific character to come to a conclusion.
- Deductive reasoning refers to reasoning from the general to the
particular.
- EXAMPLE: the specific personality characteristics of the
character in the novel or drama will enable the reader to make
certain predictions of how the character may act in certain
situations.
- Adolescents can gather facts to support or oppose principles,
generate a range of possible alternatives for any situation, think
in abstractions, and test their thoughts against inner logic.

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

- Adolescents advance in cognitive development can also affect

their study skills.
- The effect of schooling is noticeable in children’s language
development.
- *These abilities set them apart from younger children
2. Implications for the parent child relationship
- Children's cognitive development starts in the first year of life
and then progresses gradually. Children require positive
parenting in painful and different situations.
- Parenting gives a child the confidence to face crucial,
challenging problems.
- Sensitive parenting and caregiving are required for the child's
maturity and cognitive development.
- Parenting is necessary for the regulation of emotions and
behaviour. There are many problems seen in infancy, early
childhood, and late childhood.
There are four types of parenting styles seen:
warm, caring. not adviseable
authoritative parenting, authoritarian parenting/controlling
parenting, permissive parenting/indulgent parenting, and
uninvolved parenting/neglecting to parent.
3. Social Cognition
Social cognition refers to the way in which we think about other
people, social relationships and social institutions.
- One aspect of social cognition is perspective taking, which is the
ability to consider a situation from another point of view other
than you own.
- In early adolescence (around the age of 12) children become
capable of mutual perspective-taking.
- By late adolescence social and conventional system perspective
taking develops, adolescents come to the realization that their
social perspectives and those of others are influenced not only

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

by their interaction with one another but also by their role in

the wider society.
- Another aspect of social cognition involves making judgments
about what other people are like and why they behave the way
they do; these are called implicit personality theories.
4. Self-consciousness and self-focusing
- Adolescents’ ability to reflect on their own thoughts combined
with the physical and psychological changes that they are
undergoing mean they start to think more about themselves.
- The imaginary audience is the adolescents belief that they are
the focus of everyone’s attention.
- The personal fable is an intense investment in ones own
thoughts and feelings and a belief that these thoughts and
feelings are unique.
- People of all ages experience what is known as optimistic bias,
which is a tendency to assume that accidents, diseases and
other misfortunes are more likely to happen to others than to
themselves.
5. Planning and Decisions Making
- Adolescents who think more analytically, handle cognitive tasks
more effectively that they did when they were younger.
- They are better at cognitive self-regulation which in essence
means planning what to do first and what to do next,
monitoring progress towards a goal and redirecting actions that
prove unsuccessful.
- One of the most prominent perspectives on adolescent decision
making is the behavioural decision theory – according to this
perspective the decision-making process includes:
1. Identifying the range of possible choices
2. Identifying the possible consequences that would result from
each choice.

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

3. Evaluating the consequences.

4. Assessing the likelihood of each consequence
5. Integrating the consequences
6.4.2.1 Erickson’s ERICKSON’S THEORY: IDENTITY VERSUS IDENTITY CONFUSION
Theory (498-502) Erik Erickson provided the most comprehensive description of

identity development during adolescence. (Identity referring to an

individual’s awareness of him or herself as an independent, unique
person with a specific place in society) (it's similar to personal
fable).
Erickson was also the first theorist to identify the importance of the
formation of a personal identity as an important step in the
development of a productive and happy adult.
The development of an identity
- According to Erickson ,to form an identity all the psychosocial
crises of previous stages must be resolved.
- Identity development implies that adolescents need to define
who they are, what is important to them and what direction
they want to take in life. (by doing some self-inspection).
- An identity crisis is a temporary period of confusion, during
which adolescents explore, question existing values, and
experiment with alternative roles in order to develop an own
set of values and goals.
- Psychosocial moratorium is a period of time where adolescents
find their roles as adults.
In order to develop an identity adolescents, need to master the
following tasks:
1. Ego-synthesis: They need to form a continuous, integrated,
unified image of the self.
2. Socio-cultural identity: They need to form a socio-cultural
identity; their identity must include value-orientations of his
or her culture.
3. Gender Role Identity: A gender-role identity must be firmly

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

established. Adolescents must accept their roles as male or

female.
4. Career identity: A career identity must be formed.
Adolescents must be realistic regarding their own abilities
and achievements, in order to make a realistic career
choice.
5. Own Value system: An own value system must be
developed. Adolescents must rethink certain values to the
extent that they may form an own basic philosophy which
may serve as an anchor in their lives.
Identity Confusion
it's similar to
identity crises. Identity confusion occurs when adolescents are indecisive about
themselves and their roles. They are unable to integrate the various
roles and when they are confronted with contradictory vale
systems, they have neither the ability nor the self confidence to
make decisions. This confusion causes anxiety, as well as apathy or
hostility towards roles or values.
 Identity Foreclosure:
This means that the identity crisis is resolved by making a series of
premature decision about ones identity, based on others
expectations of what one should be.
 Negative Identity:
similar to This means that adolescents form an identity contrary to the
false self.
cultural values and expectations (e.g., drug users/abusers)

Evaluation of the theory: Erickson’s theory of identity development

greatly contributed to a better understanding of adolescent
development and stimulated extensive research on identity.
Shortcomings:
- Crisis= intense traumatic experience
- View too optimistic

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

- Don’t form identity in all areas at one as his theory implied

6.4.2.2 James JAMES MARCIA’S THEORY: THE FORMULATION OF IDENTITY
Marcia’s theory STATUSES
(502-504)
The identity status of adolescents is determined according to the
crises they have already worked though, and by the degree and
kind of commitment to these choices.
Marcia distinguished between four identity statuses:
 Status 1: Identity achievement. The individual has passed
through the crisis period and has a relatively strong
commitment to a career and a value system.
 Status 2: Identity Moratorium. The person is still in a crisis
period and is actively investigating various alternatives.
 Status 3: Identity foreclosure. No crisis had been
experienced, although there is a commitment to a certain
goals and values, possibly as a result of parental influence.
 Status 4: Identity Diffusion. A crisis may or may not be
experienced, but either way the individual is not committed
to anything and does not attempt to develop any
commitment.
Adolescents often fluctuate between various identity statuses until
they reach a final status. A reasonably general pattern of
development is that adolescents begin their identity development
in the foreclosure and diffusion statuses, they then experience the
moratorium status and finally the identity achievement status.

Identity development study findings:

- Traditional backgrounds = foreclosed identities
- Extreme stressors such as illness = best adjusted with
foreclosure status
- Identity formation occurs at a later age = university
- Some are stuck in certain stages = adjustment problems ·

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

Adolescent’s is only one period of identity formation among

many
Criteria for identity statuses
Position IDENTITY STATUS
regarding Identity Identity Identity Identity
career and Achievement Moratorium Foreclosure Diffusion
ideology
Crisis Passed crisis In crisis Crisis Crisis
absent present or
absent
Commitment Present Present but Present Absent
vague

The following factors may contribute to identity formation:

 Cognitive Development
 Parenting
 Peer interactions
 School and communities
 Personality
 Socio-cultural and socio-political events
6.4.2.4 Forming a FORMING A GROUP IDENTITY
group identity Formation of a group identity

The origin of the identity can be from within the group or outside
the group, but ultimately, a group identity is only formed upon the
group members' acceptance of the identity.
Ethnic Identity: Extent to which one identifies with a particular
ethnic group(s). Refers to one's sense of belonging to an ethnic
group and the part of one's thinking perceptions, feelings, and
behaviour that is due to ethnic group membership.
Cultural Identity: a part of a person's identity, or their self-
conception and self-perception, and is related to nationality,
ethnicity, religion, social class, generation, locality or any kind of
social group that has its own distinct culture. Cultural identity is a
fluid process that is changed by different social, cultural, and
historical experiences.

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

Multicultural identity: allows the individual to recognize himself

or. herself as a cultural being who experiences unearned social and
cultural privileges.
Ethnic, cultural and multi-cultural identity is composed of four
components:
(a) ethnic self-identification
(b) sense of belonging
(c) positive and negative attitudes toward one's ethnic group, and
(d) involvement in cultural events.
Jean Phinney’s model of ethnic identity formation
There are three stages:
(a) commitment and attachment–the extent of an individual’s
sense of belonging to his or her group,
(b) exploration–engaging in activities that increase knowledge and
experiences of one’s ethnicity, and
(c) achieved ethnic identity–having a clear sense of group
membership and what one’s ethnicity means to the individual.

6.4.3.1 The actual THE ACTUAL SELF, POSSIBLE SELF AND FALSE SELF
self, possible self & Changes in Self-understanding
false self
Adolescents think of themselves differently than younger children
do in a variety of ways. The changes in self-understanding that
occur during this stage are closely related to the changes in
cognitive functioning. As with their cognitive development
adolescents’ conceptions of self also become abstract and complex.
The actual self, possible self, and false self
- One aspect of this capacity for abstraction in adolescent’s self-
conceptions is their ability to distinguish between the actual
self (real self – the person the adolescent really is) or Possible
self.
- The two kinds of possible selves are distinguished: An ideal self

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

and a feared self.

- The ideal self is the person the adolescent would like to be in
the near future. (e.g., athlete, lawyer)
- The feared self is the person the adolescent imagines it is
fear
possible to become but dreads becoming (e.g., alcoholic)
- A second aspect of adolescent self-understanding is that it
becomes more complex, especially from early to middle
adolescence. This also reflects their formal operational
cognitive ability to perceive multiple aspects of a situation or
idea they acquire the ability to describe themselves in
contradictory ways (shy and fun-loving)
Self-Esteem
Self-esteem refers to the way a person views and evaluates
him/herself. This also refers to the degree in which a person values
him/herself therefore a person may have a high or low self-esteem.
Eight domains of adolescent self-esteem:
1. Scholastic competence
2. Social appearance
3. Athletic competence
4. Physical appearance
5. Job competence
6. Romantic appeal
7. Behavioural conduct
8. Close friendship
Baseline self-esteem: The stable enduring sense of worth and well-
being a person has. People with high baseline self-esteem evaluate
themselves positively on most days.
Barometric self-esteem: The fluctuating sense of worth and well-
being people have as they respond to different thoughts,
experiences and interactions during the course of the day.
Adolescence (especially early adolescence) seems to be a time

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

when variations in barometric self-esteem are especially intense –

feelings of misery, excitement, disappointment, joy and sadness
may fluctuate within a few hours.
The importance of self-esteem: A healthy sense of self-
esteem allows us to recognise our strengths and learn from our
mistakes. We persevere because we don't have an intense fear of
failure and genuinely believe in our capabilities.

Cautionary factors:
- Self-esteem is always virtually measured. The result is that
people report what they think of themselves.
- We should be mindful not to fall prey to a well-known fallacy,
namely that if there is a correlation between two variables this
means the one causes the other.
- Research does not support the idea that young people with low
self esteem are more or earlier involved in sexual activity, drugs
or alcohol.
- For a long time, psychologists believed that low self-esteem
was an important cause for aggression.

6.4.5 Career Choice CAREER CHOICE

Ask for more info  Career choice and preparation for a career form one of the
page 518-519.
most important tasks of adolescence.
 It is ultimately the first step towards fulfilling an adult role.

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

 The choice of a career is, however, a difficult task for most

adolescents, it involves not only a process of self-
examination but also a thorough investigation of various
career potions.
 Certain careers require a long period of training and it is
often necessary for adolescents to make a career decision
rather early.
 Young adolescents understanding of a career is often
inadequate while their interests, needs and abilities are still
developing and are thus subject to change.

6.5.1.1 Parent- PARENT-ADOLESCENT CONFLICT

adolescent conflict  When the subject of parent-adolescent relationship is
(521-523)
raised, many people picture conflict.
 The changes in the parent-adolescent relationship are
characterized by the questioning of parental values, rules
and regulations set by parents, distancing (i.e. adolescents
becoming more involved with friends and less with parents)
and argumentativeness.
 Conflict tends to occur more between adolescents and their
mothers than between adolescents and their fathers,
probably because mothers are more involved in the day-
to day ac vi es of the adolescent.
 The reasons for the changes in interactional patterns during
early adolescence are related to:
- the biological changes during puberty, when hormonal
secretion may cause mood swings.
- cognitive changes, which cause increasing questioning, idealism
and argumentativeness.
egocentrism has do do with- adolescent egocentrism, which is associated with their
the inability to think for
other but yourself. perception of their parents' attitudes towards them.
(being selfish)

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

- the development of an own identity, which is associated with

experimentation.
- social development, which implies an increase in
independence. Autonomy
- the onset of adolescence which often overlaps with the
parents' own development in mid-life which may also imply
hormonal changes and a re-evaluation of their life situation,
leading possibly to emotionality and less availability for the
adolescent's struggles.
The so-called generation gap (differences in viewpoints, attitudes
and values between parents and children) also seems to be largely
exaggerated. Most adolescents get along well with their parents
and respect them. This conflict also does not cause permanent
damage in the parent-child relationship, as it seldom involves deep-
rooted conflicting values, but rather concerns day-to-day superficial
matters (such as adolescents cleaning their rooms and their taste in
music and clothes).
6.5.2.1 Autonomy AUTONOMY AND ATTACHMENT
and Attachment Autonomy
(523-527)
 Much of the conflict between parents and adolescents may be
related to the adolescents increasing need for autonomy
(independence). need for independence

 Parents reaction to this request is often exerting more

control.
 Adolescent’s pursuit of autonomy is so intense that they often
rebel against the stricter control of their parents.
feeling
 The feel that being a teenager means being “free”. having freedom
 It is important that parents regard this need for autonomy as
a necessary developmental task and not as rejection of
parental authority.
In the process of becoming independent, adolescents strive to

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

achieve the following goals:

 Cognitive Autonomy: Involves making decisions and
assuming responsibility for these choices.
 Behavioural Autonomy: Implies making choices regarding
friendships, leisure, time and finance.
 Emotional Autonomy: Concerns being self-reliant,
independent of their parents and being able to exert self-
control.
 Moral or Value Autonomy: Refers to forming an own value
system that may serve as a guideline for their own
behaviour.
Attachment
 Although adolescents strongly desire to be independent
and most parents realise that becoming independent is
important for their children's development, both parents
and adolescents experience ambivalence.
 This may cause inconsistent behaviour. For adolescents,
autonomy means being able to make their own decisions
and assuming responsibility for these choices.
 They thus sometimes long for their carefree childhood, but
simultaneously strive for independence.
 One particularly important aspect of the development
towards autonomy concerns the maintenance of
attachment bonds between parent and adolescent.
 Attachment to parents provides adolescents with a secure
base from which to explore their world and to master
increasing social demands.
 Despite their desire for autonomy, adolescents, just as
children, may also experience separation anxiety.
6.5.2.2 Conformity CONFORMITY
 A Characteristic of adolescent’s peer group relationships is an

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

increase in conformity.
 Conformity refers to the degree which a person is willing to
change his or her behaviour, attitudes and beliefs in order to
fit in with a group (in this case peer pressure).
 Young adolescents tend to conform more than older
adolescents.
 Young adolescents tend to be very sensitive about the
approval of the peer group, they therefore conform in order
to be accepted.
 Furthermore, they have not yet developed sufficient self-
confidence and independence to make their own choices thus
conforming to the peer groups provides the necessary
guidelines to assist them in their choices.
 Conforming to peer groups has advantages, but excessive
conformity may have a negative influence on their identity
development and development towards autonomy.
Developmental Trajectory conformity
A developmental trajectory describes the progression of a given
behaviour as individuals age.
Three developmental trajectories of responsibility in childhood:
- social awareness
- social responsiveness
- self- reliance
Types of conformity
1. Normative conformity: stems from a desire to avoid
punishments (such as going along with the rules in class even
though you don't agree with them) and gain rewards (such as
behaving in a certain way in order to get people to like you)
2. Informational Conformity: happens when people change their
behaviour in order to be correct. In situations where we are
unsure of the correct response, we often look to others who

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

are better informed and more knowledgeable and use their

lead as a guide for our own behaviours. In a classroom setting,
for example, this might involve agreeing with the judgments
of another classmate who you perceive as being highly
intelligent.
Positive and negative aspects of conformity
 feeling like you have to change your appearance or
personality to be a member of a group might lower your
self-esteem.
 Succumbing to peer pressure could lead to risky or illegal
behaviour.
 A desire to conform might also limit your openness to new
ideas or arguments.
Parenting styles
 Authoritative parents encourage adolescents to behave
independently within a framework of certain limitations and
control over their behaviour. Inductive discipline is exercised,
which means adolescents are allowed to reason with their
parents, while the parents give reasons for the rules and
limitations they set. The parents are also affectionate and
caring. The adolescent children of these parents can rely on
themselves and are socially responsible.
 Authoritarian parenting is a restrictive and punitive style
They use where the parents’ set limitations and exercise strict control.
punishment
instead of Adolescents are forced to behave according to the opinions
discipline.
and rules of parents and verbal reasoning is seldom allowed.
Explanations for rules are also seldom given. This type of
parenting style is associated with socially incompetent
behaviour in adolescents which may result in anxiety when
compared socially, an inability to show initiative regarding
social activities, and poor communication skills.

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

 Permissive parenting occurs when no control is exercised

over adolescents' behaviour, and they make their own
decisions. These adolescents show socially incompetent
behaviour and limited self-control because they have never
learnt to control their behaviour.

6.5.3 Adolescents ADOLESCENTS AND CYBERSPACE

and cyberspace What is CYBERSPACE?

The word cyberspace is currently used to describe a range of

information resources available through computer networks.
 During adolescence, cyberspace technologies become
increasingly important socialisation tools.
 ICT: Information and Communication Technologies
Developmental needs of adolescents:
- Identity experimentation and exploration
- Intimacy and belonging
- Separation from parents and family
- Venting frustrations
Good, bad, and ugly:
- Negative information: porn
independence
- Autonomy leads to venting feelings in inappropriate ways =
online disinhibition
- Bullying ·
- Join groups not in best interests
- Shallow and artificial
- Cybersex
- Internet addiction
6.5.4.1 Moral MORAL REASONING
Reasoning According to Kohlberg, the development of moral reasoning and

judgement progresses through three levels, each consisting of two

stages. These levels are the pre-conventional level, the

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

conventional level and the post-conventional level. These levels of

moral development are related to the stages of cognitive
development as outlined by Piaget.

Level II: Conventional morality: This level is also referred to as the

morality of conventional role-conformity. This means that the
individual conforms to the social order and the expectations of
others, such as the individual's group, family, religion or nation.
Therefore, moral reasoning becomes less egocentric. Behaviour is
now judged (for the first time) according to the doer's motive (e.g.,
"He means well"). The two stages that may be distinguished at this
level are:
• Stage 3: Morality of mutual interpersonal expectations,
relationships and conformity - 'good boy/girl' orientation: Good
(i.e., moral) behaviour is seen by persons in this developmental
stage as behaviour that other people approve of. Persons in this
stage, therefore, want to win the approval of others and avoid their
disapproval. In terms of Heinz's dilemma, an adolescent or adult
may argue that Heinz should not steal the drug, because he may be
regarded as dishonest and a lawbreaker. Or they may argue that
Heinz should steal the drug, so that he could be honoured by his
family.
• Stage 4: Morality of social systems and conscience orientation: In
this stage, correct (i.e., moral) behaviour is associated with doing
one's duty, respect for authority and upholding existing social law
and order. (This stage is also referred to as the law-and-order
orientation.) An act is wrong (i.e., immoral) if it violates society's
laws or rules or if it harms someone. At this stage, people may
argue that Heinz should steal the drug because he is obligated to
help his wife. Or a person may argue that Heinz should not steal
the drug, because stealing is against the law and society should be

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

protected from lawlessness.

Level III: Post-conventional level: This is the highest level of moral

development and is called the morality of self-accepted or
autonomous moral principles. The individual now defines and
internalises moral values and principles independent from the
groups or people who uphold these principles. Existing social and
political values are not accepted unconditionally, and alternative
moral principles are recognised. All possibilities are investigated
and individuals decide for themselves what their own personal
moral code (i.e. their moral values and behaviour) should be.
Besides being aware of personal values and opinions, individuals
nevertheless conform to established norms, if these help to
promote human welfare (e.g., justice and human dignity). The
following two stages are distinguished on this level:

• Stage 5: Morality of social contract, usefulness and individual

rights: Moral or immoral behaviour is defined in terms of laws or
established rules relating to general rights and standards. However,
the individual's personal values and beliefs also serve as guidelines
in determining what is correct or incorrect. Therefore, rules may be
changed if the change is rationally and socially justified and for the
common good of people. For example, when laws are consistent
with individual rights and interests of the majority, people usually
follow them - because of a social contract orientation, society will
function better with them than without them. However, if these
laws no longer promote the welfare of individuals, they become
invalid. Consequently, a person in this stage might reason that
Heinz should steal the drug because social rules about property
rights are not benefitting the individual's rights. Should Heinz be
prosecuted, the law should be revised.

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

• Stage 6: Morality of universal ethical principles (sometimes also

referred to as morality of individual principles of conscience):
Individuals judge behaviour not only as the basis of society's
existing norms, but also on the basis of their own conscience or
own internalised abstract ethical principles. These principles are
not concrete moral rules, but rather universal principles of justice,
equality of human rights and respect for the dignity of the
individual. People at this level, usually reason in terms of abstract
principles such as respect and dignity for each person and take
responsibility for their viewpoints and actions. A person may
therefore reason that Heinz should steal the drug because life is
paramount and preserving a life takes precedence over all other
rights. It does not make sense to put respect for property above
respect for life.
Evaluation of the Theory: Kohlberg's theory of moral development
made an important contribution to knowledge concerning the
development of moral reasoning of children, adolescents and
young adults. It also stimulated research on moral reasoning.

Criticisms
Gender bias. Kohlberg based his theory on information obtained
from research in which he used male participants., Kohlberg's
theory is more representative of the moral reasoning of men than
of women.
Research methodology. Kohlberg's research methodology has been
criticised on the grounds that the reliability and validity of the
measurements are low.
Moral reasoning and moral behaviour. Kohlberg believed that there
is a positive correlation between moral thought and behaviour.
Cultural bias. Kohlberg argued that the sequence of the stages of

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

moral development is universal and invariable - this means that the

progression of moral reasoning is found in all people in all cultures
and that the sequence is unchangeable.
Emphasis on Cognitive development. According to Kohlberg the
level of cognitive development plays an important role in moral
development, other researchers argue that in addition to a
person’s level of cognition reasoning, personal characteristics and
situational factors may also influence a person’s moral behaviour.
James Rest JAMES REST: FOUR COMPONENT MODEL OF MORALITY
Rest's four-step model provides the foundation for moral reasoning
and includes the following steps:
Moral is concerned with the
principle of right and wrong 1) Moral Sensitivity
behaviour.
2) Moral Judgment
3) Moral Focus (Motivation)
4) Moral Commitment (action)

Moral sensitivity: This step requires that the individual interpret the
situation as moral. (as right or wrong ethically)
Moral Judgement: An individual’s ethical cognition of what “ideally”
ought to be done to resolve an ethical dilemma is called
perspective reasoning. The outcome of ethical reasoning is the
ability to make an ethical judgment of the ideal solution to an
ethical dilemma. Once a person is aware of possible lines of action
and how people would be affected by the alternatives, a process
aided by the philosophical reasoning methods, a judgment must be
made about which course of action is more morally justifiable.
Moral Focus (Motivation): After concluding which course of action
is the best, decision makers must be focused on taking the moral
action and following through with ethical behaviour. Without
ethical intent and motivation decision making is not likely to occur.
An individual’s ethical motivation influences his/her intention to

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.
 SLK 210 Child and Adolescent Development

comply or not comply with ethical judgement in the resolution of

an ethical dilemma.
Moral Commitment (action): Individuals do not always behave in
accordance with their ethical intention. An individual’s intention to
act ethically and his/her ethical actions may not be aligned because
of pressures or biases that influence decision making. Individuals
with strong character will be more likely to carry out their ethical
intentions with ethical action than individuals with a weak ethical
character because they are better able to withstand pressures from
those within an organization, group or society.

6.5.3.5 Factors FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MORAL DEVELOPMENT FOR

influencing moral ADOLESCENTS
development
1.cognition: various characteristics of formal-operational thinking
play a role in the development of a personal value system.
- Role-taking/ perspective-taking: enable an adolescent to look at a
situation from another’s perspective.
- The greater the person’s role taking ability, the more advanced he
or she is in moral reasoning.
2. Parental attitudes and actions: moral values becoming
internalised is largely influenced on the relationship of adolescents
with their parents.
3. Peer interaction: interaction amongst peers who confront one
another with different viewpoints promotes moral development.
4. Religion: attitude towards religion affect their moral
development and behaviour.
5. Socio-economic class- schooling
6. Personality
7. Demographical region

DISCLAIMER: THESE NOTES ARE FOR PERSONAL USE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTRIBUTE MY NOTES.