INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

© LOUIS COHEN, LAWRENCE

MANION & KEITH MORRISON
 STRUCTURE OF THE CHAPTER
• Measures of difference between groups
• The t-test (a difference test for parametric data)
• Analysis of variance (a difference test for
parametric data)
• The chi-square test (a difference test and a test of
goodness of fit for non-parametric data)
• Degrees of freedom (a statistic that is used in
calculating statistical significance in considering
difference tests)
• The Mann-Whitney and Wilcoxon tests (difference
tests for non-parametric data)
 STRUCTURE OF THE CHAPTER
• The Kruskal-Wallis and Friedman tests (difference
tests for non-parametric data)
• Regression analysis (prediction tests for parametric
data)
• Simple linear regression (predicting the value of one
variable from the known value of another variable)
• Multiple regression (calculating the different
weightings of independent variables on a dependent
variable)
• Standardized scores (used in calculating
regressions and comparing sets of data with
different means and standard deviations)
 MEASURES OF DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN GROUPS
• Are there differences between two or more
groups of sub-samples, e.g.:
– Is there a significant difference between
the amount of homework done by boys and
girls?
– Is there a significant difference between
test scores from four similarly mixed-ability
classes studying the same syllabus?
– Does school A differ significantly from
school B in the stress level of its sixth form
students?
 MEASURES OF DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN GROUPS
• The t-test (for two groups): parametric data
• Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) (for three or
more groups: parametric data
• The chi-square test: for categorical data
• The Mann-Whitney and Wilcoxon tests (for
two groups): non-parametric data
• The Kruskal-Wallis and the Friedman tests
(for three or more groups): non-parametric
data
 t-TEST
• Devised by William Gossett in 1908;
• Used when we have 2 conditions; the t-test
assesses whether there is a statistically
significant difference between the means of the
two conditions;
• The independent t-test is used when the
participants perform in only one of two
conditions;
• The related or paired t-test is used when the
participants perform in both conditions.
 t-TEST FOR PARAMETRIC DATA
• t-tests (parametric, interval and ratio data)
– To find if there are differences between two
groups
– Decide whether they are are independent
or related samples

Independent sample: two different groups on

one occasion
Related sample: one group on two occasions
 t-TEST FOR PARAMETRIC DATA
Formula for computing the t-test
Sample one mean – sample two mean
t = 
Standard error of the difference in means
 Formula for calculating t

M1  M 2
t
  d   d
2 2
 1 1 
   
1 2

 N N  
 N1  N 2  2  1 2 
M = Mean
d = difference between the means
N = Number of cases
t-TEST FOR INDEPENDENT SAMPLES
The t-test computes a ratio between a measure of
the between-groups variance and the within group
variance.

The larger the variance between the groups

(columns), compared with the variance within the
groups (rows), the larger the t-value.
 INDEPENDENT AND RELATED
SAMPLES IN A t-TEST: EXAMPLES
1. Independent sample (two groups):
• A group of scientists wants to study the effects of a
new drug for insomnia. They have applied this drug to
a random group of people (control group) and to a
group of people suffering from insomnia (experimental
group);
2. Related sample (same group in two conditions):
• A group of therapists wants to study whether there is
any difference in doing relaxation techniques on the
beach or in an apartment. A group of people is asked
to first do relaxation on the beach and later in an
apartment;
 INDEPENDENT AND RELATED
SAMPLES IN A t-Test: AN EXAMPLE
24 people were involved in an experiment to
determine whether background noise affects
short-term memory (recall of words);
– If half of the sample were allocated to the
NOISE condition and the other half to the
NO NOISE condition (independent
sample) – we use independent t-test;
– If everyone in the sample has performed at
both conditions (related sample) – we use
paired or related t-test.
 AN EXAMPLE OF A t-TEST
Participants were asked to memorize a list of 20
words in two minutes.

Half of the sample performs in a noisy environment

and the other half in a quiet environment;

Independent variable - two types of environment:

Quiet environment (NO NOISE condition)
Noisy environment (NOISE condition)

Dependent variable – the number of words each

participant can recall.
NOISE NO NOISE
5 15 NOTE: participants vary within
10 9 conditions: in the NOISE condition,
the scores range from 3 to 11, and in
6 16
the NO NOISE condition. They range
6 15 from 9 to 18;
7 16
3 18 The participants differ between the
6 17 conditions too: the scores of the NO
9 13 NOISE condition, in general, are
higher than those in the NOISE
5 11 condition – the means confirm it;
10 12
11 13 Are the differences between the
9 11 means of our groups large enough for
 = 87  = 166 us to conclude that the differences are
due to our independent variable:
X = 7.3 X = 13.8 NOISE/NO NOISE manipulation?
SD = 2.5 SD = 2.8
 t-TEST FOR INDEPENDENT SAMPLES
Group statistics
In which condition Std. Error
are you? N Mean Std. Deviation Mean
How many words NOISE 12 7.2500 .71906
can you recall?
NO NOISE 12 13.8333 .79614

This shows:
the name of 2 conditions;
the number of cases in each condition;
the mean of each condition;
the standard deviation and standard error of
the mean, of the two conditions.
t-TEST FOR INDEPENDENT SAMPLES (SPSS)
Independent Samples Test
Levene’s Test
for Equality of
Variances t-test for Equality of Means
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Sig. Mean Std. Error
Lower Upper
F Sig t df (2-tailed) Differences Differences
How many Equal variances .177 .676 -6.137 22 .000 -6.5833 1.07279 -8.808 -4.359
words can assumed
you recall? Equal variances -6.137 21.78 .000 -6.5833 1.07279 -8.809 -4.357
not assumed

The Levene test is for ‘homogeneity of variance’,

and the t-test here indicates whether you should
use the upper or lower row.
Mean Difference means the difference between the
means of the two groups.
 REPORTING FINDINGS FROM THE
EXAMPLE
Participants in the NOISE condition recalled fewer
words (t (22) = 7.25, SD = 2.49) than in the NO
NOISE condition (t (22) = 13.83, SD = 2.76). The
mean difference between conditions was 6.58; the
95% confidence interval for the estimated population
mean difference is between 4.36 and 8.81. An
independent t-test revealed that, if the null
hypothesis is true, such a result would be highly
unlikely to have arisen (t (22) = 6.14; p<0.001). It is
therefore concluded that listening to noise affects
short-term memory, at least in respect of word recall.
 t-TEST FOR INDEPENDENT
SAMPLES WITH SPSS
Group Statistics

Std. Std. Error

Which group are you N Mean Deviation Mean
Mathematics post-test Control group 166 8.69 1.220 .095
score
Experimental Group One 166 9.45 .891 .069
 Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for
Equality of
Variances t-test for Equality of Means
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference

Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error

F Sig. t df tailed) Difference Difference Lower Upper
Mathematics Equal variances 28.856 .000 -6.523 330 .000 -.765 .117 -.996 -.534
post-test score assumed
Equal variances -6.523 302.064 .000 -.765 .117 -.996 -.534
not assumed

Read the line ‘Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances’. If the

probability value is statistically significant then your variances
are unequal; otherwise they are regarded as equal. If the
Levene’s probability value is not statistically significant then
you need the row ‘equal variances assumed’; if the Levene’s
probability value is statistically significant then you need the
row ‘equal variances not assumed’. Look to the column ‘Sig.
(2-tailed)’ and the appropriate row, and see if the results are
statistically significant.
 PAIRED SAMPLE t-TEST (SAME GROUP
UNDER TWO CONDITIONS) WITH SPSS
Paired Samples Statistics
Std. Std. Error
Mean N Deviation Mean
Pair 1 Mathematics pre-test 6.95 252 1.066 .067
score
Mathematics post-test 8.94 252 1.169 .074
score

This indicates:
1.The two conditions;
2.The mean of each condition;
3.The number of cases in each condition;
4.The standard deviation and standard error of the
mean, for the two conditions.
 PAIRED SAMPLE t-TEST (SAME GROUP
UNDER TWO CONDITIONS) WITH SPSS
Paired Samples Correlations

N Correlation Sig.
Pair 1 Mathematics pre-test 252 .020 .749
score & Mathematics
post-test score

This shows that there is no association between the

scores on the pre-test and the scores on the post
test for the group in question (r = .02 and  = .749).
PAIRED SAMPLE t-TEST (SAME GROUP UNDER
TWO CONDITIONS) WITH SPSS
Paired Samples Test
Paired Differences
95%
Confidence
Interval of the
Std. Difference
Std. Error Sig.
Mean Deviation Mean Lower Upper t df (2-tailed)
Pair Mathematics
1 pre-test score - -1.992 1.567 .099 -2.186 -1.798 -20.186 251 .000
Mathematics
post-test score
This shows that :
1.The difference between the mean of each condition (6.95 and
8.94) is 1.992.
2.The confidence intervals shows that we are 95% certain that the
population difference lies somewhere between -2.186 and -1.798.
3.There is a statistically significant difference between the two sets
of scores.
 RESULT
It can be seen from the paired t-test that the
hypothesis is not supported (t (251) = 20.186;
=.000).
 DEGREES OF FREEDOM
The number of individual scores that can vary
without changing the sample mean.
The number of scores one needs to know before
one can calculate the others.

E.g.: If you are asked to choose 2 numbers that

must add up to 100, and the first is 89, then the
other has to be 11; there is 1 degree of freedom
(89 + x = 100).

If you are asked to choose 3 numbers that must

add to 100, and the first of these is 20, then you
have 2 degrees of freedom (20 + x + y = 100).
 DEGREES OF FREEDOM (WITH SPSS)
Which group are you * Who are you Crosstabulation
Chinese or non-Chinese
Chinese Non-Chinese Total
Which group Control group 156 10 166
are you
94.0% 6.0% 100.0%
Experimental 166 0 166
Group One 100.0% .0% 100.0%
Experimental 143 25 168
Group Two 85.1% 14.9% 100.0%
Total 465 35 500
93.0% 7.0% 100.0%
Degrees of freedom = 2 (1 degree of freedom in each of 2
rows, which fixes what must be in the third row)
 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)
• Analysis of variance
– Parametric, interval and ratio data
– To see if there are any statistically significant
differences between the means of two or more
groups;
– It calculates the grand mean (i.e. the mean of
the means of each condition) and sees how
different each of the individual means is from
the grand mean.
– Premised on the same assumptions as t-tests
(random sampling, a normal distribution of
scores, independent variable(s) is/are
categorical (e.g. teachers, students,) and one
is a continuous variable (e.g. marks on a test).
 ANOVA AND MANOVA
• One way analysis of variance (one categorical
independent variable and one continuous
dependent variable)
• Two-way analysis of variance (two categorical
independent variables and one continuous
dependent variable)
• Multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA) (one
categorical independent variable and two or
more continuous variables)
• Post-hoc tests (e.g. Tukey hsd test, Sheffe
test) to locate where differences between
means lie (in which group(s))
 FORMULA FOR ANOVA

between - groups variance

F ratio 
within - groups variance

Between variance 
 d X N 2
mean

df  groups 1

Within variance 
d 2

df  N  groups 
 A1 A2 A3
9 15 21
9 15 25
9 16 17
9 15 22
9 16 26
X =9 X = 15.4 X = 22.2
Between-groups and within-groups variance:
Variation between the groups (9 to 22.2);
Variation within the first group (no variation since all
participants scored the same);
Variation within the second group (from 15 to 16);
Variation within the third group (from 17 to 26).
 ANOVA
1. First, ANOVA calculates the mean for each of
the three groups;
2. Then it calculates the grand mean (the three
means added then divided by three);
3. For each group separately, the total deviation of
each individual’ s score from the mean of the
group is calculated (within-groups variation);
4. Then the deviation of each group mean from the
grand mean is calculated (between-groups
variation).
 F RATIO
between - groups variance
F ratio 
within - groups variance
When we conduct our experiment, we hope that the
between-groups variance is very much larger than the
within-groups variance, in order to get a bigger F ratio;
This shows us that one (or more) of the individual
group means is significantly different from the grand
mean;
However, it does not tell us which means are
statistically significantly different.
 Descriptives

Records of students' progress

95% Confidence Interval for
Mean
Std. Std.
N Mean Deviation Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
20-29 7 3.29 .76 .29 2.59 3.98 2 4
30-39 5 3.80 1.30 .58 2.18 5.42 2 5
40-49 4 3.25 .96 .48 1.73 4.77 2 4
50+ 1 4.00 . . . . 4 4
Total 17 3.47 .94 .23 2.99 3.96 2 5

Between-groups Within-groups F (3,13) = .420, =.742

variation variation
ANOVA

Records of students' progress

Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 1.257 3 .419 .420 .742
Within Groups 12.979 13 .998
Total 14.235 16
 RESULTS
An F ratio of .420 has been given, with a
probability of =.742. This tells us that there
is no statistically significant difference
between any of the groups.
EFFECT SIZE: PARTIAL ETA SQUARED
SS effect
Partial eta squared ( 2
)
SS effect  SS error
partial

SSeffect = The sums of the squares for whatever

effect is of interest;
SSerror = the sums of the squares for whatever
error term is associated with that effect.
EFFECT SIZE: PARTIAL ETA SQUARED FOR
INDEPENDENT SAMPLES IN SPSS

Analyze  General Linear Model  Univariate 

Options  Estimates of effect size
EFFECT SIZE: PARTIAL ETA SQUARED
IN SPSS
Between-Subjects Factors

Value Label N
Which group are you 1 Control group 166

2 Experimental Group One 166

3 Experimental Group Two 168

 EFFECT SIZE: PARTIAL ETA
SQUARED IN SPSS
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Dependent Variable:Mathematics post-test score
Type III
Sum of Partial Eta
Source Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Squared
Corrected Model 48.583a 2 24.291 23.168 .000 .085
Intercept 41113.093 1 41113.093 39211.30 .000 .987
1
group 48.583 2 24.291 23.168 .000 .085
Error 521.105 497 1.049
Total 41684.000 500

Corrected Total 569.688 499

a. R Squared = .085 (Adjusted R Squared = .082)

 THE POST HOC TUKEY TEST
• The null hypothesis for the F-test ANOVA is
always that the samples come from populations
with the same Mean (i.e., no statistically
significant differences): H0 = μ1 = μ2 = μ3 = …
• If the p-value is so low that we reject the null
hypothesis, we have decided that, at least one of
these populations has a mean that is not equal to
the others;
• The F-test itself only tells us that there are
differences at least between one pair of means,
not where these differences lie.
 POST HOC TESTS
• To determine which samples are statistically
significantly different; after having performed the
F-test and rejected the null hypothesis, we turn
to post hoc comparisons;
• The purpose of a post hoc analysis is to find out
exactly where those differences are;
• Post hoc tests allow us to make multiple pair
wise comparisons and determine which pairs are
statistically significantly different from each other
and which are not.
 THE POST HOC TUKEY TEST
Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD)
Test is used to test the hypothesis that all
possible pairs of means are equal;

Tukey’s HSD test compares the mean

differences between each pair of means to a
critical value. If the mean difference from a pair
of means exceeds the critical value, we
conclude that there is a significant difference
between these pairs.
 THE SCHEFFE TEST
The Scheffe test is very similar to the Tukey
hsd test, but it is more stringent that the Tukey
test in respect of reducing the risk of a Type I
error, though this comes with some loss of
power – one may be less likely to find a
difference between groups in the Sheffe test.
FINDING PARTIAL ETA SQUARED IN SPSS
Multivariate Testsb
Hypothesis Partial Eta
Effect Value F df Error df Sig. Squared
scores Pillai's Trace .675 1033.477a 1.000 497.000 .000 .675
Wilks' Lambda .325 1033.477a 1.000 497.000 .000 .675
Hotelling's Trace 2.079 1033.477a 1.000 497.000 .000 .675
Roy's Largest Root 2.079 1033.477a 1.000 497.000 .000 .675
scores * Pillai's Trace .040 10.366a 2.000 497.000 .000 .040
group Wilks' Lambda .960 10.366a 2.000 497.000 .000 .040
Hotelling's Trace .042 10.366a 2.000 497.000 .000 .040
Roy's Largest Root .042 10.366a 2.000 497.000 .000 .040
a. Exact statistic
b. Design: Intercept + group
Within Subjects Design: scores
 USING TUKEY TO LOCATE
DIFFERENCE IN SPSS
Multiple Comparisons
MEASURE_1
Tukey HSD
95% Confidence
Mean Interval
(I) Which Difference Std. Lower Upper
group are you (J) Which group are you (I-J) Error Sig. Bound Bound
Control group Experimental Group One -.42 * .084 .000 -.61 -.22
Experimental Group Two -.15 .084 .173 -.35 .05
Experimental Control group .42* .084 .000 .22 .61
Group One Experimental Group Two .27* .084 .005 .07 .46
Experimental Control group .15 .084 .173 -.05 .35
Group Two Experimental Group One -.27* .084 .005 -.46 -.07
Based on observed means.
The error term is Mean Square(Error) = .588.
*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
 USING TUKEY TO LOCATE DIFFERENCE IN SPSS
MEASURE_1
Tukey HSDa,,b,,c
Subset
Which group are you N 1 2
Control group 166 7.86
Experimental Group Two 168 8.01
Experimental Group One 166 8.27
Sig. .174 1.000
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.
Based on observed means.
The error term is Mean Square(Error) = .588.
a. Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 166.661.
b. The group sizes are unequal. The harmonic mean of the group
sizes is used. Type I error levels are not guaranteed.
c. Alpha = .05.
 CHI-SQUARE
• A measure of a relationship or an association
developed by Karl Pearson in 1900;
• Measures the association between two
categorical variables;
• Compares the observed frequencies with the
expected frequencies;
• Determines whether two variables are
independent;
• Allows us to find out whether various sub-
groups are homogeneous.
 TYPES OF CHI-SQUARE
• One-variable Chi-Square (goodness-of-fit test)
– used when we have one variable;
• Chi-Square test for independence: 2 x 2 – used
when we are looking for an association
between two variables, with two levels, e.g. the
association between (drinking alcohol/does not
drink alcohol) and (smoke/does not smoke);
• Chi-Square test for independence: r x c – used
when we are looking for an association
between two variables, where one has more
than two levels (heavy smoker, moderate
smoker, does not smoke) and (heavy drinker,
moderate drinker, does not drink).
FORMULA FOR CHI-SQUARE
(O  E ) 2
2 =  E
Where:

O = observed frequencies
E = expected frequencies
 = the sum of
 ONE-VARIABLE CHI-SQUARE OR
GOODNESS-OF-FIT TEST
• Enables us to discover whether a set of
obtained frequencies differs from an expected
set of frequencies;
• One variable only;
• The numbers that we find in the various
categories are called the observed frequencies;
• The numbers that we expect to find in the
categories, if the null hypothesis is true, are the
expected frequencies;
• Chi-Square compares the observed and the
expected frequencies.
 EXAMPLE: PREFERENCE FOR
CHOCOLATE BARS
A sample of 120 people were asked which of
four chocolate bars they preferred;
• We want to find out whether some brands (or
one brand) are preferred over others –
Research Hypothesis;
• If some brands are not preferred over others,
then all brands should be equally represented
– Null Hypothesis;
• If the Null Hypothesis is true, then we expect
30 (120/4) people in each category
 ONE-VARIABLE CHI-SQUARE OR
GOODNESS-OF-FIT TEST
Frequencies Chocolate A Chocolate B Chocolate C Chocolate D
Observed 20 70 10 20
Expected 30 30 30 30

If all brands of chocolate are equally popular, the

observed frequencies will not differ much from the
expected frequencies;

If, however, the observed frequencies differ a lot

from the expected frequencies, then it is likely that
all brands are not equally popular;
 ONE-VARIABLE CHI-SQUARE/GOODNESS-
OF-FIT TEST
Observed Expected Residual
N N (Difference between
observed and expected
frequencies)
Brand A 20 30 -10.0
Brand B 70 30 40.0
Brand C 10 30 -20.0
Brand D 20 30 -10.0
Total 120 120
A chi-square value of 73.3, df = 3 was found to
Chocolate
have an associated probability level of 0.000. A
statistically significant difference was found
Chi- 73.333 between the observed and the expected
square 3
frequencies, i.e. all brands of chocolate are not
df .000
Asymp.
equally popular. More people prefer chocolate B
Sig (70) than the other bars of chocolate.
 CHI-SQUARE TEST FOR
INDEPENDENCE (BIVARIATE): 2 X 2
Enables us to discover whether there is a
relationship or association between two
categorical variables of 2 levels;

If there is no association between the two

variables, then we conclude that the variables
are independent of each other.
 A WORKED EXAMPLE
Imagine that we have asked 110 students the
following:

A. Do you smoke and drink?

B. Do you smoke but do not drink?
C. Do you not smoke but drink?
D. Do you abstain from both?

Each student can only fall into one group, and

thus we have 4 groups (they must be
mutually exclusive);
 CHI-SQUARE TEST FOR
INDEPENDENCE: 2 X 2 (WITH SPSS)
Do you drink? * Do you smoke? Crosstabulation
Do you smoke?
Yes No Total
Do you
drink? Yes Count 50 15 65
Expected Count 41.4 23.6 65.0
No Count 20 25 45
Expected Count 28.6 16.4 45.0
Total Count 70 40 110
Expected Count 70.0 40.0 110.0

row total x column total

Expected value of a cell 
Overall total
 CHI-SQUARE TEST FOR
INDEPENDENCE: 2 X 2 (WITH SPSS)
Value df Asymp. Sig. Exact Sig. Exact Sig.
(2-sided) (1-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 12.12 1 .000
Continuity Correction 10.759 1 .001
Likelihood Ratio 12.153 1 .001
Fisher’s Exact Test .001 .001
Linear-by-Linear 12.011 1 .001
Association
N of Valid Cases 110

Chi-Square = 12.12
df (degrees of freedom) = (columns -1) x (rows -1)
= (2-1) x (2-1) = 1
 RESULTS
A 2 x 2 Chi-square was carried out to discover
whether there was a significant relationship
between smoking and drinking. The Chi-
square value of 12.12 has an associated
probability value of p<0.001, df = 1, showing
that such an association is extremely unlikely
to have arisen as a result of sampling error. It
can therefore be concluded that there is a
significant association between smoking and
drinking.
 MANN-WHITNEY U-TEST FOR
INDEPENDENT SAMPLES
• Mann-Whitney (non-parametric, nominal and
ordinal data) for two groups under one condition
– Difference between two independent groups
(independent samples), based on ranks
• This is the non-parametric equivalent of the t-test
for independent samples.
• Find the significant differences and then run a
crosstabs to look at where the differences lie.
• Note where there are NO statistically significant
differences as well as where there are statistically
significant differences
 MANN-WHITNEY U-TEST (SPSS)

Ranks

form N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks

the contents Primary 3 22 43.52 957.50
are interesting Primary 4 64 43.49 2783.50
Total 86
 MANN-WHITNEY U-TEST (SPSS)
Test Statistics a

the
contents
are
interesting
Mann-Whitney U 703.500
Wilcoxon W 2783.500
Z -.006
Asymp. Sig.
.996
(2-tailed)
a. Grouping Variable: form
THE WILCOXON TEST FOR RELATED
SAMPLES
This is the non-parametric equivalent of the t-test
for related samples.

For paired (related) samples in a non-parametric

test, e.g. the same group under two conditions.
For example, here is the result for one group of
females who have rated (a) their own ability in
mathematics and (b) their enjoyment of
mathematics, both variables using a 5-point scale
(‘not at all’ to ‘a very great deal’).
THE WILCOXON TEST FOR RELATED SAMPLES (SPSS)
Ranks
N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks
How good at Negative Ranks 11 94.08 11101.00
mathematics
do you think
you are? -
Positive Ranks 73 99.11 7235.00
How much do
you enjoy Ties 57
mathematics?
Total 248
Test Statisticsb
How good at mathematics do you
think you are? - How much do you
enjoy mathematics?
Z -2.631a
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .009
a. Based on positive ranks.
b. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
 KRUSKAL-WALLIS TEST FOR
INDEPENDENT SAMPLES
• Kruskal-Wallis (non-parametric, nominal and
ordinal data) for three or more independent groups
under one condition
– Difference between more than two independent
groups (independent samples), based on ranks
• This is the non-parametric equivalent of ANOVA
for independent samples.
• Find the statistically significant differences and
then run a crosstabs to look at where the
differences lie.
• Note where there are NO statistically significant
differences as well as where there are statistically
significant differences.
 KRUSKAL-WALLIS TEST (SPSS)

Ranks

Age N Mean Rank

own made-up tests 20-29 7 6.57
30-39 5 10.70
40-49 5 10.70
Total 17
KRUSKAL-WALLIS TEST (SPSS)
Test Statisticsa,b

own made-up
tests
Chi-Square 4.319
df 2
Asymp. Sig. .115
a. Kruskal Wallis Test
b. Grouping Variable: Age
 THE FRIEDMAN TEST FOR 3 OR MORE
RELATED GROUPS
This is the non-parametric equivalent of ANOVA for
related samples.

For three or more related samples in a non-parametric

test, e.g. the same groups under two conditions. For
example, the result for 4 groups of students, grouped
according to their IQ (Group 1= IQ up to 90; Group 2 =
IQ from 91-110; Group 3 = IQ from 111-125; Group 4 =
IQ over 125) who have rated (a) their own ability in
mathematics and (b) their enjoyment of mathematics,
both variables using a 5-point scale (‘not at all’ to ‘a
very great deal’).