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Lecture1: Introduction to Measurements

Dr. Riaz Muhammad

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 Course Content:
 See uploaded course Syllabus uploaded to Team

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student
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CILOS SO1 SO2 SO3 SO4 SO5 SO6 SO

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1. Differentiate the meaning of terminology and physical principles
1
associated with the subject.
1. Illustrate sources of errors for accurate measurements
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set
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1. Distinguish basic concepts of sensors and apply to various

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physical variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, acoustic

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noise, force, displacement, velocity, and acceleration.

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1. Draw conclusions for data

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analysis concerning measured-
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quantities and measurement techniques.

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names and concepts -" I
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  Assessments

1. Course assessment:
Details/ Explanation
Assessment Type of Assessment in Number Weight Date(s)
relation to CILOs
Quizzes Jess Se
.
:
581 8 2 10%
Test 12 S C Test- 1: 30-10-2022
Examinations – Test
.

02 25%
↑L 12 S .

Test 2: Sunday after Eid

1 and 2 -
- S
holidays
Laboratory/Practical 02 5% b

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Assignments 02 10%
Projects/Case Studies *
j =. '6; S 1 10%
Final Examination &5555 1 40%
Total 100%
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 Lecture 1 Content: elastic
a
deformation in a
body Per unit length y Plastic

1. Introduction to Measurements and their types

2. Accuracy and Precision
3. Significant Figures E -15
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4. Units Systems of measurement
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Strain gage
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Errors and uncertainty

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6. Instruments Category
7. Functional elements of Instruments
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8. Examples for Functional elements
9. Types of instruments 6
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10. Examples
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for the type of the Instruments
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Calibration of Instruments

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- 5
Lecture1: Introduction to Measurements

Dr. Riaz Muhammad

How We Measure?
measuremal
measure and

want to
quantitig we

measure
x)
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=
c

se compared it with standard

6
 What is Measurement?- 7 I
-
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✓is a process of determining the magnitude of a

- -
quantity to a unit of measurement.
e

For example: ~

direct measurment
The length of a wire using a ruler (in cm or mm),
I

or Meat or sugar using scale in Kg.

✓The word measurement came out the Greek

-

-
word “metron,” which means limit quantity.

7
 eg
:

controling ↑, night of bulding

1. it allows us to master the environment;
-temputure
unit
* of
2. It allows us to control
I
production; -

3. It Allows us to master our economy

I ,

4. It allow us to master and control energy

(electrical, thermal, and mechanical); - /

5. It allows us to manage information

/ , -.

Do
: ↓ I
~

6. It allows us to understand the events/issues that we

- -

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observe in our day to day life.
- -

a
etc
-
 ↓ -
direct indirect

 Direct comparison & inacamal

⑫
✓ Easy to do but inaccurate
C
-

e.g. to measure the length of a particle using a ruler

-

 Indirect comparison
(1) SEM
✓ Very high accuracy-close to the true value
⑳
✓ Consists of several devices to convert, process
-
&
-

55 ⑤
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(amplification or filtering) and display the output:

for example measure a length of a particle using
◦ SEM” Scanning electron microscope”
use third source of
energy
bet'
i t , it stra
E
I n) ,0 age
voltage s
E
strains:
ligh microscoping
9
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->
I& -> I

24 R4

- A4 RI

cross sectional
Area of wire

strain
gage,;:" 50.
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In general, we are used to count rather than

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✓
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measure.
- -

--

✓ As Engineer, you will be concerned with

distances, elevations, volumes, directions,
and weights.
-Gi
Fundamental principle of measuring:
=

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✓ No measurement is exact but true value is

--

---

generally an approximate.
S-

10
Accuracy ‫صحة‬
ًّ and Precision ‫ ِدقّه‬:

close your measurement tree

1. Accuracy -- How
-01 5's
to salve
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degree of perfection obtained in a Measurement.

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-

2. Precision
-9
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-
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The closeness of one measurement to another.

-
-

9
98 - :

11
 ًّ and Precision ‫ ِدقّه‬:
Accuracy ‫صحة‬

12
For example, & i -

if a robot is to place samples within a target, RED area, at

the center of the following centric circles
✓ then there are 3 different cases:
-
✓ A) Samples place randomly and away from the target area.
This Type of sampling (fars
I

❑ low accuracy and low precision

13
✓ b) Samples placed close to each other but not
necessarily accurate. This sampling is

✓ Inaccurate but precise

14
 ✓ C) Sampling that placed within the target area
is

✓ Accurate and precise

the true Jalve
Accurate :

value are within range

to each other
Precision
:

values are
close

15
What we learned: from accuracy and precision
Better precision does not mean accuracy but
good accuracy means good precision
✓ In measuring a value, precision is defined as:

188
/

I
->
alve you target
-
400 <true value l

✓ For example, if a distance of 400 meter is measured and

the error is estimated a 5 meter, what is the precision?
S
-
↳ 3-

✓ then the precision =5/400=1/80 =1/80x100%=1.25%

-S
low prection
- - -> Accuracy % 100
,
- Precession
one
=

because
561 = 35
100 -ale 16
 of sectional of
give me erro avoss
area rectangular Bote
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e
=
1 2M
.

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s

 The length of a rectangular box is 1.2 meters, but it

was measured with tape, and the length was -

measured as 1.22 meters. Find the Precision of

2
measurement. -1 x 180 667 %
,

= 1 .

1 667 12
Accurecy =

188 -
.

-> 98 . 35 %
 A measuring tape can measure with a Precision of
99.8%. What is the possible range of length which can -

be obtained by using this measuring tape, to measure

a cloth of lengthO
2 meters? Try it at home W
↳ Not . X

-
2 -

F
5 1496
99
an
. 8 =
=
= -

- 99 . 8 % 2

Bo ↑ 2 =
x =

1 496
· ; x
=
1 .
210 .
0024
y =
10 .
004
->

17
 Precision =
99 8 %.

8
94 .

-
-(X 2) X 3 . 996
-
o
- -

2
o
↳
94 - XX
-
-

804
7

= X
v
&
=>

- =

0 .

100

Es
9154 .

2 =
10996
 accuracy
/ s 3 s s

precision = 180 % -
99 . 8% =
8 . 2 %

or

x
=
2
2 =

0 error-t
&
-

error 004
x -
- 2 .
004 - 0 ,

1 =
250 004 .
1 =

210 0x4 .
 , 99
000
- .

Significant Figures
S
-58, 01
-

->
(What is your Height ? In feet/inches) * <

✓ The number of significant

S
figures is the number of
digits you are certain about, in your measurement,
&

plus one that is estimated.

✓ For example: wire measurement

✓ Significant figures are important when reporting

your data because they give person an idea of how
well you could measure and report your data.
18
Rules of Significant Figures:
1)All non-zero digits,1,2,3,4,etc,) are significant.
For example, 73 has two significant figures (7 and 3), while
13.25 has four significant figures (1, 3, 2 and 5).
2)Zeros appearing anywhere between two non-zero numbers
are significant.
 For example: 201.06 has five significant figures: 2, 0, 1, 0
and 6.
3) Leading zeros are NOT significant. They're nothing more
S :,

than "place holders." The number 0.54 has only TWO

:

significant figures. 0.0032 also has TWO significant figures

are not significant. 0 801-0 002
001-0 002 %
,
,
0
-
.

50 .

x180
. ,

002 8 . -S

For example, 0.0074 has two significant figures: 7 and 4.

- /

4) All zeroes placed at the end of a decimal number-

are significant. Example 0.450 has 3 significant digits

19
Rules of Significant Figures
1) When two numbers are multiplied or divided, the answer
should have significant figures equal to number with the least
number of significant digits. The rest of the digits will be St
ignored. 3 S
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I've b S 91
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For example: multiplication: 3.21X6.2051 =19.9

Division: 3.21/6.2051
S
= 0.517
3

2) When adding/subtracting, the answer should have the same

number of decimal places as the limiting term. The limiting
-

term is the number with the least decimal places.

limitting ='s'
15
↑
terms .
3791 yes's

For example: addition:3.01+5.312+7.0571=15.37 15 38 ? -901 = S

.

1951 Subtraction: 7.0571-5.312=1.745 1 7451 .

Convergence: When converting a number, the answer should

-

have the same number of significant figures as the number 4 37

13I
started with: 52.4 in to feet = 52.4*1/12 = 4.366666667 ft =
.

20
Unit Systems
✓ Two types of unit systems are used in science and
engineering measurements: Sig bish
Yest gitsless
1) International System Unit (SI) or Metric System
That consist of 7 base units
Shown in diagram from top
K= Kelvin for Temperature
S = second for Time
m= meter for length
Kg= kilogram for mass
=st
,

Cd=Candela for intensity

Mol= mole for amount of substance
A= ampere for Current

21
2) English unit system
✓ Foot-pound-second (F.P.S.) used for:
➢Length ( foot) 15 m
,

S "W]
➢Mass ( pound)
➢Time ( second) ~
Relation/conversion between Metric and English unit
system.
1 Foot= 12 inches= 30 cm as lin, 2 S Cm
.

I Pound = 453. 5 g = 0.4535kg

1Celcius = 273 Kelvin;
25 C- room Temp=298 Kelvin

22
 -
error s ,8
↑

Error and it’s Source

-

-
D·
⑤ I
Error in a scientific measurement does not mean a intentional
-

mistake but it is rather refers to unavoidable uncertainty in

-

measurements.
-

gisi
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94
-
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-
Why Engineers should pay attention to errors.?
- Se S

The reason is simple: error in a given measurement can lead

-

serious consequences in science and in real life.

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is
↑

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For example:194 issi

If you want decorate
-
b. I
one of your room with arabian Majilis, then
you give the tailor a wrong measurement you will end up with
bigger/small dimension to your room then you will end up
paying for it and lose money.

23
Resones of errors - < . 5 / <19
✓ 1) Personal Errors – I "I'
Si I ~61
✓ No one has perfect sense of tunning, vision, touch, or adjustment
For Example: If you were asked to measure the length of a pendulum from
the pin to the end of the mass, as shown below.

--
SSs Sit

If you zoom in, then one can not tell if the length is 128.89cm or 128.88cm.
=Y

Then with confidence we can say the length is L= 128.90.±0.1cm.

-
ot
The number 128.9 is called Central value and ±0.1 is called Error or
-

uncertainty ;
- central value error

j 15 uncertainity

24
✓ 2) Instrument Errors
✓ devices were not manufactured perfectly to be compatible
with other components; in addition, there is wear and tear.
· ex6-ssi :
wear

- fear

For Example: digital weight scale;

the advantage is scale give you the -
CC
teral
Central value immediately.
E

11 Ine
--1
I
-
-

Disadvantage: the scale has limit of its

-
Precision
->
and the error is specified by the
-
Manufacturer at the back of the system.
The error value should be written with central value to have
accurate result
138 22
Therefore; the weight W= 138.2±X lb
.

I -
/xs 3 &

centeral error
- alue

25
 sit
3) Environmental Errors –: jj's 3 ... j- siss -
S

- !9 ,
✓ Temperature, electrical noise, pressure, humidity, vibration ,
1 - -

fluctuation wind, and many other sources. Prassure

I
vibration
humiolby

✓ These errors come from different sources, therefore, it is

impossible to measure and quantify them.
ii ? is
=
✓ In addition, since all sources contribute to random
~
-

J 51 II

errors, it is agreeable to handle them through

- -
-

statistical analysis

26
Types of Errors:

1) Absolute error-:denoted by the symbol“∆“ and has the same units as the
-> ->

Measured value.

2) Relative Error of measured value: denoted by the symbol “ε“ and

is percentage of the measured value.

3) Relative Error of full scale: denoted by the symbol “ε“ and is

percentage of the full scale of the system.

27
 target value

I
-S = 50V 41.
=
30

Type of error, Example: MV =

28 90
.

if a voltmeter has full scale of 50 V and it takes a reading of 29.8 for a

-

true value of 30 V. Calculates the Absolute and relative errors.

I .
2

1) Absolute error =∆ = true value-measured= 30V-29.8V= 0.2V

Precisions
2) Relative error(MV)=(error/measured)x100%=(0.2V/29.8V)x100%=0.67%
-

3) Relative error(FS)=(error/full scale)x100%= (0.2V/50V)x100%= 0.4%

In general ε = (∆/measured value)x100% or

∆= (ε x measured value)/100

28
 I

Errors Rules: Addition and Subtraction Error: *

⑤je ,
Sist I
Let us say we have A and B as measured value and A and B
are absolute errors. Then Rule of addition is:

(A ± ∆A) + (B ± ∆B) = (A + B) ± (∆A + ∆B)

For subtraction is
(A ± ∆A) - (B ± ∆B) = (A - B) ± (∆A + ∆B)

Measured errors are always added regardless

29
 0

 Error Multiplication and division:

Let us say we have A and B as measured value and εA and εB
and relative errors. Then Rule of
1)Multiplication is
(A ± εA) x (B ± εB) = (A x B) ± (εA + εB)
2) Division is:
(A ± εA) / (B ± εB) = (A / B) ± (εA + εB)

The Rule is then errors Add regardless.

3) Power Rule :for a error equation raised to a power, the rule is

simply to MULTIPLY by the power

30
 8

Number Multiplication:
✓For multiplying an error equation by number or constant there
are two different rules that applies depending on the type of
error:
1)For Absolute Error: c(A ± ∆A) = cA ± c(∆A)
Note that the Absolute error is multiplied by the constant.

2) For Relative Error: c(A ± εA) = cA ± εA

Note that the Relative Error is not multiplied

by the constant.

31
Lecture Content:
1) Basic Terminology
2) Instruments Category
3) Functional elements of Instruments
4) Examples for Functional elements
5) Types of instruments
6) Examples for the type of the Instruments
7) Calibration of Instruments

Dr. Riaz Muhammad

 Basic deffinetich

Basic Terminology:
✓ Instrument: is a device that detects, measures, records a quantity.
In addition instrument could be a device that control another device
$ : j
it
-

Metrology: The field of Science that concern with measurement

-
-

✓
-

✓ Transducer: A device that converts one form of energy tofeel

electrical energy
means 304
another.
can it
for mechanical
ex energy into
Such as like Templeture
,
I

↑
rancusers' 2
✓ Sensor: A device, transducer, that converts physical quantity into
an electrical signal.
Sess
✓ Actuator: A device, transducer ,that converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
-
✓ Transmitter:device that converts mechanical signals into electrical signals

33
 I
21
.

js
Category of Instruments
✓ Instruments can be classified or divided into 2 different groups
-Is
1) Monitoring of processes and operations.
-
✓ refers to measuring devices that keep track of some quantity, such as
thermometers, voltmeter, electric meter and water-meter,
Anas
speedometer, fuel gage, etc. Ie

-Isi

34
Instruments types continue
2) Control of processes and operations. - i

✓ This usually refers to an automatic feedback control system to tune and -

control the final product as show in the figure below:

✓ Ex: Central cooling system in the house

For example: We want to control the temperature in the house to be 20 C

using central cooling system controller

In any feedback system, the variable which we want to control should be compared,in a ontroller, with its
-

desired value, and then, based on the “difference” between the two, manipulate the final control element to
move the controlled variable closer to its desired value .

35
 --
Instrument’s disturbances:
In many cases, the
c
,
instrument output will be influenced by input variables
51 -
-1

other than the intended measured value. For example: trying to cool the
-

house and the outside doors left open that will influence the output temp.
these disturbances are divided to
-
a)Interfering input: causes the instrument to respond in the same way of the
-

intended measured value. The output will be a combination of the

measured value + interfering input: example of interfering input vibration
I
S

b) modifying inputs: causes changes in the system calibration ; therefore both

.

input and output will changes example of modifying input is Temp

36
 -

Functional Element of Instrument

✓ Most of all instrument consist of the followings functional elements
detailed in the diagram below:
* 55 45 :

Primary Variable n
Variable Data Data
input
Sensing conversion elemen
manipulating Transm present
element element t
element element element

1) Primary Sensing element:

✓ A device that receives a signal from the input and produces an output that
depends on the measured quantify.

2) Variable conversion element:

✓ A device that converts the output signal of the primary sensing element to another
more suitable signal while keeping the information of the original signal.
✓ to
like convert lineat moblin rataling mation

37
Functional elements continue
I
b's
-

&

3) Variable manipulating element:

✓ A device that change the numerical value output if it low to produce a
signal but a does not change the physical nature of the signal/variable.

✓ 4) Data-transmission element
✓ A device that transmits the data from one to another when functionality
of devices is separated
5) Data-presentation element
✓ A device that displays the final information about the measured quantity
to the human being.

Primary Variable n
Variable Data Data
input
Sensing conversion elemen
manipulating Transm present
element element t
element element element
38
 I store
energy) measuring
⑮! I= 9'd , &: &181 =,
prssuver

1) Piston
I !
2) Piston and Spring
3) Linkage X
4) Piston
X pad
5) Pointer and scale
tank
↳

Primary Variable n
Variable Data Data
input
Sensing conversion elemen
manipulating Transm present
element element t
element element element

sinPut&
S

39
 Manual Ammeter
1)Moving coil
2) Magnet and spring
3)Linkage onnections ameber
4) Magnet ith scale
~

Pointer and scale

Primary Variable n
Variable Data Data
input
Sensing conversion elemen
manipulating Transm present
element element t
element element element

40
 Thermometer- Functional elements
Functioning elements of thermometer

1) Bulb
2) Tubing
3) Bourdon “C” tube
4) Linkage and gear
5) Scale and Pointer

41
Instruments Classification:
1) Active/Passive type 2) Analog/Digital type
3) Null/deflection type 4)Absolute/Secondary type

1)Active/Passive Instruments-electronic component:

Active Instrument: is an instrument with active electronic components inside ,
such as diode and transistor, that requires external power source for its
operation . The component produces energy in the form of voltage or current;
therefore it is and energy donor.
-

Passive Instrument:
to
is an instrument with passive electronic components inside ,
Restore
energy
such as resistor, and capacitance, that Don’t requires external power source
- -

for its operation . The component store energy in the form of voltage or
current; therefore it is and energy acceptor
I
42
Passive and Active Instrument:
Comparison of active versus passive for design point of view

Active Instrument Passive Instrument

External Energy source is required No energy Source is required

The output depends on energy The output is produced by the

quantity to be measured

High resolution Lower resolution

Hard to design Easy to design

Cheaper and economical expensive

43
Example of Active Instrument is Petrol level liquid Tank
How it works:
transister

Active - -I

1) The potentiometer driven needle driven by external power input is used to

-

sense the float position.

2) The position of the float is proportional to the liquid in the tank
3) When the liquid level changes the float position changes as a result the
potentiometer needle position will change indicating the new reading

44
 Example of passive Instrument is the
Pressure gauge measuring device

Passive

How it works
As the liquid pressure changes, the piston position
changes too; therefore. the pointer that is
connected to the piston is moved indicating
A new reading for the pressure

45
 Example of Analogue instrument is
Voltmeter, ammeter, and thermocouple.
 The analog Instrument is the system that gives an output that varies
continuously as the quantity being measured.
-

Est
I

How it works
As the operator insert the input and change the values, the pointer moves
contineously to report and output as shown in the plot below

46
Example of digital instrument (DI) is Revolution counter or analog
to digital converter. DI is a system that has an output that varies in discrete
steps and only have a finite number of values.
HOW IT WORKS
The speed of the rotating shaft is
measured by using a digital detector
The disc which is fixed to a rotating shaft
has a number of transparent slots within its
design. As the disc rotates with the
speed of the shaft, each slot passes by
the detector producing an output
pulse representing a logic "1" or "0"
Level. These pulses are sent to a register of counter and finally to an output display
to show the speed or revolutions
of the shaft.

47
Null/Deflection Instruments:
Null Instrument:

✓ The null method is one possible mode of

operation for a measuring instrument.
✓ In this method, the instrument exerts a force on
the measured system so as to oppose the effect
of the measurand.
✓ The force and the measurand are balanced until
they are equal but opposite in value, yielding a
null measurement.

48
Null instrument continues
Advantages:
1) minimizes interaction between the measuring system and the measurand.
2) Inputs come from separate sources, the impact of any measuring influence
on the measurand is reduced.
3) Due to high impedance of the measured system, the loading error is
minimal for small measurand .
Disadvantages:
1) The instrument requires more time to execute than simply measuring
sensor input
2) The instrument does not offer fast measurement if required.
3) The Instrument does not achieve perfect parity due to the usable resolution

49
 Deflection Instrument: D

 A deflection instrument uses the deflection( move in different direction)

method for measurement
The spring scale shown is a good example of a
deflection instrument.
Measurand (applied weight) acts on a plate-spring.
the position of the spring is influenced by the applied
weight and responds with a translational
displacement,
a deflection x
The final value of this deflection is a balance
between the downward force of the weight ,W, and
the upward restoring force of the spring, kX
A mechanical coupler is connected directly or by
linkage to a pointer that serves as the readout scale.
at the end of the measurement and at
equilibriumW=kX then the weight is deduced
by=X=W/k
.

50
 ⑧

 Deflection continue:
The logic diagram is linear and simple
✓ The input signal is sensed by the prime element and thereby deflected from its
initial setting.
✓ The deflection signal is transmitted to signal conditioner unit that act to condition
the signal into a desired form. For example amplifying or filtering it.
✓ The conditioned signal is then transferred to the output scale, which provides the
indicated value corresponding to the measured value.

Advantages: it can be designed for either static or dynamic measurements or both

Disadvantages: It derives it energy from the measurand that will lead to loading error

51
 The key Part
 Instrument Calibration
✓ is a comparison process, with universal known standard,to see the accuracy
of instruments.
✓ To check the accuracy of the system, one has to have magnitude with know
correctness known as Standard. The standard is measured against the unit
under test.
✓ If the result is within a certain tolerance, not to exceed ±0.1% of the
measured value, then the system is performing to the standard; IF NOT then
system need to be check with an specialist to fix.
Why Calibration is important:
✓ Because you will be able to know

if you measurement is wrong or right

52
 ·

Data/measurement Spreading:

✓ If we collected a data though a measurement and we want to

summarize the data in a shorter form to understand the process and
possibly predict a model then statistical analysis is needed for the
analyses.
✓ Terms that you will encounter often are:

✓ Population: a set of measured values or elements.

✓ Mean: the average number of the population.
✓ Median: the middle number of the population

53
 I

Example:

if the room’s temperature was taken 8 time/hour for 5 hours;

then what is the population :n

Population =8x5= 40 values of temp. measurement.

54
55