TABLE OF CONTENT: TITLE Declaration 3 Acknowledgement 4 Chapter 1: Introduction 6 Chapter 2: OSI Layer 8 2.1; Application Layer 9 2.2: Presentation Layer 9 2.3: Session Layer 9 2.4: Transport Layer 9 2.5: Network Layer 9 2.6: Data-link Layer 10 2.7: Physical Layer 10 Chapter 3: ICMP ul Chapter 4: IP 12 Chapter 5: Subnet Mask 14 5.1: Network ID 14 5.2: Subnetting 15 Chapter 6: Routing 16 6.1: Static Routing 16 6.2: Default Routing 18 6.3: Dynamic Routing 19 6.3.1: DVRP 19 6.3.2: RIP 20 6.3.3: EIGRP 2 6.3.4: OSPF 4 6.4: Redistribution 26 Chapter 7: Switching a 7.1: MAC-Address 28 7.2: ARP 28 7.3: CDP 30 7.4: Access Port & Trunk Port 30 7.5: VLAN 31 7.6: DTP 32 T7:NTP 33 7.8: STP 34 7.9: VPN 36 References 37CCNA R&S Cisco Certified Network Associate Routing &Switching CCNA (Cisco Certified Network Associate) is an associate-level information technology (IT) certification from Cisco. It is a certification which is designed to train individuals to provide better network solution to the industry. CCNA R&S experts can easily manage, install, configure & support all sized network like LAN & WAN. It covers protocols like RIP, EIGRP & OSPF and also switching technologies. i it UD Aad at1. Introduction to Networks: A computer network can be dese xd as a system of interconnected devices (such as computers, printers, etc.) that can communicate using some common standards (called protocols). These devices communicate to exchange resources and services. @—!2 In the figure above, the two computers are directly connected using a cable. This small network can be used to exchange data between just these two computers What if we want to expand our network? Then we can use a network device, either a switch ora hub, to connect more than two computers together: Now all of the devices on the network can communicate with each other. Communication between devices are classified in 3 ways as follows: © Unicast communicati \n: it is a one to one type communication ‘+ Multicast communication: itis a one to many type communication, + Broadcast communication: it is a one to all type communication2. Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Layei In 1977, the Intemational Organization for Standardization (ISO) started working on an open standard networking model that all vendors, who recognized the need of networking, would support to promote inter-operability. This standard was published in 1984 and was known as the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI). It is a reference layer created to promote communication between devices of various vendors. The OSI reference model has seven such layers that can be divided into two groups, ‘The upper layers (Layers 7, 6 and 5) define how applications interact with the host interface, with each other, and the user. The lower four layers (Layers 4, 3, 2 and 1) define how data is transmitted between hosts in a network. 7. Application Provi rs 6. Presentation er Bnet! 5, Session applications eta eeut eaten 4. Transport Rey ce Bera 3. Network See te CMM Ae een 2. Data Link 1. Physical2.1 Application Layer: ‘The Application Layer provides the interface between the software application on a system and the network. This layer is the closest to the user. It enables network applications to communicate with other network applications. It includes FTP, TFTP, Telnet, SSH, DNS, DHCP, BGP, HTTP, RIP, ete. 2.2 Presentation Laye ‘As the name suggest, this layer presents data to the Application layer. The Presentation Layer is responsible for data translation and encoding. It will take the data from the Application layer and translate it into a generic format for transfer across the network. ‘This layer is also involved in data compression, decompression, eneryption, and decryption. 2.3 Session Layer: This layer is used to create connection between users, manage connection and terminate the connection. It is also used to separate the user's data, Here, Port number is used to separate the user's data. Port No. = 16 bits Total no, = 2'°= 65536 (range will be 0 - 65535) Well known port (0 - 1023) Unknown port (1024 - 65535) 2.4 Transport Layer: This layer establishes a logical connection between the two communicating hosts and provides reliable or unreliable data delivery and can provide flow control and error recovery. It includes TCP, UDP, SPX, etc. 2.5 Network Layer: This layer defines device addressing, routing, and path determination. Device (logical) addressing is used to identify a host on a network (c.g. by its IP address). Two types of protocols are used for these functions ~ routed protocols are used for logical addressing, and forwarding while ro ig protocols are used for path determinations. It is used to communicate between two different networks.Protocols used in this layer are ICMP, IP, EIGRP, OSPF, ete. Routers function at this layer. While the Network layer deals with data moving across networks using logical addresses, Data Link layer deals with data moving within a local network using physical addresses. Each host has a logical address and a physical address, The physical address is, only locally significant and is not used beyond the network boundaries (across a router). Switches and Bridges function at this layer. 2.7 Physical Layer: This layer deals with the physical transmission medium itself. It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical link between systems (host and switch for example). This is where the connectors, pin-outs, cables, electrical currents ete. are defined. Essentially this layer puts the data on the physical media as bits and receives it in the same way. ‘Hubs and Repeaters work at this layer. 103. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) : ICMP is a network layer protocol that reports errors and provides information related to IP packet processing. ICMP is used by network devices to send error messages indicating, for example, that a requested service is not available or that a host isn’t reachable. It is used to check the connectivity between source and destination and also find out the best path. Tt uses two services: ‘© Ping: Itis used to check connectivity between source and destination. 12.0.0.1 © sez Router PT Routed To Ping one device from another device, we have to write command as: Routers Boutertping 12.0.0.2 ‘Type escape sequence to abort Sending 5, 100-byte ICMP Echos to 12.0.0.2, timeout is 2 seconds Success rate is 100 percent (6/5), round-trip min/avg/max = A/4/i8 ms Rouvert ‘© Traceroute: Its used to check the path on which traffic is there, ‘Command to traceroute a device: Rourert Routert Routertecacercute 12.0.0.1 Type escape sequence to abort, Tracing the roure to 12.0.0.1 1 12.0.0.1 eo msec 2 msec 1 meee Rourert, By default, ICMP sends 5 ICMP packets with a time gap of 2 sec, if Destination sends reply to that, it connects. 14. IP (Internet Protocol): An IP address is 32 bits in length. To make the address easier to read, IP is a logical address by which to identify any network and host. it is divided into four sections of 8 bits each divided by a period. Each section is therefore, | byte (also called octet) long. Foreg: 10.1.1.0 ‘Two types: a) Private IP: used for connection between inside networks. Itis locally unique. b) Public IP: used for connection between inside network and outside network. It is globally unique. ‘To communicate with outside network, Private IP get converted into Public IP by the Router. Versions of IP: IPv4: vvy a) IPv4 b) IPv6 Address length is of 32 bits ‘Address is represented by 4 decimal numbers from 0-255 separated by periods. Maximum value is 2° Separated with dots. Eg: 10.1.1.1 ‘Maximum value of each octal = 28 = 256 (0 - 255) First octal should never be zero. Range Address length is of 64 bit. Address is represented by 8 groups of hexadecimal digits separated by colons. Maximum value is 2%, Eg: A524: 72D3 : 2C80 : DDO2 : 0029 : EC7A : 002B : EA73 2Each combination of the network component and the host component should be unique in the entire Internetwork. To make it easy to identify which portion of the address is network component and which one is the host component, addresses are broken down into 5 classes discussed below: Class A ~ The first byte (8 bits) is the network component and the remaining three bytes (24 bits) are host component (network host.host.host). This class is for an internetwork with small number of networks and large number of hosts per network. Range of first octal is 0-127. Class B — The first two bytes (16 bits) are the network component and the remaining two bytes are host components (network network.host.host), This class bridges the gap between Class A and Class C by providing for medium number of networks with medium number of hosts. Range of first octal is 128-191 Class C ~ The first three bytes (24 bits) are the network component and the last byte (8 bits) is the host components (network.network.network.host). This class provides for large number of networks with fewer hosts per network, Range of first octal is 192-223. Class D — Used for multicasting. Range of first octal is 224-239, Class E ~ Reserved addresses Range of first octal is 240-255. Eg: 1) 10,254.223.1 —+Class A 2) 10.256.184.1_ —t Invalid IP 3) 172.168.1192 —+Class B 4) 192.168.1.1 —> Class C 5) 0.1.1.5 ——y Invalid IP B5. Subnet Mask: It is used to tell how many bits are reserved for network and host in 32 bits IPv4, ‘Subnet Mask for different classes - For Class A: 255.0.0. For Class B: 255.255.0.0 For Class C: 255.255.255.0 There is no subnet mask for Class D & E because it is not assigned to host. No. of Network bit Then, Class A: 11111111,00000000.00000000.00000000 Network bit = 8 and Host bit = 24 Class B: 11111111.11111111,00000000.00000000 Network bit = 16 and Host bit = 16 Class Cr MML1111-11111111,11111111,00000000 Network bit = 24 and Host bit = 8 denoted as | and No. of Host bit is denoted as 0. No. of Hosts (End users) that can get IP=2"~2 ; n=no of host bits For Class A: No of host = 2 — 2 = 16777216 —2 = 16777214 For Class B: No of host = 2'— 2 = 65536 —2 = 65534 For Class C: No of host = 2°— 256-2 = 254 5.1 Network ID: Sayan IP, 10.1.254.1 (Class A) Subnet mask: 255.0.0.0 Therefore, Network ID: 10.0.0.0 Say another IP, 179.168.1.1 (Class B) ‘Subnet mask: 255.255.0.0 Therefore, Network ID: 179.168.0.0 45.2 Subnetting: In case of class A and B IP addresses, each of them provides for a large number of hosts. For class A, It is 16,777,216 hosts. Similarly for Class B, It is 65,534 hosts. So creating a network with total number of hosts allowed for class A or B addresses will cause a lot of problems. Meanwhile creating small networks with class A or B addresses will waste a lot of addresses. To overcome this problem with class based addressing, subnetting was introduced. ‘Subnetting allows you to borrow some host bits and use them to create more networks. These networks are commonly called subnets and are smaller in size. Eg: Say an IP, 192.168.1.0 (no of hosts = 254) Requirement for 100 PC No of wastage IP = 254 — 100 = 154 Stepl: 2° —2 = 256-2 = 254 (more wastage) 27 -2= 128-2 = 126 (less wastage) 2—2=64—2 = 62 (less than the requirement) ‘Therefore, n= 7 is selected (no of host bits) 2-7 = 25 bits Step2: No of network bits 14 aaa aiafalalalaliaja Dhan 1 0 00 000 0 Here, last 1 is at 128 block. Therefore, Block size = 128 ‘Subnet mask: 255.255.255.0 After subnetting: 255.255.255,(256-blocksize) = 255.255.255.128 (subnet mask for 100 PC) 192.168.1.0 (Network ID) 192.168.1.1 (1 IP) 192/168.1.127 192,168.1.128 Divided in two networks 1924168.1.254 (last IP) 192,168.1.255 (Broadcast ID) 15ROUTING Router is a device by which communication takes place between two different different networks. IP routing is the process of sending packets from a host on one network to another host on a different remote network. This process is usually done by routers. Fig: Router symbol Types of Routing := 1) Static Routing. 2) Default Routing 3) Dynamic Routing ____, a) IGP b) BGP / EGP 6.1 Static Routing is the method by which an administrator manually adds routes to the routing table of a router. Here, need for destination network ID is mandatory. It is used for small organizations with a network of 10-15 Routers. 16Parameters used: © Directly connected networks ‘* Indirectly connected networks ‘© Next hop ip ‘+ Default Gateway © Exit interface Router PT Router For above example: Directly connected networks RouterO : 12.0.0.0 & 14.0.0.0 Router! : 12.0.0.0 & 23.0.0.0 Router2 : 23.0.0.0 & 34.0.0.0 Router’ : 34,0.0.0 & 14.0.0.0 Indirectly connected networks Router : 23.0.0.0 & 34.0.0.0 Routerl : 34.0.0.0 & 14.0.0.0 Router2 : 12.0.0.0 & 14.0.0.0 Router3 : 12.0.0.0 & 23.0.0.0 Next hop ip Router : 12.0.0.2 & 14.0.04 Router! : 12.0.0.1 & 23.0.0.3 Router? ; 23.0.0.2 & 34.0.0.4 Router3 : 14.0.0.1 & 34.0.0.3 17To add static route, we use command on router as: So, From above example, Say, to ping Router with Router? We will write command on Routerd) as: RouterO(config)# ip route 23.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 12.0.0.2 (if via Router!) Router0(config)# ip route 34.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 14.0.04 (if via Router3) Default Gateway ip This is responsible for allowing a traffic in the network or from inside to outside of network. It is of same network ID. It is required to communicate between two or more different networks i.e, internetworks. It is not required for intranetworks. Disadvantages of Static Routing:- ‘The administrator needs to know the intemetwork so well that he/she knows where each destination network lies and which is the next hop towards it. ‘+ Every change needs to be manually done on each router in the internetwork. ‘+ In large networks this can be unmanageable. 6.2 Default Routing ‘This is the method where all routers are configured to send all packets towards a single router. Default routing can be considered a special type of static routing. The difference between a normal static route and a default route is that a default route is used to send packets destined to any unknown destination to a single next hop address. This is a very useful method for small networks or for networks with a single entry and exit point. ‘The command to add a default route is same as that of adding a static route, but with the network address and mask set to 0.0.0.0 as shown below: 18Disadvantage of Default Routing:- If there will be more than one next hop ip of a router, It will create problem when using Static and Default Routings, We will use Dynamic Routing instead 6.3 Dynamic Routing This is the method where protocols and algorithms are used to automatically propagate routing information. Using a routing protocol is ea er than static routing and default routing, but it is more expensive in terms of CPU and bandwidth usage. Every routing protocol defines its own rules for communication between routers and selecting the best route. Classification of Protocols: ‘+ IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol) RIP (Routing Information Protocol) EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) ‘+ BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol) Classes of Routing Protocols: ‘+ DVRP (Distance Vector Routing Protocol) + ADVRP (Advanced DVRP) ‘+ LSRP (Link State Routing Protocol) 6.3.1 DVRI As the name implies, distance vector routing protocols use distance to determine the best path to a remote network. The distance is something like the number of hops (routers) to the destination network. Distance vector protocols usually send the complete routing table to each n ibor (a neighbor is directly connected router that runs the same routing protocol). They employ some version of Bellman-Ford algorithm to calculate the best routes. 19‘We can better understand by following figure: Router PT Router Here, since bottom path having less hop count (= 2) than top path having hop count (3), therefore bottom path is the best path. Problems of DVRP: + Itisknown as Sub-optimal Routing, which means we have best path but traffic are going through backup path. © Hop-count should not be more than 15, otherwise destination will be unreachable, To avoid these two problems, ADVRP is used. 6.3.2 RIP: > Itisa layer 7 protocol. > It follows Distance vector Routing Protocol. > AD value is 120 > Metric: Hop count > Source IP: Exit interface IP > Destination IP: Multicast address (224.0.0.9) How to select best path? * AD value (lowest) ‘© Prefix length (highest) © Metric 20AD value is used to tell the trustworthiness of a protocol. Range of AD value: 0 — 255 Lower AD is best. For directly connected network, AD value = 0. Static AD value Default AD value= 1,2 RIP AD value= 120 LEIGRP AD value= 90 E-EIGRP AD value= 170 OSPF AD value= 110 IBGP AD value= 200 EBGP AD value=20 How to enable RIP? 2.0.0.1 2002 002 3.00.3 ee we roast oo ac ores ‘Command on Router): Router(config)# router rip Router(config)# network 12.0.0.0 ‘Command on Router!: Directly connected Router(config)# router rip ——> Network ID Router(config)# network 12.0.0.0 2‘Two versions of RIP: RIPVI RIPy2 * Itis by default version. Support auto-summary ‘© Destination IP will be broadcast ‘© Destination ip will be (255.255.255.255) ‘multicast (224.0.0.9) This ip is layer 3 broadcast. ‘© Class-full nature but we ean # Itdoes not support auto-summary. change into class-less, © Class-full nature ‘© Support authentication © Not more secure 6.3.3 EIGRP: Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) is an advanced distance-vector routing protocol that is used on a computer network for automating-routing decisions and configuration, + Itisa layer 3 protocol + Internal eigrp AD (administrative distance) value is 90. it is used for best path selection and its external AD value is 170. + Multicast address of eigrp is 224.0.0.10 + Protocol no is 88 and Max hop count is 255 + [Pheader has one port number through which we can get known in layer3 running protocol + Hello timer is Ssee and Hold down timer is 1Ssee Autonomous System number (AS no): AS no is of 16 bit and its range is 0 to 65535. AS no is a boundary which runs by group admin in every network. Ri (config) # router eigrp 100 Here 100 is used as an Autonomous System number. 2EIGRP Routing Tables © Routing table ‘+ Neighbor table © Topology table EIGRP vector metrics: EIGRP contacts five numerous vector metries in the midst of all path also considers merely ‘two of the vector metrics in the field of computing the Composite metric: K1: Bandwidth (max capacity of a link) K2: Load (utilization of capacity of a link) K3: Total Delay K4: Reliability KS: MTU (max transition unit) Only K1 & K3 are used to calculate metric. LON, 2 Sy sao fn a i . ___. - oO Sites sonea TN Fig: Example of EIGRP 2BConfiguration: Router# configure terminal Router(config)# router eigep 1 Router(config-routery# network 10.0.0.0 Router(config-router)# network 20.0.0.0 Router(config-router)# network 30,0.0.0 Router(config-router)# no auto-summary Router(config-router)# exit 6.3.4 OSPF * Iisa Layer 3 protocol. © Multicast address: 224.0.0.5 or 224.0.0.6 '* Protocol no: 89 © AD value: 110 © Metric: Cost ‘© Hello timer: 10 sec ‘© Hold timer: 40 see OSPF uses area to lower the CPU utilization, Area is 32 bit decimal value ‘Max range = 2? There are two types of area: 1) Normal area OSPF states: 7. ae ee DE 2) Backbone area (area 0) Down Init Two way Ex-start Ex-exchange Loading Full How to enable OSPF? We need process-id that is of 16 bits (range: 0 to 65535) 2Command: Router(config)# router ospf Hnetwork network-id wildeard-mask area-id Where, wildcard-mask = (255.255.255.255) — (Subnet-mask) Here, Router! & Router2 are ASBRs (Autonomous System Border Routers) ASBR because there are different IGPs at each area.64 Redistribution: It always performs on ASBR. It’s possible that we have multiple routing protocols on our network and we'll need some method to exchange routing information between the different protocols. This is called redistribution. Configuration: Router(config)# router eigrp 100 # redistribute OSPF | metric 111 111 _ Ka Ks Ke Ks # router OSPF | # redistribute eigrp 100 subnets exit 6SWITCHING ‘+ Itis.a Layer 2 device (Data link layer). ‘© Switch always take decisions on the basis of MAC address. ‘© Operating system is 10S. © Two config: Running & Startup (same as Routers) In atypical LAN, all hosts are connected to one central device. In the past, the device was usually @ hub, But hubs had many disadvantages, such as not being aware of traffic that passes through them, creating one large collision domain, etc. To overcome some of the problems with hubs, the bridges were created. They were better than hubs because they created multiple collision domains, but they had limited number of ports. Finally, switches were created and are still widely used today. Switches have more ports than bridges, can inspect incoming traffic and make forwarding decisions accordingly. Each port on a switch is a separate collision domain, Boe =e Fig: Switch symbol Basic properties of Switch: 1. Single broadcast domain by default, but it 2. Per port collision domain may be changed. 3. Per port bandwidth 277.1 MAC - Address: a0 Feo Poor PCT co Pct Say, PCO, PCI, PC2 and PC3 are MAC — Addresses © Itis a hardware address. © Unique for each device. © Itis of 48 bits. ‘* Ibis written in Hexadecimal, Representation is: aa:bb:cc:dd:01:00 If last bit is 0 mm globally unique MAC — Address (WAN) If last bit is 1mm locally unique MAC ~ Address (LAN) 7.2. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): © This isa Layer 2.5 protocol. + This is used to find out destination MAC ~ Address with the help of destination IP Address. ‘© This is used to find Layer? info with the help of Layer3 info. 28© We have to ping A to D © A will send packets to port | of switch as, ‘ARP s-10001 0-10.00. SIMA A b-mac-00.00 SMACOA Layer 2 MAC Broadcast (Doesn't Type ARP request contain IP) Properties of Switch: © Whenever Switch will receive any packets from any port, First Switch will check S-MAC on L2 header and store on its CAM table or MAC-Address table. © D-MAC find in CAM table If D-MAC is broadcast or non-unicast, Switch will flood information on all ports except from where it receives, ‘CAM table AQ1 D>4 © PC-4 will generate ARP reply packets towards PC-1, S1-10004 SMAC-D DaP~10.00.1 D-MAC-A SMAC-D. L DMAC~A ‘Type - ARP reply 297.3 CDP ( co Discovery Protocol): ‘+ Itis used to find how many cisco devices are connected with my cisco device. ‘+ Information present in CDP: L n MHL. Iv. V. How many cisco devices are connected Device type (Routers, Switches, etc.) My interface number Remote device interface number Which series of device are connected © CDPisaL2 protocol ‘© By default, itis enabled on switch © S-MACis exit interface MAC © D-MAC is multicast 7.4 Access Port & Trunk Port: — — —— Prot rao) > Fa0/0| Fa0/1 4 8 ‘+ Port by which user is connected with the switch, known as Access Port. (Sw — PC, Sw ~ Server, Sw ~ Printer) ‘* Port by which higher end devices are connected, known as Trunk Port. (Sw —~ Sw, Sw—Router, Sw ~ Firewall) 30Command for Access Port: Sw(config)# interface Fa0/0 # switehport mode access For Trunk Port: Sw(config)# interface Fa0/1 # switchport mode trunk '* Switchport works in L2 property. 7.5 VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network): VLAN is used to divide broadeast domain. ee Pc Pc2 ‘* By default, VLANI (native VLAN) is created in switch, and all ports will be member of this VLANI * Only same VLAN users can communicate with each other by default. * VLAN is always created on Access Port. Benefits of VLAN: 1. To divide Broadcast domain Il. Easy to troubleshoot IIL, Less complex IV. More secure 31© VLAN is of 12 bits, max range is 2'?= 4096 (i.c., 0-4095) O is reserved for voice VLAN. 1002 ~ 1005 is used for token ring. © VLAN is represented in decimals. Command for VLA‘ Sw(config)# VLAN 10 # name NAMEL exit # VLAN 20 # name NAME2 Hexit Command to add interface ports of switch in VLAN: Sw(config)# interface range Fa0/1, Fal/I # switchport mode access # switchport access VLAN 10 exit 7.6 DTP (Dynamic Trunking Protocol): * It is used to create automatic trunk between two switches. There are two modes: 1. Dynamic auto (only negotiate) Il. Dynamic desirable (initiate & negotiate both) 32— rao 20/1) —> — — Swi Swe ‘Sw(config)# interface Fa0/1 ‘Sw(config}# interface Fa0/1 # switchport mode # switchport mode dynamic auto Note: ‘Communicatior dynamic desirable n takes place between Auto «4» Auto Auto <> Desirable Desitable ¢—» Auto D ble «—» Desirable Auto and Auto can’t communicate because both are negotiating each other + By default, DTP is created at Switch. ‘* DTP Hello timer is 30 sec Hold ti 7.7VTP (VLAN Trui imer is 300 sec inking Protocol): It is used to create automatic VLAN from one switch to other switch. Modes of VTP: 1 I U1 Server: To create, delete and modify VLAN and also update from server to client. Client: Not create, not delete, only can take update from server. ‘Transparent: Create, delete but not update either server or client. Key points about VTP: n U1 If you want to create VTP, then your link between two switches should be trunk. VTP domain must be matched. VTP password must be matched 33Commands: ~ | command for host name on switches ‘Sw(config)# host server (or, transparent or client) - # vip password cena 1 ‘Command on all switches to match VTP domain & password # vtp domain cisco J # imerface +) command ona switches for # switehport mode trunk Ha ec aais | command Server( config) vip mode server (or, transparent or client) L | & ~ | switches Server(config) vlan 10 This command Hexit automatically #vlan 20 update the info incient Hexit 7.8 STP (Spanning Tree Protocol) It is used to avoid loop in switch. How to enable loop in switch? When switch will receive same MAC-Address on different interface, then this is the condition of loop. 34Switch C will receive same MAC-Address D from different interface. Versions of STP: 1. CST (Common Spanning Tree) Il, RSTP (Rapid STP) Il MST (Multiple STP) Above three are Open protocol. 1. PVST/ PVST+ (Per VLAN Spanning Tree) Il. RPVST/RPVST+ (Rapid PVST) u, MST Above three are Cisco protocols. Common terms used in CST: ‘* Root Bridge: It is a switch, which has all the information of topology. Loop ‘* Bridge ID: It has two information: Priority (16 bits) & MAC-Address. By default, Priority of all switches is 32768, Ifall the switches have same priority, then we check for MAC-Address. Switch] has A MAC-Address, which is least value other than B, C & D. Therefore Switch! will be Root Bridge. 35For example, say, Switch 1 & 2 have 32768 as priorities, and Switch 3 & 4 have 4096 as priorities. Now since C & D have less priorities, out of which C has less MAC-Address. Therefore, C will be Root Bridge. ‘+ BPDU (Bridge Protocol Data Unique): It is a message to share the information of Bridge ID between two Switches. After election of Root Bridge, Only Root Bridge can send BPDU, States of STP: 1) Disable 2) Block 3) Listening 4) Learning, 5) Forward ‘If there is any problem in physical state of switch or there will be no STP on switches, then it is Disable state. ‘In Listening state, Switch elect Port role. There are 3 types of Port: 1) Designated Port (DP) —+ Port by which send BDU 2) Block Port (BP) ———+ Port by which receive BPDU 3) Root Port (RP) ————+ Port by which receive non-best BPDU DP always on Root Bridge, BP & RP always on non- Root Bridge. 7.9 VPN (Virtual Private Network): Itis used private to private over public network. 201.0.0.1 Logical interface (tunnel interface) 36REFERENCES [1]. Todd Lammle (2001), CCNA, Sybex 2" Edition. [2] http://www. freeccnastudyguide.com/study-guides/ccna, [3]. https://study-ccna.com/ [4]. httos://www.youtube.com/channel/UCdimTmThimtuDTQpk7iMAew/