COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS

Data means facts.It can be defined as representations of facts or observations.

Information is data arranged in useful and meaningful form.

A computer is a programmable machine designed to sequentially and automatically carry out a

sequence of arithmetic or logical operations.
It has the ability to accept data, execute the program and perform mathematical and logical operations
on data.

HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

The first computing or calculating machine was introduced by the Chinese, the ABACUS.

It is a manual calculating device and is still used as a calculator in China. Abacus consist of a
rectangular wooden frame with horizontal rods. Beads made of stones, pearls wood or ivory
( having holes in it to pass through the rods). are placed in these rods. Counting is done by shifting the
beads from one place to another.

Napier's Bones

John Napier, a Scottish mathematician, developed a device having a set of rods made of bones.(so the
device is called napiers bone) for calculations involving multiplication.

Blaise Pascal invented a calculating machine called Pascaline. It was the first mechanical digital
calculator that can perform addition and subtraction on whole numbers.

Charles Babbage,a professor of mathematics gave the idea of a difference engine in 1812.
This machine could solve differential equations. Babbage continued his efforts and put forward an idea
of a machine that can do 60 calculations per second. This was called Analytical Engine which stamped
the foundation for modern computing. Therefore, Babbage is often considered as Father of modern
Computers.

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In 1945,Dr.John Von Neumann gave the idea of a stored program computer in which program is stored
in the main memory of the computer along with its associated data.
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was the first stored program computer.
The first modern electronic computer ENIAC(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) came
into existence in 1946.

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

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FEATURES OF FIRST GENERATION

1. Use of vacuum tubes technology

2. Magnetic core memories
3. Main application areas were scientific computation,payroll processing,record keeping etc.

Drawbacks:

High Electricity Consumption

Bulky in size and occupied a lot of space
Non Portable
Larger ACs were needed
Lot of electricity failures occured

Egs.: EDVAC,ENIAC,EDSAC,UNIVAC-I

FEATURES OF SECOND GENERATION

1. Transistors were used

2. Core Memory was developed
3. Faster than First Generation computers
4. First Operating System was developed
5. Programming was in Machine Language & Assembly Language
6. Magnetic tapes & discs were used
7. Computers became smaller in size than the First Generation computers
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 8. Computers consumed less electricity& generated less heat

Drawbacks:

1. Frequent Maintenance required

2. Air conditioning required due to large amount of heat generated

Egs.: IBM 700,Atlas etc.

FEATURES OF THIRD GENERATION

1. Integrated circuits developed

2. Power consumption was low
3. Sophisticated operating systems became available .
4. High level languages were used
5. Portable

Drawbacks:

1. Complex and sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of CPU and other
components.

Egs.: IBM 360/370 etc.

FEATURES OF FOURTH GENERATION COMPUTERS

1. LSI(Large Scale Integration) & VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration)Technology used
2. Development of CPU on a single chip(microprocessor)
3. Database Management System concept was developed.
4. Used in virtual reality, multimedia, simulation
5. Much faster in computation .
6. Different types of memories with very high accessing speed & storage capacity.

Egs.: HCL Workhorse,MAGNUM etc.

FEATURES OF FIFTH GENERATION COMPUTERS

● The ULSI (ultra large scale integration) technology is used in this generation of computers.
● Natural language processing is now in its fifth phase of development.
● In this generation’s computers, artificial intelligence has progressed.
● Parallel processing has advanced on these computers.
● The fifth-generation computer includes more user-friendly interfaces and multimedia functions.
● Computers that are more portable and powerful.
● Mainframe computers are extremely efficient.

Advantages of Fifth Generation of Computer

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 ● These computers are far quicker than previous generations.
● These computers are substantially smaller in size than other generation computers.
● They are lightweight and easy to move.
● True artificial intelligence is being developed.
● Parallel Processing has progressed.
● Superconductor technology has progressed.

Disadvantages of Fifth Generation of Computer

● They’re usually sophisticated but could be difficult to use.

● They can give businesses additional power to monitor your activities and potentially infect your
machine.

The fifth generation computers will have KIPS(Knowledge Information Processing System) in
contrast to the present DIPS/LIPS(Data/Logic Information Processing System).

Vacuum tube Monitor Transistor IC chip

PCB with Components Mounted

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Types of Computers-Analog,Digital and Hybrid Computers

Analog Computer:

Analog computer is that computer, which is use to process continuously varying data. Everything
we see and hear is change continuously. This changeable continuous stream of data is called
analog data. Analog computer can be used in scientific and industrial applications such as
measure the electrical current, frequency and resistance of capacitor, etc.

Digital Computer:

These are high speed electronic devices. These devices are programmable. They process data by
way of mathematical calculations, comparison, sorting etc. They accept input and produce output
as discrete signals representing high (on) or low (off) voltage state of electricity. Numbers,
alphabets, symbols are all represented as a series of 1s and 0s.

Difference Between Analog and Digital Computer

Hybrid Computer
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 - A hybrid computer is a combination of digital and analog computers and it combines the
best features of both types of computers.
- For example a petrol pump contains a processor that converts fuel flow measurement into
quantity and price.
- Hybrid computer is used in hospitals to measure the heartbeat of the patient.
- Hybrid computers are also used in scientific applications or in controlling industrial
processes.
- The first desktop hybrid computing system was the Hycomp 250, released by Packard Bell
in 1961.

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM

Basic Computer Organization

In Computer System, different parts of a computer are organized in such a way that, it helps to perform
various operations to complete a given specific task. A computer is a high-speed electronic data
processing machine. Computers are widely used to perform arithmetic calculations and logical
operations.

There are five basic operations. They are:

1. Input
2. Output
3. Control unit
4. Storage unit
5. Processing

1. INPUT: This operation is used to feed the information in the computer. The standard devices are
keyboard, Mouse-a pointing device, and card redirect. The input devices must accept the data from the
outside world and the computer needs to process that same data. The data or information feeded through
the keyboard is stored in the storage device.

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2. OUTPUT: This operation is used to display the feeded data or processed data. Some standard output
devices are monitor or screen, printer, etc. These output devices must accept the data, which was
processed by the processor. The processing is done in binary format and it must be converted to
understandable form.

3. CONTROL UNIT: This unit is used to control all the devices, which is helpful for processing. It
controls the inflow and outflow of data. It works like a traffic cop, which controls the movement of data
from memory to processing unit. We can also say it works as central nervous system of the computer.
Because it controls and co-ordinates all the devices, it must accept the value returned by the ALU and
also by the memory. There are a set of registers in the CPU.
A register is a set of temporary memory locations in the CPU and each register has a specific function to
perform.

4. STORAGE UNIT: Storage unit is used to store any kind of information. Whatever data is inserted or
fed through the keyboard is first stored in the memory for further processing. It must store the
intermediate results and also the final result. The memory in the storage unit is divided in the form of
cells. Each cell has an address.

5. Processing(CPU): Processing is done in Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU). Any data stored in the
memory flows through control unit to ALU for processing and the result is again stored in the memory,
which flows to control Unit. The combination of control unit and the ALU is called Processor.

CONCEPT OF BOOTING

In computing, booting (also known as booting up) is a bootstrapping process that starts operating
systems when the user turns on a computer system. A boot sequence is the initial set of operations that
the computer performs when power is switched on. The boot loader typically loads the main operating
system for the computer.

To boot (as a verb; also "to boot up") a computer is to load an operating system into the computer's main
memory or random access memory (RAM). Once the operating system is loaded it's ready for users to
run applications.

Types of Booting

Warm booting or soft booting is the process of restarting the computer from a state of hangup .
Cold booting is switching on the computer from a switched off state.

HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Hardware- is the collection of physical elements that constitute a computer system. It means the physical
equipment such as the monitor, keyboard, mouse CPU etc.
Computer hardware refers to the physical parts of a computer and related devices. Internal hardware
devices include motherboards, hard drives, and RAM. External hardware devices include monitors,
keyboards, mouse, printers, and scanners.

The internal hardware parts of a computer are often referred to as components, while external hardware
devices are usually called peripherals. Together, they all fall under the category of computer hardware.

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Software consists of the programs and applications that run on computers.
Software is a set of programs written in a language in order to control the applications.It is a collection
of computer programs and related data that provide the required instructions.
Software contains the collection of commands to be performed by the computer.

Categorisation of Software

Computer Systems divide software into three major categories:

System software Application software Utility software.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE

System software is a computer software designed to operate the computer hardware and to provide a
platform for running application software. They make the computer system user-friendly.
The most basic types of system softwares are:
● The Operating system, which allows the parts of a computer to work together by performing tasks
like transferring data between memory and disks or rendering output onto a display device. It also
provides a platform to run high-level system software and application software.
● Language converters such as Compiler, Interpreter and Assembler which convert the High
Level Language/Assembly language programs to Machine Language
● Loaders and Linkers
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Operating system

An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware, software resources, and provides
common services for computer programs.
An operating system (OS) is a system software, consisting of programs and data, that manages and
allocates the resources of the computer. It also controls the execution of application programs and acts
as an interface between the user and computer hardware.

Examples of popular modern PC/Server based operating systems are: Linux, Bharti OOS, BSD, Mac OS
X, Microsoft Windows and UNIX.
Examples of popular modern Mobile OS are: Android, Symbian

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The operating system must perform the following duties:

a) It must control the resources of the system

b) Chalk out a policy to efficiently manage the resources and enforce it.
c) Allocate the resources
d) Reclaim lost resources.

Functions of an Operating System:

An operating system is required to perform a variety of functions:

a) Processor Management
b) Memory Management
c) File Management
d) Device management

PROCESSOR MANAGEMENT

Processor Management is concerned with the management of physical processor i.e. the allocation of the
processes to a processor

The heart of managing the processor comes down to two related issues:

● Ensuring that each process and application receives enough of the processor's time to function
properly
● Using as many processor cycles as possible for real work

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MEMORY MANAGEMENT

This component is mainly concerned with managing the primary memory or the main memory.
When an operating system manages the computer's memory, there are two broad tasks to be
accomplished:

1. Each process must have enough memory in which to execute, and it can neither run into the
memory space of another process nor be run into by another process.
2. The different types of memory in the system must be used properly so that each process can run
most effectively.

It performs the following functions:

1) Keep track of the status of each memory location.

2) Selecting the allocation policy for the memory.
3) To update the allocation Information
4) To reclaim the free memory locations.

Memory Management techniques

Partitioning: In order to accomodate many programs in the main memory,it is divided into number of
partitions.The most simple way of partioning the memory is to have fixed size partitions.
Incase of unequal sized partitions ,there is also a limit to the max size of program that can be loaded in
the main memory.

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A better approach of portioning is to have variable sized partitions in the main memory.In this technique
, a memory of exactly the same size is allocated when a program is brought into the main memory.

Variable Sized Memory Allocation

Initially,there is no wastage of memory but gradually,the memory chunks are freed and are unable to
accommodate files or programs larger in size than their capacity.The remedy to this is that we relocate
the resident programs in such a manner that the fragmented memory becomes available in a form of a
big chunk.For eg:

Dynamic Reallocation of Memory

FILE MANAGEMENT

The data or information is stored on the disks always in the form of files. The File Management part of
the operating system manages the information stored in files. It deals with the management of data and
program, which resides on secondary storage device.The operating system keeps the information of files
in a table called File Allocation Table(FAT).
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DEVICE MANAGEMENT

The management of I/O devices like keyboard, printer,disks come under Device management. The
device management function of operating system manages and utilizes these devices in an efficient
manner.

Types of Operating System

Users interact with operating systems through Command Line Interfaces (CLIs) or Graphical User
Interfaces known as GUIs. In short, operating system enables user interaction with computer systems
by acting as an interface between users or application programs and the computer hardware. Here is an
overview of the different types of operating systems.

Real-time Operating System:

It is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time applications.
The computer systems that control machines such as nuclear reactors, guided missiles, industrial robots
etc. are called real time systems. The real time operating systems process the data and give the response
to the machines within the given time constraint. Such systems work under well defined time
constraints.

Distributed Operating System:

An operating system that allows a user sitting at one computer to access a file from a remote computer
in the same manner as it is accessed from the local one is known as a distributed operating system. A
distributed operating system manages a group of independent computers and makes them appear to be a
single computer.

A multitasking operating system allows two or more programs to run at the same time.
The operating system does this by swapping each program in and out of memory in turn. When a
program is swapped out of memory it is stored temporarily on disk until it is needed again. Windows
2000 is an example of a multitasking operating system.
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A multi-user operating system lets many users at different terminals share processing time on a
powerful central computer. The operating system does this by switching rapidly between the terminals
giving each one in turn a small amount of processor time on the central computer.
The operating system switches so quickly between the terminals that each user appears to have
uninterrupted access to the central computer.

Unix is a multi-user, multiprogramming and multitasking operating system.

Language Converters

The special translator system software that is used to translate the program written in a high-level
language (or Assembly language) into machine code is called language converter or translator program.

The language translators/processors are divided into three types.

a) Assemblers
b) Compilers
c) Interpreters

1. Assembler
The binary based language is called machine language because it is closest to the computer, an
electronic machine.
An assembly language uses symbolic codes instead of binary numbers. Each instruction of the
assembly language contains a symbolic operation code and a symbolic address, for eg., ADD A, LOAD
A,L, STORE B etc. There is one to one correspondence between machine language and assembly
language. For every binary code of machine language there is an equivalent symbol (mnemonic) in
assembly language.
An assembler is the third type of translator program. It is used to translate the program written in
Assembly language into machine code. An assembler performs the translation process in similar way
as compiler. But assembler is the translator program for low-level programming language, while a
compiler is the translator program for high-level programming languages.

The programs written in High Level language require a translator to be converted to machine
language.
A program written in an HLL is known as a source program.
The converted machine code is known as object code.

2.Compiler
The language processor that translates the source program as a whole in machine code before execution
is called compiler. The C and C++ compilers are best examples of compilers.
The program translated into machine code is called the object program. The source code is
translated to object code successfully if it is free of errors. If there are any errors in the source code,
the compiler specifies the errors at the end of compilation. The errors must be removed before the
compiler can successfully compile the source code. The object program can be executed a number of
times without translating it again.

3. Interpreter
The language processor that translates (converts) each statement of source program into machine code
and executes it immediately before it proceeds to translate the next statement is called Interpreter. If

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there is an error in the statement the interpreter terminates its translating process at that statement and
displays an error message. The GWBASIC is an example of interpreter.
The Interpreter differs from compiler that translates the entire source program into object program
before execution.
The main advantage of Interpreter is that it makes easy to trace out and correct errors in the source
program.
The main disadvantages of Interpreter are:
● It is a time consuming process of translating and executing statements one by one.

● Each time the program is run, the source code is translated and executed ,we need tohave a translator
program (Interpreter) permanently in your computer.

Difference between Compiler & Interpreter

Compiler Interpreter
1) It translates source code into object codes as a 1) It translates the statements of the source code
whole. one by one and executes immediately.
2) It creates an object file. 2) It does not create an object file.
3) Program execution is very fast. 3) Program execution is slow.
4) Translator program is not required to translate
4) Translator program is required to translate the
the program each time you want to run the
program each time you want to run the program.
program.
5) It makes it easier to correct the errors in the
5) It is not easy to isolate and debug the errors
source code.
6) Most of the high-level programming languages 6) A few high-level programming languages have
have compiler programs. an Interpreter program.

Loaders and Linkers

Linker – A software that merges the object files produced by separate compilation or assembly and
creates an executable file. It is the system program which is capable of combining all program modules
into a single machine language program

Loader- When a program is required for execution it is moved from the magnetic storage to the main
memory of the computer.The system program responsible for this activity is termed as a loader.It is the
Part that brings an executable file residing on disk into memory and starts executing it.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

It is the general designation of computer programs for performing user tasks.

Application software may be general purpose (word processing, web browsers, ...) or have a specific purpose
(accounting, truck scheduling, ...).
It can be generally defined as a software designed to solve user defined problems.

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A general-purpose application package is a type of software that can perform many different related tasks.
Word processors, spreadsheets, databases, graphics and presentation software are all examples of application
packages.
● It is relatively cheap;

● It is readily available and can be installed quickly and easily;

● It is thoroughly tested so there is a very little chance of it having any serious faults or ‘bugs’;

● It is supported with a lot of books about how to use it and is made available as on-line help as well.

Common types of general purpose software

● Database packages (e.g. MS Access, Lotus Approach, Paradox) are used to store and retrieve information;

● Spreadsheet packages (e.g. MS Excel, Lotus 123) are used for tasks that involve a lot of calculations or for
the production of graphs and charts;
● Word processing packages (e.g. MS Word, WordPerfect) are used to produce text based documents such as
letters, reports and memos;
● Desktop publishing (DTP) packages (e.g. MS Publisher, PageMaker, PagePlus) are used to produce
professional quality publications such as posters, books, newsletters, newspapers and magazines;
● Graphics packages (e.g. Paint, PaintBrush, Serif Draw, Corel Draw) are used to produce and manipulate
artwork;
● Computer-aided design (CAD) packages (e.g. 2D-Design, AutoCAD, TurboCAD) are used to produce
engineering designs and architectural plans;
● Communications software (e.g. Internet Explorer, Netscape Communicator) is used to access the Internet
and send and receive e-mail;
● Presentation graphics packages (e.g. PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance) are used to create slide shows and
presentations like this one which can be viewed on-screen or with a data or overhead projector;
● Web page editors (e.g. MS FrontPage, Macromedia Dreamweaver) are used to create Web pages.

UTILITY SOFTWARE

Utility software is a kind of system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize and maintain the
computer. A single piece of utility software is usually called a utility or tool.

Utility software usually focuses on how the computer infrastructure (including the computer hardware, operating
system, application software and data storage) operates. Due to this focus, utilities are often rather technical and
targeted at people with an advanced level of computer knowledge.

Egs:

Disk Defragmenter is a utility in Microsoft Windows designed to increase access speed by rearranging files
stored on a disk to occupy contiguous storage locations, a technique called defragmentation. Disk checkers can
scan the contents of a hard disk to find files or areas that are corrupted in some way, or were not correctly saved,
and eliminate them for a more efficiently operating hard drive.

Disk cleaners can find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up considerable amounts of space.
Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to delete when their hard disk is full.
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Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.

MEMORY

The memory is a device that is used to store data or programs (sequences of instructions) on a temporary
or permanent basis for use in an electronic digital computer. Computers represent information in binary
code, written as sequences of 0s and 1s.

Computer memory is divided into main (or primary) memory and auxiliary (or secondary) memory.
Main memory holds instructions and data when a program is executing, while auxiliary memory holds
data and programs not currently in use and provides long-term storage.

Primary storage (or main memory or internal memory), often referred to simply as memory, is the
only memory directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and
executes them as required.

The primary memory(RAM) is volatile i.e. the contents are erased as soon as the computer is switched
off. Also , the primary memory has a limited capacity .For these two reasons ,the auxiliary or secondary
memory is required.

Primary memory is of two types...RAM and ROM

A.)RAM: Random Access Memory. It is a type of memory, which access randomly . This type of
memory is also called Read/Write memory. That means the values are stored as well as it can be
retrieved from the memory.

There are two types of RAM:

(I) STATIC RAM: Values are stored throughout the process. It consumes more power.
(II) Dynamic RAM: Data stored in this memory must be refreshed in every milliseconds. Otherwise the
values are erased off. It consumes less power and is advantageous.

B.) ROM: Read Only Memory. The content in this memory is mainly used for reading purpose. The
program cannot be altered, added, or modified by the user. It typically
contains manufacturer’s instructions. Among other things, ROM also stores an initial
program called the ‘bootstrap loader’ whose function is to start the computer software-
operating system, once the power is turned on.

PROM: Programmable Read Only Memory. This is similar to ROM. Information once stored on the
ROM or PROM chip cannot be altered.

EPROM: Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. This type of ROM is used to make changes in
the ROM contents. The old programs must be deleted and new program must be added. Some portion of
the program cannot be altered. Whole program must be deleted and fresh or new Programs must be
loaded in the ROM chip.

EEPROM: Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory: ROM chip of this type is used to
erase a small portion of the program with the help of high voltage.
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Secondary storage (also known as external memory or auxiliary storage), differs from primary
storage as it is not directly accessible by the CPU. It is much cheaper than the main storage and stores
large amount of data and instructions permanently. The computer usually uses its input/output channels
to access secondary storage and transfers the desired data using intermediate area in primary storage.
Secondary storage does not lose the data when the device is switched off—it is non-volatile.

Primary Memory Secondary Memory

Directly accessible by CPU Not directly accessible by CPU
Volatile(RAM) Non-Volatile
Limited capacity unlimited capacity

Secondary storage Devices

Magnetic medium was found to be a fairly inexpensive and long lasting medium and, therefore, became
the preferred choice for auxiliary storage. Floppy disks and hard disks fall under this category. The
newer forms of storage devices are optical storage devices like CDs, DVDs, Pen drive, Zip drive etc.

Floppy Disks: This type of storage device is not commonly used nowadays. The disk is made of a
plastic cover coated with magnetic oxide, and it is covered with a hard plastic cover. Disk is divided in
the form of tracks and data is stored in these tracks as sectors.

The Compact Disc (also known as a CD) is an optical disc used to store digital data. It was originally
developed to store and playback sound recordings exclusively, but later expanded to encompass data
storage (CD-ROM), write-once audio and data storage (CD-R), rewritable media (CD-RW), Video
Compact Discs (VCD) etc.

Magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin magnetizable coating on a long,
narrow strip of plastic. Devices that record and play back audio and video using magnetic tape are tape
recorders and video tape recorders. A device that stores computer data on magnetic tape is a tape drive
(tape unit, streamer).

DVD
Acronym for Digital Versatile Disc or digital video disc, a type of optical disk technology similar to the
CD-ROM. A DVD holds a minimum of 4.7GB of data, enough for a full-length movie. DVDs are
commonly used as a medium for digital representation of movies and other multimedia presentations
that combine sound with graphics.

A USB flash drive consists of a flash memory data storage device integrated with a USB (Universal
Serial Bus) interface. USB flash drives are typically removable and rewritable, and physically much
smaller than a floppy disk.

A memory card / memory stick or flash card is an electronic flash memory data storage device used
for storing digital information. They are commonly used in many electronic devices, including digital
cameras, mobile phones, laptop computers, MP3 players, and video game consoles. They are small, re-
recordable, and able to retain data without power.

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Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory. It is used for speeding up and synchronizing with
high-speed CPU. Cache memory is costlier than main memory or disk memory but economical than
CPU registers. Cache memory is an extremely fast memory type that acts as a buffer between
RAM and the CPU. It holds frequently requested data and instructions so that they are
immediately available to the CPU when needed.
Cache memory is used to reduce the average time to access data from the Main memory. The cache is a
smaller and faster memory which stores copies of the data from frequently used main memory locations.
There are various different independent caches in a CPU, which store instructions and data.

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Units of Computer Memory Measurements:

1 Bit =1 Binary Digit

4 bits=1 Nibble
8 Bits = 2 nibbles=1 Byte

1024 Bytes = 1 KB (KiloByte)

1024 KB = 1 MB (MegaByte)
1024 MB = 1 GB(GigaByte)
1024 GB = 1 TB(Terabyte)
1024 TB = 1 PB(PetaByte)
1024 PB = 1 EB(ExaByte)
1024 EB = 1 ZB(ZettaByte)
1024 ZB = 1 YB (YottaByte)
1024 YB = 1 (BrontoByte)
1024 Brontobyte = 1 (GeopByte)
Geop Byte is The Highest Memory Measurement Unit!!!

ASSIGNMENT
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1. Write a short note on the following:
a)Hardware b) Software
c) Loaders d) Linkers

2. How is primary memory different from secondary memory? Give advantages and disadvantages
of both.

3. Define application software. Give any two examples.

4. What are the different types of system softwares? Give an example of each.

5. Differentiate between the following:

i. Digital Computers and Analog computers
ii. R/W Memory and Read Only Memory
iii. Static and dynamic Memory

6. Draw the block diagram of a Computer System and explain the flow of information through
various subsystems.

7. List out the basic characteristics of computers in each generation. Also, list various hardware and
software used in each one of them. Give one example from each generation.

8. What is an operating system? Explain its need and functions.

9. What do you understand by the term Booting? Explain in brief the difference between cold
booting and warm booting.

10. Differentiate between Compiler and Interpreter.

11. Write a short note on the following:

a)Types of ROM b) Utility software c)high level language and low
level language

12. Briefly explain cache memory.What is its utility.Illustrate it with a diagram.

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