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Reference Manual 
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CONTENTS

SNo Topics Page Number

1. BASIC SQL COMMANDS 4

2. CONSTRAINTS 15

3. OPERATORS IN SQL*PLUS 23

4. FUNCTIONS:SINGLE ROW AND GROUP 25

FUNCTIONS

5. JOINS 35

6. VIEWS 47

7. PL/SQL 52

8. PL/SQL BLOCK SYNTAX AND GUIDELINES 52

9 CONTROL STRUCTURES IN PL/SQL 70

10 CURSORS 78

11 EXCEPTIONS 85

12 PL/SQL BLOCK TYPES:Anonymous blocks and 90

Subprograms

13 PACKAGES 98

14 TRIGGERS 103

3 

 
  

SQL STATEMENTS
SQL statements are classified as follows:
Data Retrieval Statement:
SELECT is the data extracting statement which retrieves the data from the database.
Data Manipulation Language (DML):
This language constitutes the statements that are used to manipulate with the data. It has
three commands, which are INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE.
Data Definition Language (DDL):
This is the language used to define the structure of the tables. It sets up, changes, and
removes data structures from the tables. It uses 5 commands, which are CREATE, ALTER,
DROP, RENAME and TRUNCATE.
Data Transaction Language (DTL):
This is the language used to do undo and redo the transaction performed in the database.
The commands are Commit, Rollback, and Save Point
Data Control Language:
This language is used to sanction the rights to the users to use the other user’s database
objects. The commands are Grant and Revoke
Consider the following schema based on which the example queries are discussed in this manual.
BASE SCHEMA
EMPLOYEE

Name Type
-------------------------- ----------------------
EMPLOYEE_ID NUMBER(3)
FIRST_NAME VARCHAR2(10)
LAST_NAME VARCHAR2(10)
MGR NUMBER(4)
HIRE_DATE DATE
JOB_ID VARCHAR2(10)
SALARY NUMBER(10)
COMMISION NUMBER(8)
DEPTNO NUMBER(2)

4 

 
  

DEPARTMENT

Name Type
--------------- -----------------
DEPTNO NUMBER(2)
DNAME VARCHAR2(14)
LOC VARCHAR2(13)

BONUS

Name Type
---------------- -------------------
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
JOB VARCHAR2(9)
SAL NUMBER(10,2)
COMM NUMBER(10)

JOBGRADE

Name Type
----------------- ---------------------
JOB_ID VARCHAR2(10)
GRADE NUMBER
LOSAL NUMBER
HISAL NUMBER

DATA TYPES IN ORACLE:

Data Type Description

VARCHAR2(size) Variable-length character data
CHAR(size) Fixed-length character data
NUMBER(p,s) Variable-length numeric data
DATE Date and time values
LONG Variable-length character data up to 2 gigabytes
CLOB Character data up to 4 gigabytes
RAW and LONG RAW Raw binary data
BLOB Binary data up to 4 gigabytes
BFILE Binary data stored in an external file; up to 4 gigabytes

5 

 
  

A 64 base number system representing the unique address of a row in

ROWID
its table
 

ORACLE 9I TABLE STRUCTURES

ƒ Table can be created at any time

ƒ No need to specify the size of table, the size is ultimately defined by the amount of space
allocated to the database as a whole.
ƒ Tables can have up to 1000 columns
NAMING RULES
Table names and Column names
• Must begin with a letter
• Must be 1-30 characters long
• Must contain only A-Z,a-z,0-9,_,$,#
• Must not duplicate the name of another object owned by the same user
• Must not be a reserved word

Data Definition Language (DDL)

The following are the DDL Commands:

1. Create 2. Alter 3. Drop 4. Truncate 5. Rename

1. a. Creating a table
Syntax:
Create table <Table Name>
( <Field1> <Data Type> <(width) <constraints> ,
<Field2> <Data Type> <(width)> <constraints>,
..................................);

Example:

SQL> create table employee

6 

 
  

( employee_id number(3),

first_name varchar2(10),

last_name varchar2(10),

mgr number(4),

hire_date date,

job_id varchar2(10),

salary number(10),

commision number(8),

deptno number(2));

Output:

Table created.

Example:

SQL> create table department

(deptno number(2),

dname varchar(14),

loc varchar(13));

Output:

Table created.

Note:

Other tables can be created in the similar way.

b. To view the Structure of the table, desc command is used

SQL> desc employee;

Name Null? Type

-------------------------------------- -------- ---------------
EMPLOYEE_ID NUMBER(3)
7 

 
  

FIRST_NAME VARCHAR2(10)
LAST_NAME VARCHAR2(10)
MGR NUMBER(4)
HIRE_DATE DATE
JOB_ID VARCHAR2(10)
SALARY NUMBER(10)
COMMISION NUMBER(8)
DEPTNO NUMBER(2)
2. Alter Table Statement:
Alter command is used to perform the following action on the table:
a. Adding column in the existing table
b. Increasing and decreasing the column size and changing data types
c. Dropping column
d. Renaming the column
e. Adding and dropping constraints to the table( discussed in constraints topics)
f. Enabling & disabling constraints in the table( discussed in constraints topics)
a. To Add a column to the table (structure)
Add option is used to add a new column
Syntax:
Alter Table <Table-Name> Add <Field Name> <Type> (width);
Example:
SQL> alter table employee add address varchar2 (20);
Output:
Table altered.
b. To Modify a field of the table

ƒ Increase the width or precision of numeric column

ƒ Increase the width of numeric or character columns
ƒ Decrease the width of the column only if the column contains only null values or if the table
has no rows
ƒ Change the data type only if the column contains null values
8 

 
  

Syntax:
Alter Table <tablename> MODIFY ( <column name > < newdatatype>);
Example:
SQL> alter table employee modify address varchar2 (10);
Output:
Table altered.
c. To Drop a field of the table
Drop option is used to delete a column or remove a constraint
Syntax:
Alter Table <tablename> DROP COLUMN < column name>;
Example:
SQL> alter table employee drop column address;
Output:
Table altered.
d.To rename a column
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE <tablename> RENAME COLUMN <oldcolumnname> TO
<newcolumn name>
Example:
SQL> alter table employee rename column mgr to manager;
Output:
Table altered.
• To Drop a table - Deletes a Table along with all contents
Syntax:
Drop Table <Table-Name>;

Example:
Drop Table Student_table;
Output:
Table Dropped
9 

 
  

• To Truncate a table - Deletes all rows from a table ,retaining its structure
Syntax: Truncate Table <tablename>
Example:
SQL> truncate table employee;
Output:
Table truncated.
g. To rename a table- Renames a table with new name
Syntax:
Rename <oldtablename> To <newtablename>
Example:
SQL> rename employee to emp;
Output:
Table renamed

Data manipulation Language (DML)

The following are the DML Commands: 1. Insert 2. Delete 3. Update 4. Select
Insert command is used to load data into the table.
a. Inserting values from user
Syntax:
Insert into <tablename> values ( val1,val2 …);
Example: 
SQL> insert into department values(10,'accounts','chennai');
Output:
1 row created.
b. Inserting values for the specific columns in the table
Syntax:
Insert Into <Table-Name> (Fieldname1, Fieldname2, Fieldname3,..) Values (value1, value2,
value3,..);
Example: 
 SQL> insert into department (deptno,dname)values(20,'finance');
10 

 
  

Output:
1 row created.
c. Inserting interactively(Inserting ,ultiple rows by using single insert command)
Syntax:
Insert Into <tablename> Values( &<column name1> , &<column name2> …);
Example: 
SQL> insert into employee values(&empid,'&fn','&ln',&mgr,'&hdate','&job',&sal,
&comm,&dept);
Enter value for empid: 111
Enter value for fn: Smith
Enter value for ln: Ford
Enter value for mgr: 222
Enter value for hdate: 21-jul-2010
Enter value for job: J1
Enter value for sal: 30000
Enter value for comm: 0.1
Enter value for dept: 10
old 2: &comm,&dept)
new 2: 0.1,10)
Output:
1 row created.
Note: Column names of character and date type should be included with in single quotation.
• Inserting null values
Syntax:
Insert Into <tablename> Values ( val1,’ ‘,’ ‘,val4);
Example:
insert into department values( ‘101’,’’,chennai);
Output:
1 row created.
2. To Delete rows from a table
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Syntax:
Delete from <table name> [where <condition>];
Example:
a) to delete all rows:
SQL> delete from department;
Output:
89 rows deleted.
b) conditional deletion:
SQL> delete from department where loc='chennai';
Output:
1 row deleted.
3. Modifying (Updating) Records:
a. Updating single column
Syntax:
UPDATE <table name> Set <Field Name> = <Value> Where <Condition>;
Example:
SQL> update department set loc='Hyderabad' where deptno=20;
Output:
1 row updated.
Note: Without where clause all the rows will get updated.
b. Updating multiple column [while updating more than one column, the column must be
separated by comma operator]
Example: SQL> update department set loc='Hyderabad', dname= ‘cse’ where deptno=20;
Output:
1 row updated.
4. Selection of Records [Retrieving (Displaying) Data:]
Syntax:
Select <field1, field2 …fieldn> from <table name> where <condition>;
Example:
a) SQL> select * from department;
12 

 
  

Output:
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
---------- -------------- -------------
10 accounts chennai
20 finance Hyderabad
30 IT Bangalore
40 marketing chennai
Example:
b) SQL> select dname, loc from department;
Output:
DNAME LOC
-------------- -------------
accounts chennai
finance Hyderabad
IT Bangalore
marketing Chennai

• Using Alias name for a field

Syntax:
Select <col1> <alias name 1> , <col2> < alias name 2> from < tab1>;
Example:
SQL> select dname, loc as location from department;
Output:
DNAME LOCATION
-------------- -------------
accounts chennai
finance Hyderabad
IT Bangalore
marketing Chennai

• With distinct clause [Used to retrieve unique value from the column]
Syntax:
Select distinct <col2> from < tab1>;
Example:
SQL> select distinct loc from department;
Output:

13 

 
  

LOC
-------------
chennai
Bangalore
Hyderabad

• Creating Table using subquery

Syntax:
Create table <new _table_name> as Select <column names> from <old_table_name>;
Example:
SQL> create table copyOfEmp as select * from employee;
Output:
Table created.
• To view the contents of new Table
SQL> select * from copyofemp;
Output:
EMPLOYEE_ID FIRST_NAME LAST_NAME MANAGER HIRE_DATE JOB_ID
SALARY COMMISION DEPTNO
111 Smith Ford 222 21-JUL-10 J1 30000
0.1 10
• To create a table with same structure as an existing table
Syntax:
Create table <new _table_name> as Select <column names> from<old_table_name>
where 1=2;
Example:
create table copyOfEmp2 as select * from employee where 1=2;
Output: Table created.
SQL> select * from copyofemp2;
Output:
no rows selected

SQL> desc copyofemp2;

14 

 
  

Output:
Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- -----------------
EMPLOYEE_ID NUMBER(3)
FIRST_NAME VARCHAR2(10)
LAST_NAME VARCHAR2(10)
MANAGER NUMBER(4)
HIRE_DATE DATE
JOB_ID VARCHAR2(10)
SALARY NUMBER(10)
COMMISION NUMBER(8)
DEPTNO NUMBER(2)

Note: Only structure of table alone is copied and not the contents.

• Inserting into table using a subquery

Syntax :
Insert into <new_table_name> (Select <columnnames> from <old_table_name>);

Example:
SQL> insert into copyofemp2 (select * from employee where employee_id > 100);
Output:
50 rows created.

Constraints

• Constraints enforce rules on the table whenever rows are inserted, updated and deleted
from the table.
• Prevents the deletion of a table if there are dependencies from other tables.
• Name a constraints or the oracle server generate name by using SYS_cn format.
• Define the constraints at column or table level. constraints can be applied while creation
of table or after the table creation by using alter command.

15 

 
  

• View the created constraints from User_Constraints data dictionary.

Constraints Types

CONSTRAINT DESCRIPTION

NOT NULL Specifies that a column must have some value.

UNIQUE Specifies that columns must have unique values.

PRIMARY KEY Specifies a column or a set of columns that uniquely identifies as row.
It does not allow null values.

FOREIGN KEY Foreign key is a column(s) that references a column(s) of a table.

CHECK Specifies a condition that must be satisfied by all the rows in a table.

1. Creating Constraints without constraint name

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE < tablename> (

<column name 1> < datatype>,
<column name 2> < datatype> UNIQUE ,
<column name 3> < datatype> ,
PRIMARY KEY ( <column name2>)
);
Example:

16 

 
  

CREATE TABLE emp_demo2

( employee_id NUMBER(6) PRIMARY KEY,
first_name VARCHAR2(20) NOT NULL,
last_name VARCHAR2(25) NOT NULL,
email VARCHAR2(25) UNIQUE,
phone_number VARCHAR2(20) UNIQUE,
job_id VARCHAR2(10),
salary NUMBER(8,2) CHECK(SALARY>0),
deptid NUMBER(4)
);
2. Creating constraints with constraint name

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE < tablename1> (
<column name 1> < datatype> CONSTRAINT <constraint name1> UNIQUE,
<column name 2> < datatype> CONSTRAINT <constraint name2> NOT NULL,
constraint < constraint name3 > PRIMARY KEY ( <column name1>),
constraint <constraint name4> FOREIGN KEY (<column name2>)
REFERENCES <tablename2> (<column name1>)
);

Example:
CREATE TABLE emp_demo3
( employee_id NUMBER(6) CONSTRAINT emp_eid PRIMARY KEY,
first_name VARCHAR2(20),
last_name VARCHAR2(25) CONSTRAINT emp_last_name_nn NOT NULL,
email VARCHAR2(25) CONSTRAINT emp_email_nn NOT NULL,
phone_number VARCHAR2(20),
job_id VARCHAR2(10) CONSTRAINT emp_job_nn NOT NULL,

17 

 
  

salary NUMBER(8,2) CONSTRAINT emp_salary_nn NOT NULL,

deptid NUMBER(4), CONSTRAINT emp_dept FOREIGN KEY(deptid)
REFERENCES department(deptid) ,
CONSTRAINT emp_salary_min CHECK (salary > 0) ,
CONSTRAINT emp_email_uk UNIQUE (email)
);
3. With check constraint

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE < tablename> (
<column name1 > < datatype> ,
<column name 2> < datatype>,
CHECK ( < column name 1 > in ( values) )
CHECK ( < column name 2 > between <val1> and <val2> ) );

Example:
CREATE TABLE emp_demo4
( emp_id NUMBER(6),
emp_name VARCHAR2(15),
salary NUMBER(10) CHECK (salary between 1000 and 10000)
);
Adding Constriants

Constraints can be added after the table creation by using alter command

Syntax: Add constraints

ALTER TABLE <tablename> ADD CONSTRAINT <constraint_name> constriant_type

(<column name>);

Examples:

ALTER TABLE emp_demo4 ADD CONSTRAINT con_pk1 PRIMARY KEY(emp_id);

18 

 
  

ALTER TABLE emp_demo4 ADD CONSTRAINT con_emp_uk UNIQUE(phoneno);

ALTER TABLE emp_demo4 ADD CONSTRAINT con_empfk FOREIGN KEY(DNO)

REFERENCES department(dno);

ALTER TABLE emp_demo4 ADD CONSTRAINT con_emp_ck CHECK ( salary >0 );

ALTER TABLE emp_demo4 MODIFY (<Column name> <datatype> CONSTRAINT

constraint_name NOT NULL);

Drop Constraints

Syntax

ALTER TABLE <tablename> DROP CONSTRAINT < constraint name >;

Drop the unique key on the email column of the employees table:

e.g ALTER TABLE employees DROP UNIQUE (email);

CASCADE Constraints

The CASCADE Constraints clause is used along with the Drop Column Clause.

• A foreign key with a cascade delete means that if a record in the parent table is deleted,
then the corresponding records in the child table will automatically be deleted. This is
called a cascade delete.
• A foreign key with a cascade delete can be defined in either a CREATE TABLE statement or
an ALTER TABLE statement.
Syntax:

CREATE TABLE table_name

(column1 datatype null/not null,
column2 datatype null/not null,
...
CONSTRAINT fk_column
FOREIGN KEY (column1, column2, ... column_n)

19 

 
  

REFERENCES parent_table (column1, column2, ... column_n)

ON DELETE CASCADE
);
Example:

CREATE TABLE supplier

(supplier_id number(10)not null,
supplier_namevarchar2(50)not null,
contact_namevarchar2(50),
CONSTRAINT supplier_pk PRIMARY KEY (supplier_id));

CREATE TABLE products

(product_id number(10)not null,
suppl_id number(10) not null,
CONSTRAINT fk_supplier FOREIGN KEY (suppl_id) REFERENCES
supplier(supplier_id) ON DELETE CASCADE);
Because of the cascade delete, when a record with a particular supplier_ id is deleted
from supplier table , then all the records of the same supplier_id will be deleted from products
table also.

Operators in SQL*PLUS
Type Symbol / Keyword Where to use

Arithmetic +,-,*,/ To manipulate numerical column values,

WHERE clause

Comparison =, !=, <, <=, >, >=, between, not WHERE clause
between, in, not in, like, not like

Logical and, or, not WHERE clause, Combining two queries

20 

 
  

• Between..And..
Example:
SQL> select first_name, deptno from employee where salary between 20000 and 35000;
Output:
FIRST_NAME DEPTNO
---------- ----------
Smith 10

• IN
Example:
SQL> select first_name, deptno from employee where job_id in ('J1','J2');
Output:
FIRST_NAME DEPTNO
---------- ----------
Smith 10
Arun 30
Nithya 10

• NOT IN
Example:
SQL> select dname,loc from department where loc not in ('chennai','Bangalore');
Output:
DNAME LOC
-------------- -------------
finance Hyderabad

• Like
Use the LIKE condition to perform wild card searches of valid search string values.

Search conditions can contain either characters or numbers

% - denotes zero or many characters.

21 

 
  

_ - denotes one character.

Example:
SQL> select dname,loc from department where loc like 'c%';
Output:
DNAME LOC
-------------- -------------
accounts chennai
marketing Chennai

Example:
SQL> select dname,loc from department where loc like 'chen_ _ _';
Output:
DNAME LOC
-------------- -------------
accounts chennai
marketing Chennai
Example:
SQL> select dname,loc from department where loc not like 'c%';
Output:
DNAME LOC
-------------- -------------
finance Hyderabad
IT Bangalore

• Between..and..
Example:
SQL> select first_name, deptno, salary from employee where salary not between 20000 and
35000;
Output:
FIRST_NAME DEPTNO SALARY
---------- ---------- ----------
Arun 30 40000
Nithya 10 45000

Note: Inserting null value into location column of department table

22 

 
  

Example:
SQL> insert into department(deptno,dname) values(40,'Sales');

Output:
1 row created.
• is Null
Example:
SQL> select * from department where loc is null;
Output:
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
---------- -------------- -------------
40 Sales

Example:
SQL> select * from department where loc is not null;
Output:
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
---------- -------------- -------------
10 accounts chennai
20 finance Hyderabad
30 IT Bangalore
40 marketing chennai

LOGICAL OPERATORS: Used to combine the results of two or more conditions to produce a
single result. The logical operators are: OR, AND, NOT.
Operator Precedence
• Arithmetic operators-Highest precedence
• Comparison operators
• NOT operator
• AND operator
• OR operator----Lowest precedence
23 

 
  

The order of precedence can be altered using parenthesis.

Example:
SQL> select first_name, deptno, salary from employee where salary > 20000 ;

Output:
FIRST_NAME DEPTNO SALARY
---------- ---------- ----------
Smith 10 30000
Arun 30 40000
Nithya 10 45000

Example:
SQL> select first_name, deptno, salary from employee
where salary > 20000 and salary < 35000;
Output:
FIRST_NAME DEPTNO SALARY
---------- ---------- ----------
Smith 10 30000

Example:
SQL> select first_name, deptno, salary+100 from employee where salary > 35000;
Output:
FIRST_NAME DEPTNO SALARY+100
---------- ---------- ----------
Arun 30 40100

Example:
SQL> update employee set salary = salary+salary*0.1 where employee_id = 111;
Output:
1 row updated.
Example:
SQL> select * from department where loc = 'chennai' or dname='IT';
24 

 
  

Output:
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
---------- -------------- -------------
10 accounts chennai
30 IT Bangalore
40 marketing chennai
 
FUNCTIONS

• Single Row Functions

• Group functions

Single Row Functions

Returns only one value for every row can be used in SELECT command and included in
WHERE clause

Types

• Character functions

• Numeric functions

• Date functions

CHARACTER FUNCTIONS:
Character functions accept a character input and return either character or number values. Some
of them supported by Oracle are listed below
Syntax Description

initcap (char) Changes first letter to capital

lower (char) Changes to lower case

upper (char) Changes to upper case

ltrim ( char, set) Removes the set from left of char

rtrim (char, set) Removes the set from right of char

translate(char, from, to) Translate ‘from’ anywhere in char to ‘to’

25 

 
  

replace(char, search string, replace string) Replaces the search string to new

substr(char, m , n) Returns chars from m to n length

lpad(char, length, special char) Pads special char to left of char to Max of
length

rpad(char, length, special char) Pads special char to right of char to Max of
length

chr(number) Returns char equivalent

length(char) Length of string

Examples:
Function Input Output
Initcap(char) SQL>select initcap(‘hello’) from dual; Hello
Lower(char) SQL>select lower(‘FUN’) from dual; fun
Upper(char) SQL>select upper(‘sun’) from dual; SUN
Ltrim(char, set) SQL>select ltrim(‘xyzhello’,’xyz’) from dual; hello
Rtrim(char, set) SQL>select rtrim(‘xyzhello’,’llo’) from dual; xyzhe
translate(char,from,to) SQL>select translate(‘jack’,’j’,’b’) from dual; back

Replace(char,from,to) SQL>select replace(‘jack and jue’,’ j’, ’bl’) from black and blue
dual;
Example:
SQL> select initcap(dname) from department;
Output:
INITCAP(DNAME)
--------------
Accounts
Finance
It
Marketing
Sales
Lpad is a function that takes three arguments. The first argument is the character string which
has to be displayed with the left padding. The second is the number which indicates the total
26 

 
  

length of the return value, the third is the string with which the left padding has to be done when
required.
Example:
SQL> select lpad(dname,15,'*') lpd from department;
Output:
LPD
---------------
*******accounts
********finance
*************IT
******marketing
**********Sales
Example:
SQL> select rpad(dname,15,'*') rpd from department;
Output:

RPD
---------------
accounts*******
finance********
IT*************
marketing******
Sales**********

Length: returns the length of a string

Example:
SQL> select dname, length(dname) from department;
Output:
DNAME LENGTH(DNAME)
-------------- -------------
accounts 8
finance 7
IT 2
marketing 9
Sales 5

Concatenation operator ||: is used to merge or more strings.

27 

 
  

Example:
SQL> select dname || ' is located in ' || loc from department;

Output:
DNAME||'ISLOCATEDIN'||LOC
------------------------------------------
accounts is located in chennai
finance is located in Hyderabad
IT is located in Bangalore
marketing is located in chennai
Sales is located in

NUMERIC FUNCTIONS:
Numeric functions accept numeric input and returns numeric values as output.

Syntax Description

abs ( ) Returns the absolute value

ceil ( ) Rounds the argument

cos ( ) Cosine value of argument

exp ( ) Exponent value

floor( ) Truncated value

power (m,n) N raised to m

mod (m,n) Remainder of m / n

round (m,n) Rounds m’s decimal places to n

trunc (m,n) Truncates m’s decimal places to n

sqrt (m) Square root value

Examples:

Function Input Output

Abs( n) SQL>select abs(-15) from dual 15

28 

 
  

Ceil(n) SQL>select ceil(48.778) from dual; 49

Cos(n) SQL>select cos(180) from dual; -0.59884601
Cosh(n): SQL>select cosh(0) from dual; 1
Exp(n) SQL>select exp(4) from dual; 54.59815
Floor(n) SQL>select floor(4.678) from dual; 4
Power(m ,n) SQL>select power(5,2) from dual; 25
Mod(m ,n) SQL>select mod(11,2) from dual; 1
Round(m ,n) SQL>select round(112.257,2) from dual; 112.26

Example:
SQL> select ln (2) from dual; (returns natural logarithm value of 2)
SQL>select sign (-35) from dual; (output is -1)

CONVERSION FUNCTIONS: Convert a value from one data type to another.

• To_char ( )
To_ char (d [,fmt]) where d is the date fmt is the format model which specifies the format of the
date. This function converts date to a value of varchar2datatype in a form specified by date
format fmt.if fmt is neglected then it converts date to varchar2 in the default date format.
Example:
SQL> select to_char (hire_date, 'ddth "of" fmmonth yyyy') from employee;

Output:

TO_CHAR(HIRE_DATE,'DDT
----------------------
21st of july 2010
05th of june 2008
12th of february 1999

• To_ date ( )
The format is to_date (char [, fmt]). This converts char or varchar data type to date data type.
Format model, fmt specifies the form of character.
Example:

29 

 
  

SQL>select to_date (‘December 18 2007’,’month-dd-yyyy’) from dual;

Output:

18-DEC-07 is the output.

Example:
SQL> select round(hire_date,'year') from employee;
Output:

ROUND(HIR
---------
01-JAN-11
01-JAN-08
01-JAN-99
• To_ Number( )
Allows the conversion of string containing numbers into the number data type on which
arithmetic operations can be performed.
Example: SQL> select to_number (‘100’) from dual;

DATE FUNCTIONS

Function Name Return Value

ADD_MONTHS (date, n) Returns a date value after adding ’n’months to the date ’x’.
MONTHS_BETWEEN (x1, x2) Returns the number of months between dates x1 and x2.
Returns the date ‘x’rounded off to the nearest century, year,
ROUND (x, date_format) month, date, hour, minute, or second as specified by the
‘date_format’.
Returns the date ‘x’ lesser than or equal to the nearest century,
TRUNC (x, date_format) year, month, date, hour, minute, or second as specified by the
‘date_format’.
Returns the next date of the ‘week_day’on or after the date ‘x’
NEXT_DAY (x, week_day)
occurs.
It is used to determine the number of days remaining in a
LAST_DAY (x)
month from the date 'x'specified.
SYSDATE Returns the systems current date and time.

Example:
SQL> select sysdate from dual;
30 

 
  

Output:

SYSDATE
---------
22-JUL-10
Example:
SQL> select hire_date from employee;

Output:HIRE_DATE

---------

21-JUL-10
05-JUN-08
12-FEB-99

Example:
SQL> select add_months(hire_date,3) from employee;

Output:

ADD_MONTH
---------
21-OCT-10
05-SEP-08
12-MAY-99

Example:
SQL> select months_between(sysdate,hire_date) from employee;

Output:
MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,HIRE_DATE)
---------------------------------
.047992085
25.5641211
137.338315
Example:
SQL> select next_day(hire_date,'wednesday') from employee;
Output:
NEXT_DAY(
---------
31 

 
  

28-JUL-10
11-JUN-08
17-FEB-99
Example:
SQL> select last_day(hire_date) from employee;

Output:
LAST_DAY(
---------
31-JUL-10
30-JUN-08
28-FEB-99

Group Functions: - Group functions are built-in SQL functions that operate on groups of rows
and return one value for the entire group. These functions are: COUNT, MAX, MIN, AVG,
SUM, DISTINCT

• Group functions operate on sets of rows to give one result per group of Employees

Dept_id Salary

90 5000

90 10000 The maximum

salary in the Max (salary) 10000 
90 10000
employees table
60 5000

60 5000

Types of Group Functions

Syntax Description

count (*), Returns number of rows

count (column name),

count (distinct column name)

32 

 
  

min (column name) Min value in the column

max (column name) Max value in the column

avg (column name) Avg value in the column

sum (column name) Sum of column values

Group Functions Syntax:

Select [column,] group_function(column),..

From table
[where condition]
[GROUP BY column];
Example:
Q.Display the average,highest, lowest and sum of salaries for all the sales representatives.

A. Select avg(salary), max(salary), min(salary), sum(salary) From employees where job_id like
‘%rep%’;

Groups of Data : Divide rows in a table in to smaller groups by using the group by clause

Employee Table

Dept_id Salary

10 4000
The average 
10 5000 salary in 
employees 
10 6000
table for each 
50 5000 department 

33 

 
 D_id Avg(Salary)

10 5000
 
50 4000
 

50 3000

SET OPERATORS: UNION,UNION ALL,DIFFERENCE,MINUS

Example:

sql> select first_name from employees union select name from sample ;

Output:

FIRST_NAME
----------
DHANA
GUNA
JAI
JAISANKAR
KUMAR
RAJA
VENKAT

Example:
sql> select first_name from employees union all select name from sample ;

Output:

FIRST_NAME
----------
VENKAT
JAI
DHANA
GUNA
JAISANKAR
VENKAT
RAJA
KUMAR
Example:
sql> select first_name from employees intersect select name from sample ;
Output:

FIRST_NAME
----------
34 

 
  

VENKAT
Example:
sql> select first_name from employees minus select name from sample ;

Output:

FIRST_NAME
----------
DHANA
GUNA
JAI

JOINS :
A join is the SQL way of combining the data from many tables. It is performed by WHERE
Clause which combines the specified rows of the tables.

Type Sub type Description

Simple join Equi join ( = ) Joins rows using equal value of the
column

Joins rows using other relational

Non – equi join (<, <=, >, >=, !=, < > operators(except = )
)

Self join -- ( any relational operators) Joins rows of same table

Outer join Left outer join ((+) appended to left Rows common in both tables and
operand in join condition) uncommon rows have null value in left
column
Right outer join ((+) appended to
right operand in join condition) Vice versa

35 

 
  

Simple Join:
a. EQUI JOIN OR INNER JOIN : A column (or multiple columns) in two or more tables
match.
Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name1>
INNER JOIN <table_name2>
ON <table_name1.column_name>=<table_name2.column_name>;
Example 1 :
SELECT employee.first_name, department.dname
FROM employee INNER JOIN department
ON employee.deptno = department.deptno;
Output:1
DEPTNO FIRST_NAME
---------- ----------
10 Smith
30 Arun
10 Nithya

Oracle automatically defaults the JOIN to INNER so that the INNER keyword is not required.
They are the same query, though. It is preferred not to type the INNER keyword.
Example 2 using where Condition:
SELECT employee.ename, department.dname
FROM employee JOIN department
ON employee.deptno = department.deptno
WHERE department.dname = 'SALES';
Output 2:
DEPTNO FIRST_NAME
---------- ----------
10 Smith
30 Arun
10 Nithya

36 

 
  

b. SELF JOIN: Is a join where a table is joined to itself.

Syntax:

SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name1>
JOIN <table_name2>
ON <table_name1.column_name>=<table_name1.column_name>;
Example1:
SELECT e1.first_name, e2.first_name
FROM employee e1 join employee e2
on e1.mgr = e2.employee_id;

OR

SELECT e1.first_name, e2.first_name

FROM employee e1 join employee e2
where e1.mgr = e2.employee_id;

Output:

FIRST_NAME FIRST_NAME
---------------- --------------------
john john
An alias is just a way to refer to a column or table with a UNIQUE name. If we try to call both of
the instances of the table EMP, Oracle wouldn't know which table instance we refer to. Using an
alias clears this confusion

c. OUTER JOIN

An outer join tells Oracle to return the rows on the left or right (of the JOIN clause) even if
there are no rows.
The LEFT OUTER keyword to the JOIN clause says, return the rows to the left (in this case
DEPARTMENT) even if there are no rows on the right (in this case employee).
Syntax:

SELECT <column_name(s)>

37 

 
  

FROM <table_name1>
LEFT OUTER JOIN <table_name2>
ON <table_name1.column_name>=<table_name2.column_name>;
Example:
SELECT department.dname, employee.first_name
FROM department LEFT OUTER JOIN employee
ON department.deptno = employee.deptno
WHERE department.dname = 'marketing’;

Output:

DNAME FIRST_NAME
-------------- ----------
Marketing

The RIGHT OUTER keyword to the JOIN clause says ,return the rows to the right relation (in
this case DEPARTMENT) even if there are no matching rows on the left relation (in this case
employee).
Syntax:

SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name1>
RIGHT OUTER JOIN <table_name2>
ON <table_name1.column_name>=<table_name2.column_name>;
Example:
SELECT employee.first_name, department.dname
FROM employee RIGHT OUTER JOIN department
ON employee.deptno = department.deptno
WHERE department.dname = 'marketing';

Output:
FIRST_NAME DNAME
---------- --------------
marketing
38 

 
  

d. FULL OUTER JOIN

Let's insert a new record into the employee table:

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (employee_id, first_name, last_name, mgr, hiredate, job-id,sal,
comm, deptno) VALUES (9999, 'Joe ‘,’Blow', 7698, sysdate ,0008, 10500, 0, NULL );
Note:
We inserted an employee record that has no department. How can we get the records for
all employees AND all departments? We would use the FULL OUTER join syntax:
Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name1>
FULL OUTER JOIN <table_name2>
ON <table_name1.column_name>=<table_name2.column_name>;
Example:

SELECT employee.first_name, department.dname

FROM employee FULL OUTER JOIN department
ON employee.deptno = department.deptno;
Output:

FIRST_NAME DNAME
---------- --------------
Nithya accounts
Smith accounts
finance
john IT
Arun IT
marketing
john
e.Cross Join
Displays all the rows and all the colums of both the tables.

Synatx:
SELECT <column_name(s)> FROM <table_name1> CROSS JOIN<table_name2>;
39 

 
  

Example:
select employee.deptno from employee cross join department;
Or
select employee.deptno from employee,department;

Output:
DEPTNO
----------
10
10
10
10
30
30
30
30
10
10
10
DEPTNO
----------
10
30
30
30
30
f. Natural Join

If two tables have same column name the values of that column will be displayed only once.

Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)> FROM <table_name1> Natural JOIN<table_name2>;
Example:
select deptno,first_name from employee natural join department;
Output:
DEPTNO FIRST_NAME
------ ----------
10 Smith
30 Arun
10 Nithya
40 

 
  

30 john

SUB QUERIES
• Nesting of queries
• A query containing a query in itself A
• Inner most sub query will be executed first
• The result of the main query depends on the values return by sub query
• Sub query should be enclosed in parenthesis
1. Sub query returning only one value

a. Relational operator before sub query.

Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)> FROM <table_name> WHERE < column name >
< relational op.> < sub query>;
Example:
SELECT employee_id ,first_name FROM employee
WHERE deptno =
(SELECT deptno FROM department
WHERE dname = ‘IT’)

Output:
EMPLOYEE_ID FIRST_NAME
----------- ----------
112 Arun
114 john

2. Sub query returning more than one value

a. ANY
For the clause any, the condition evaluates to true if there exists at least one row selected by the
sub query for which the comparison holds. If the sub query yields an empty result set, the
condition is not satisfied.
41 

 
  

Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name>
WHERE < column name >
< relational op.> ANY (<sub query>);
Example:
SELECT employee_id ,first_name FROM employee
WHERE salary>= ANY
(SELECT salary FROM employee
WHERE deptno = 30)
AND deptno = 10;
Output:
EMPLOYEE_ID FIRST_NAME
----------- ----------
113 Nithya
112 Arun
111 Smith
114 john
114 john

b. ALL
For the clause all, in contrast, the condition evaluates to true if for all rows selected by the sub
query the comparison holds. In this case the condition evaluates to true if the Sub query does not
yield any row or value.
Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name>
WHERE < column name > < relational op.> ALL (<sub query>);
Example:
SELECT employee_id ,first_name FROM employee
WHERE salary > ALL
42 

 
  

(SELECT salary FROM employee

WHERE deptno = 30);
Output:
EMPLOYEE_ID FIRST_NAME
----------- ----------
113 Nithya
c. IN :Main query displays the values that match with any of the values returned by sub query.
Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name>
WHERE < column name > IN (<sub query>);
Example:
SELECT employee_id ,first_name FROM employee
WHERE deptno IN
(SELECT deptno FROM department
WHERE loc = ’Bangalore’);
Output:
EMPLOYEE_ID FIRST_NAME
----------- ----------
114 john
112 Arun

d. NOT IN
Main query displays the values that match with any of the values returned by sub query.

Syntax:

SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name>
WHERE < column name > NOT IN (<sub query>);
Example:

43 

 
  

SELECT employee_id ,first_name FROM employee

WHERE deptno NOT IN
(SELECT deptno FROM department
WHERE loc = ’Bangalore’);
Output:
EMPLOYEE_ID FIRST_NAME
----------- ----------
113 Nithya
111 Smith

e. EXISTS
Main query displays the values that match with any of the values returned by sub query.
Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name>
WHERE EXISTS (<sub query>);
Example:
SELECT * FROM department
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT * FROM employee
WHERE deptno = department.deptno);
Output:
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
---------- -------------- -------------
10 accounts chennai
30 IT Bangalore
f. NOT EXISTS
Main query displays the values that match with any of the values returned by sub query.
Syntax:

44 

 
  

SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name>
WHERE NOT EXISTS (<sub query>);
Example:
SELECT * FROM department
WHERE NOT EXISTS
(SELECT * FROM employee
WHERE deptno = department.deptno);
Output:
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
---------- -------------- -------------
20 finance Hyderabad
40 marketing chennai

g. GROUP BY CLAUSE

Often applications require grouping rows that have certain properties and then applying an
aggregate function on one column for each group separately. For this, SQL provides the clause
group by <group column(s)>. This clause appears after the where clause and must refer to
columns of tables listed in the from clause.
Rule:
Select attributes and group by clause attributes should be same.

Syntax:

SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name>
Where <conditions>
GROUP BY <column2>, <column1>;

Example:

45 

 
  

SELECT deptno, min(salary), max(salary)

FROM employee
GROUP BY deptno;

Output:

DEPTNO MIN(SALARY) MAX(SALARY)

--------- ----------- -----------
30 30000 40000
30000 30000
10 33000 45000

h. HAVING CLAUSE: used to apply a condition to group by clause

Syntax:
SELECT <column(s)>
FROM <table(s)>
WHERE <condition>
[GROUP BY <group column(s)>]
[HAVING <group condition(s)>];
Example:
SELECT deptno, min(salary), max(salary)
FROM employee
WHERE job_id = ’J2’
GROUP BY deptno
HAVING count(*) > 1;
Output:
DEPTNO MIN(SALARY) MAX(SALARY)
---------- ----------- -----------
30 13000 40000

A query containing a group by clause is processed in the following way:

1. Select all rows that satisfy the condition specified in the where clause.

46 

 
  

2. From these rows form groups according to the group by clause.

3. Discard all groups that do not satisfy the condition in the having clause.
4. Apply aggregate functions to each group.
5. Retrieve values for the columns and aggregations listed in the select clause.

i. ORDER BY
Used along with where clause to display the specified column in ascending order or descending
order . Default is ascending order
Syntax:
SELECT [distinct] <column(s)>
FROM <table>
[ WHERE <condition> ]
[ ORDER BY <column(s) [asc|desc]> ]
Example:
SELECT first_name, deptno, hire_date
FROM employee
ORDER BY deptno ASC, hire_date desc;
Output:

FIRST_NAME DEPTNO HIRE_DATE

---------- ---------- ---------
Smith 10 21-JUL-10
Nithya 10 12-FEB-99
john 30 20-JAN-10
Arun 30 05-JUN-08
john 20-JAN-10

VIEWS

Definition: A view is a named, derived, virtual table. A view takes the output of a query and
treats it as a table; therefore a view can be thought of as a ‘stored query’ or a ‘virtual table’. We
can use views in most places where tables can be used. To the user, accessing a view is like

47 

 
  

accessing a table. The RDBMS creates an illusion of a table, by assigning a name to the view and
storing its definition in the database.

The tables upon which the views are based are called as ‘base tables’.

CREATION OF A VIEW:

The syntax for creating a view is given by:

create [or replace][[no][force]]view <view_name> [column alias name…]as

<query>[with[check option]read only][constraint]];

Example:
SQL>create or replace view EMP_VIEW as select * from EMP;
This statement creates a view named EMP_VIEW .The data in this view comes from the
base table EMP. Any changes made to the base table are instantly visible through the view
EMP_VIEW.We can use select statement just like on a table.
SQL>select * from EMP_VIEW;
When create or replace is given, view is created if it is not available otherwise it is recreated.

HOW DOES RDBMS HANDLE THE VIEWS: When a reference is made by a user, the
RDBMS finds the definition of the view stored in the database .It then translates the user’s
request that referenced the view into an equivalent request against the source tables of the view.
Thus RDBMS maintains the illusion of the view.
TYPES OF VIEWS: The different types of views are
• Column subset view
• Row subset view
• Row-Column subset view
• Grouped view
• Joined view
COLUMN SUBSET VIEW:
A column subset view is one where all the rows but only some of the columns of the base
table form the view. The create view

48 

 
  

Example:
SQL>create or replace view CSV as select empno, ename, sal from EMP;
This view includes only columns empno, ename, sal of EMP table. Since there is no where
clause it includes all the rows.
ROW SUBSET VIEW:
A row subset view is one where all columns but some rows of the source table form the
view. All the columns of the base table participate in the view but all rows do not.

Example:
SQL> create or replace view RSV as select * from EMP where deptno=10;
The where clause restricts the no. of rows to those of employees working in Department Number
10.
ROW-COLUMN SUBSET VIEW:
A row-column subset view is a view which includes only some rows and columns of the
base table.
Example:
SQL>create or replace view RCS as select EMPNO, ENAME, SAL from EMP where
deptno=10;
GROUPED VIEW:
The query specified in the view definition can include the GROUP BY clause. This type
of view is called as Grouped View.
Example:
SQL>create or replace view GV (dno, avgsal) as select deptno, AVG (SAL) from emp group by
deptno;
JOINED VIEWS:
A joined view is formed by specifying a two or more table query in the view definition. A
joined view draws its data from two or more tables and presents the result as a single virtual
table.
Example:

49 

 
  

SQL>create or replace view JV(empno,ename,sal,dname,loc) as select

empno,ename,sal,dname,loc from EMP,DEPT where EMP.deptno=DEPT.deptno;
CREATING A READ ONLY VIEW:
Use with read only clause to prevent the users from manipulating records via the view.
Example:
SQL>create or replace view WRO as select * from EMP with read only;
Note: A view can be created without a base table using FORCE option of create view command.

Example:
SQL>create or replace force view FVIEW as select * from MYDEPT;
In this query MYDEPT table does not exist, so view is created with compilation errors. When
MYDEPT table is created and this query is executed, the view is automatically recompiled and
become valid.
VIEW WITH CHECK OPTION:
This option specifies that inserts and updates performed through the view must result in
rows that the view query can select. The CHECK OPTION can be used to maintain integrity on a
view.
Example:
SQL>insert into RSV (empno, ename, sal, deptno) values (1000,’dinesh’, 5500, 20);

Though the view is created for deptno 10, we are able to insert records for other department
numbers .This can be restricted using WITH CHECK OPTION clause while creating a view.
Example:
SQL>create view DEPTNO10_VIEW as select * from EMP where deptno=10 WITH CHECK
OPTION CONSTRAINT CHK_DNO10;
The above statement creates a view DEPTNO10 with a check constraint. This will
enforce the view to be inserted or updated only for the department number 10. No other
departments can be inserted or updated.

50 

 
  

DROPPING A VIEW:
A view can be dropped by using DROP VIEW command.A view becomes invalid if its
associated base table is dropped.
Example:
SQL>drop view DEPTNO10;
This will not affect the base table EMP.
ADVANTAGES OF VIEWS:
• Valid Information: Views let different users see a table from different perspectives. Only
the part that is relevant to the users is visible to them.
• Restricted Access: Views restrict access to the table. Different users are allowed to see
only certain rows or certain columns of a table.
• Simplified Access: Views simplify database access. For example a view that is a join of
three tables where a user does not require all the data in all three tables.
• Data Integrity: Data Integrity can be maintained by having WITH CHECK OPTION
while creating a view.
RESTRICTIONS ON VIEWS:
• A view’s query cannot select the CURRVAL or NEXTVAL pseudo columns.
• If a view’s query selects the ROWID, ROWNUM or LEVEL pseudo columns, they must
have aliases in the view’s query.
• A view can’t be created with an ORDER BY clause.
• A view can’t be updated, deleted and inserted if it is a grouped view.
• A view created from multiple tables can’t be updatable.
• If a view is based on a single underlying table then you can insert, update or delete rows
in this view. This will actually insert, update or delete rows in the underlying table. There
are restrictions again on doing this:
• You cannot insert if the underlying table has a NOT NULL column that does not appear
in the view.
• You cannot insert or update if any of the view’s columns referenced in insert or update
consist of functions or calculations.

51 

 
  

• You cannot insert, update or delete if the view contains GROUP BY, DISTINCT or a
reference to a pseudo column ROWNUM.

PL/SQL

Overview of PL/SQL

PL/SQL is the procedural extension to SQL with design features of programming languages.
Data manipulation and query statements of SQL are included within procedural units of code.

Pl/SQL Environment

                          PL/SQL engine 
PL/SQL  PL/SQL  Procedural 
                       P  SQL 
block  block  statement 
                         executor

 
SQL statement executor 
 

The PL/SQL engine in the oracle server process the pl/sql block and it separates SQL staments
and sends them individually to the SQL statements executor

Benefits of PL/SQL

• Integration
• Improved performance
• Modularized program development
• Portability
• Identifiers

52 

 
  

PL/SQL Block structure

DECLARE (optional)

Variables, cursors, user-defined exceptions

BEGIN (Mandatory)

-SQL statements

-PL/SQL statements

EXCEPTION (optional)

Action to perform when error occur

END;

The PL/SQL Block consists of three sections:

DECLARATIVE

It contains all variables, constants, cursors and user defined exceptions that are referenced
in the executable and declarative sections.

EXECUTABLE

It contains SQL statements to manipulate data in the database and PL/SQL statements to
manipulate data in the block.

EXCEPTION HANDLING

It specifies the actions to perform when errors and abnormal conditions arise in the
executable section.

PL/SQL Block Types

A PL/SQL program comprises one or more blocks.

It is classified into two blocks

• Anonymous Blocks

53 

 
  

It is unnamed blocks. It is declared at the point in an application where they are to be

executed and are passed to the PL/SQL engine for execution at run time.

• Subprograms
Subprograms are named PL/SQL blocks that can accept parameters and can be invoked.
It can be declared either as procedures or as functions.

Sample PL/SQL programs

To write PL/SQL programs, create a script file and run the script file or use editor.

Steps to create script file

Step1:

SQL> edit z:\oracle\sql\var1.sql

Step2:

Type the program in notepad

Step 3:

Save the program

Step4:

Run the program

SQL> @z:\oracle\sql\var1.sql

SQL> set serveroutput on;

This command is used to display the statement executed by dbms_output.put_line package.

Program 1: Write a program to print a variable value.

SQL> declare

2 a number:=3;

3 begin

54 

 
  

4 dbms_output.put_line(a);

5 end;

6 /

       3 

Program 2: Write a program to print your name and regno.

1 declare

2 v_name varchar2(10);

3 v_regno number;

4 begin

5 v_name:='venkat';

6 v_regno:=39;

7 dbms_output.put_line( 'the name is' || v_name);

8 dbms_output.put_line('the no is' || v_regno);

9 end;

SQL> /

the name is venkat

the no is 39

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Program 3: Write a program to retrieve ssn number of employee whose name is x.

55 

 
  

Assume the following table:

SSN NAME ESSN DEPTNO SALARY

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------

101 x 102 1

102 y 103 2

103 z 102 3

104 p 102 4

105 q

declare v_no number;

begin

select ssn into v_no from emp where name='x';

dbms_output.put_line(v_no);

end;

SQL>/

101

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SCALAR VARIABLE

It holds a single value and has no internal components.

Examples : number, character, date, boolean

Example: using scalar variable

1 declare

56 

 
  

2 v_name varchar2(10);

3 V_count binary_integer:=10;

4 V_totalsal number(9,2);

5 v_orderdate date:=sysdate;

6 c_tax constant number(3,2):=6.23;

7 v_valid boolean not null:=true;

8 v_regno number default 23;

9 begin

10 v_name:='venkat';

11 v_totalsal:=10000.23;

12 dbms_output.put_line(v_name);

13 dbms_output.put_line(v_count);

14 dbms_output.put_line(v_orderdate);

15 dbms_output.put_line(c_tax);

16 dbms_output.put_line(v_regno);

17 end;

18 /

venkat

10

19-AUG-05

6.23

23

DECLARING VARIABLE WITH THE %TYPE ATTRIBUTE

The % type attribute is used to declare a variable according to:

57 

 
  

1. A database column definition

2. Another previously declared variable

Example: using % type attribute

1 declare

2 v_no emp.ssn%type;

3 V_name varchar2(10):='venkat';

4 name v_name%type;

5 begin

6 v_no:=10;

7 name:='ven';

8 dbms_output.put_line(v_no);

9 dbms_output.put_line(name);

10*end;

11 /

10

ven

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

BIND VARIABLES

A bind variable is a variable that is declared in a host environment. Bind variables can be
used to pass run-time values, which can be either number or character, into or out of one or more
PL/SQL programs.
58 

 
  

Example:

SQL> variable a number;

SQL> ed

File:

1 begin

2 select ssn into:a from emp where name='x';

3 dbms_output.put_line(:a);

4 end;

SQL> /

101

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> print a;

----------

101

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

REFERENCING NON PL/SQL VARIABLES

To reference host variables, prefix the references with a colon (:) to distinguish them
from declared PL/SQL variable.

SQL> variable gg number;

59 

 
  

SQL> define aa=1000;

SQL> set verify off

SQL> declare

2 v_sal number(9,2):=&aa;

3 begin

4 :gg:=v_sal/12;

5 end;

6 /

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> print gg;

GG

----------

83.3333333

PL/SQL BLOCK SYNTAX AND GUIDELINES

A line of pl/sql text contains groups of characters known as lexical units.

Lexicals are classified as follows:

• Delimiters
• Identifiers, which include reserved words
• Literals
• Character literals
• Numeric literals
COMMENTS:

-- single line commenting

/* beginning */ ending

60 

 
  

PL/SQL HAS ITS OWN ERROR HANDLING:

• SQLCODE
• SQL ERRM

DATA TYPE CONVERSION

PL/SQL performs implicit conversions. For E.g. numeric to char.

The following program highlights conversion involving DATE.

SQL> ed

1 declare

2 vdate date;

3 begin

4 vdate:=to_date('aug 19 ,2005','mon dd,yyyy');

5 dbms_output.put_line(vdate);

6 end;

SQL> /

19-AUG-05

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL FUNCTIONS IN PL/SQL:

All SQL functions are allowed except decode function and group functions.

NESTED BLOCKS AND VARIABLE SCOPE

61 

 
  

SQL> declare

2 v_a number:=3;

3 begin

4 declare

5 v_b number:=4;

6 begin

7 dbms_output.put_line(v_b);

dbms_output.put_line(v_a);

8 end;

9 dbms_output.put_line(v_a);

10 end;

11 /

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

QUALIFYING AN IDENTIFIER An identifier is qualified by using the block label prefix. In

the example the outer block is labeled as outer. In the inner block the variable is reference by
label, when variable names are same.

SQL> ed
62 

 
  

1 <<outer>>

2 declare

3 v_a number:=3;

4 begin

5 declare

6 v_a number:=4;

7 begin

8 dbms_output.put_line(v_a);

9 dbms_output.put_line(outer.v_a);

10 end;

11 end;

12 /

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PROGRAMMING GUIDELINES:

Category Case Conversion Examples

SQL statements uppercase SELECT,INSERT

PL/SQL statements uppercase DECLARE,BEGIN,IF

63 

 
  

Data types uppercase VARCHAR2,BOOLEAN

Identifiers lowercase v_sal

Database tables and lowercase emp, dept

column

INTERACTING WITH ORACLE SERVER:

• Extracts row of data from the database using select

• Effects changes in the database by using DML commands
• Controls a transaction with commit, rollback and save point

NOTES:

• An end in pl/sql block is not the end of transaction.

• A block can span multiple transactions, a transaction can span multiple blocks.
• DDL commands (create,alter,drop) and DCL commands(grant,revoke) are not directly
supported.

SQL> select * from emp;

SSN NAME ESSN DEPTNO SALARY

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------

101 x 102 1

102 y 103 2

103 z 102 3

104 p 102 4

105 q

SQL> ed

1 declare

2 v_ssn number;

64 

 
  

3 v_name varchar2(10);

4 begin

5 select ssn,name into v_ssn,v_name from emp where name='x';

6 dbms_output.put_line(v_ssn);

7 dbms_output.put_line(v_name);

8 end;

SQL> /

101

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

RETRIEVING DATA IN PL/SQL:

SQL> select * from job_grade;

GRA LOWEST_SAL HIGHEST_SAL

---- ---------- -----------------------------------------

a 3000 4000

b 5000 6000

c 3000 6000

d 4000 10000

e 2000 6000

SQL> ed

1 declare
65 

 
  

2 v_lsal job_grade.lowest_sal%type;

3 v_hsal job_grade.highest_sal%type;

4 begin

5 select sum(lowest_sal),sum(highest_sal) into v_lsal,v_hsal from job_grade;

6 dbms_output.put_line(v_lsal);

7 dbms_output.put_line(v_hsal);

8 end;

9 /

17000

32000

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

NAMING CONVENTIONS

A local variable in pl/sql name must not be equal to column names present in database .

declare

lastname varchar2(10);

begin

delete from emp where lastname-lastname;

The above code will delete all employees because of the naming convention problem.

MANIPULATING DATA USING PL/SQL

SUBSTIUTION VARIABLE:

SQL> ed

Wrote file afiedt.buf

66 

 
  

1 declare

2 v_sal number;

3 begin

4 v_sal:=&v_sal;

5 dbms_output.put_line(v_sal);

6 end;

7 /

Enter value for v_sal: 2000

2000

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

INSERTION

SQL> ed

Wrote file afiedt.buf

1 begin

2 insert into emp(ssn,name) values(123,'venkat');

3 dbms_output.put_line('record inserted');

4 end;

5 /

record inserted

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

67 

 
  

USAGE OF SUBSTITUTION VARIABLE:

SQL> ed

Wrote file afiedt.buf

1 begin

2 insert into emp(ssn,name) values(&ssn,'&name');

3 dbms_output.put_line('record inserted');

4 end;

SQL> /

Enter value for ssn: 124

Enter value for name: sampath

record inserted

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

UPDATE:

SQL> ed

Wrote file afiedt.buf

1 declare

2 v_sal number;

3 begin

4 v_sal:=&v_sal;

5 update job_grade set lowest_sal=v_sal where gra='a';

6 dbms_output.put_line('record updated');
68 

 
  

7 end;

SQL> /

Enter value for v_sal: 12000

record updated

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> select *from job_grade;

GRA LOWEST_SAL HIGHEST_SAL

---- ---------- -------------------------------------------

a 12000 4000

b 5000 6000

c 3000 6000

d 4000 10000

e 2000 6000

DELETE:

SQL> ed

Wrote file afiedt.buf

1 declare

2 v_sal number;

3 begin

4 v_sal:=&v_sal;

5 delete from job_grade where lowest_sal=v_sal;

6 dbms_output.put_line('record deleted');

7 end;
69 

 
  

8 /

Enter value for v_sal: 5000

record deleted

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> select * from job_grade;

GRA LOWEST_SAL HIGHEST_SAL

---- ---------- -----------

a 12000 4000

c 3000 6000

d 4000 10000

e 2000 6000

CONTROL STRUCTURES

• IF statements

ƒ If –then-end if
ƒ If-then-else-end if
ƒ If-then-elseif-end if

• Case expressions

• Loop statements

ƒ Basic loops
ƒ While loops
ƒ For loops
70 

 
  

Syntax of IF:

If condition then

Statements;

Else if condition then

Statements;

Else

Statements;

End if;

Examples:

1) Find the greatest among two numbers

1 declare

2 a number;

3 b number;

4 begin

5 a:=&a;

6 b:=&b;

7 if a>b then

8 dbms_output.put_line('gratest number is'||a);

9 else

10 dbms_output.put_line('gratest number is'||b);

11 end if;

12 end;

71 

 
  

SQL> /

Enter value for a: 12 old 5: a:=&a;

new 5: a:=12;
Enter value for b: 4 old 6: b:=&b;

new 6: b:=4;
greatest number is12

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed

2) if else with database

DEPT_ID DEPT_NAME MANAGER_ID LOCATION_ID

--------- ---------- ---------- -----------

10 cse 200 1700

20 it 300 1800

30 mech 400 1500

40 ece 500 1600

1 declare

2 v_id departments.dept_id%type;

3 v_dname departments.dept_name%type;

4 begin
72 

 
  

5 select dept_id,dept_name into v_id,V_dname from departments where manager_id=200;

6 if v_id=11 then

7 dbms_output.put_line(v_dname);

8 elsif v_dname='cse' then

9 dbms_output.put_line(v_id);

10 else

11dbms_output.put_line('recorde not match');

12 end if;

13 end;

SQL> / 10

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

3) if/else if/ else

1 declare

2 a number;

3 b number;

4 c number;

5 begin

6 a:=&a;

7 b:=&b;

8 c:=&c;

9 if (a>b) and (a>c) then

10 dbms_output.put_line('gratest number is'||a);

73 

 
  

11 elsif(b>a) and (b>c) then

12 dbms_output.put_line('greatest number is'||b);

13 else
14 dbms_output.put_line('greatest number is'||c);

15 end if;

16 end;

SQL>/

Enter values for a,b and c: 6 4 12

C is greater :12.

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

4) Case Expressions

A case expression selects a result and returns it. To select the result, the case expression
uses an expression whose value is used to select one of several alternatives.

Syntax :

CASE selector

WHEN
expression1
THEN result1 WHEN
expression2
THEN result2

---------

WHEN expression N THEN result

N [ELSE resultN+1
END;

74 

 
  

Example:

1 declare
2 va varchar2(10);
3 v_result varchar2(10);
4 begin
5 va:=&va;
6 v_result:=
7 CASE va
8 WHEN 'a' THEN 'excellent'
9 WHEN 'b' THEN 'very good'
10 WHEN 'c' THEN 'good'
11 ELSE 'poor'
12 end;
13 dbms_output.put_line('grade is'||v_result);
14 end;
15 /

SQL> Enter value for va: 'a' old 5: va:=&va;

new 5: va:='a';  
grade is excellent

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> /

Enter value for va: 'b' old 5: va:=&va;

new 5: va:='b';  
grade is very good

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> /

Enter value for va: 'c' old 5: va:=&va;

75 

 
  

new 5: va:='c';  
grade is good

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

5) General Loop

Syntax:
LOOP
...
IF ... THEN
...
EXIT; -- exit loop immediately
END IF;
END LOOP;

Example for General Loop:

Declare
Var number:=1
Begin
dbms_out.put_line(var);
Loop
Var:=var+1;
dbms_out.put_line(var);
If var=10 Then
exit;
End if;
End loop;
End;

76 

 
  

Example for General Loop:

Declare
Var number:=1
Begin
dbms_out.put_line(var);
Loop
Var:=var+1;
dbms_out.put_line(var);
Exit when var=10;
End loop;
End;

6) While Loop

Syntax:

WHILE condition LOOP

sequence_of_statements;
...
END LOOP;

Example:
declare
var number:=1;
Begin
While var<10 Loop
dbms_output.put_line(‘var= ‘ ||var);
var:=var+1;
End Loop;
End;

77 

 
  

7) For Loop
Syntax:
FOR counter IN [REVERSE] lower_bound..upper_bound LOOP
sequence_of_statements;
...
END LOOP;

Example:

Declare
Var number;
Begin
For var in 1..10
loop
Dbms_output.put_line(var);
End loop;
End;

8) Goto Syntax:
Syntax:

If <cond> Then
GOTO <lbl1>
End if;

CURSORS

The oracle server uses work areas, called private SQL areas, to execute SQL statement and to
store processing information. This area is called cursor.

78 

 
  

Cursor types:

• Implicit: queries returns only one row

• Explicit : queries returns more than one row

Explicit cursor

Active set: set of rows returned by multiple rows

Controlling explicit cursor

Open the cursor and execute the query associated with the cursor which identifies the result
set.

Fetch

Retrieves the current row an advance the current row

Close the cursor

Syntax:

Cursor declaration

cursor cuname is select;

Open the cursor

open cursor name;

Close the cursor

close cursor name;

Fetch

fetch cname into variable or record

79 

 
  

Explicit Cursor Attributes: To determine the status of the cursor, the cursor’s attributes are
checked.Cursors have the following four attributes that can be used in a PL/SQL program.
%isopen -To check if the cursor is opened or not

%found-To check if a record is found and can be fetched from the cursor

%rowcount-To check for the number of rows fetched from the cursor

%notfound-To check if no more records can be fetched from the cursor

%isopen, %found,%notfound are boolean attributes which are set to either TRUE or
FALSE.

A Simple Example:
1 declare

2 v_name wer1.name%type;

3 v_ssn wer1.ssn%type;

4 cursor emp_c is select * from wer1;

5 begin

6 open emp_c;

7 for i in 1..5 loop

8 fetch emp_c into v_name,v_ssn;

9 dbms_output.put_line(v_name);

10 end loop;

11 close emp_c;

12 end;

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.  

80 

 
  

SQL> set serveroutput on;

SQL> / x

x
x
y
y

2) %row count

1 declare

2 v_name wer1.name%type;

3 v_ssn wer1.ssn%type;

4 cursor emp_c is select * from wer1;

5 begin

6 open emp_c;

7 for i in 1..5 loop

8 fetch emp_c into v_name,v_ssn;

9 exit when emp_c%rowcount>4;

10 dbms_output.put_line(v_name);

11end loop;

12 close emp_c;

13 end;

SQL> / x

x
81 

 
  

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

3) Cursor with record

It processes the rows of the active set by fetching values into a PL/SQL record.

1 declare
2 cursor emp_c is select * from wer1;
3 emp_record emp_c%rowtype;
4 begin
5 open emp_c;
6 for i in 1..5 loop
7 fetch emp_c into emp_record;
8 exit when emp_c%notfound;
9 insert into wer(name,ssn) values(emp_record.name,emp_re
10 end loop;
11 commit;
12 close emp_c;
13 end;
14 /
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> select * from wer;

NAME SSN
---------- ----------
x 101

82 

 
  

x 101
x 101
x 101
x 101
x 101
x 101
x 101
x 101
x 101
y 102
y 102
12 rows selected.

4) Cursor with parameters

It passes the parameter values to the cursor in a cursor FOR loop. This means that you can
open and close an explicit cursor several times in a block, returning a different active set on
each occasion.

Example:

1 declare
2 v_number number;

3 v_name varchar2(10);

4 cursor c1(eno number,ename varchar2) is

5 select ssn,name from emp where ssn=eno and name=ename;

6 begin

7 open c1(101,'x');
83 

 
  

8 fetch c1 into v_number,v_name;

9 dbms_output.put_line(v_number);

10 close c1;

11 open c1(102,'y');

12 fetch c1 into v_number,v_name;

13 dbms_output.put_line(v_number);

14 close c1;

15 end;

16 /

101

102

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

5) Update

The update clause in the cursor query locks the affected rows when the cursor is opened.

Example:
declare

v_number number;
v_name varchar2(10);

cursor c1(eno number,ename varchar2) is select ssn,name from emp where ssn=eno and

name=ename for update of name nowait;

begin

84 

 
  

open c1(101,'x');

fetch c1 into v_number,v_name;

dbms_output.put_line(v_number);

close c1;
open c1(102,'y');
fetch c1 into v_number,v_name;

dbms_output.put_line(v_number);

close c1;
end;

EXCEPTIONS

Syntax

When exception1
then Statement1
Statement2

……..

When exception2
then Statement1
Statement2

……..

When others
then Statement1

85 

 
  

Statement2 ……..

Sample predefined exceptions:

NO_DATA_FOUND

TOO_MANY_ROWS

INVALID_CURSOR

ZERO_DIVIDE

DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX

Example:
1)
1 declare

2 a number;

3 b number;

4 c number;

5 begin

6 a:=5;

7 b:=0;

8 c:= a/b;

9 exception

10 when zero_divide then

11 dbms_output.put_line('zero divide error');

12 end;

86 

 
  

SQL> /

zero divide error

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

2) Non-predefined error

Trapping a non-predefined exception

1. Declare the name for the exception within the declarative section
2. Associate the declared exception with the standard oracle server error number using the
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT statement
Syntax : PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(exception, error_number);

3. Reference the declared exception within the corresponding exception –handling routine.

Example:

1 declare
2 emp_remain exception;

3 pragma exception_init

4 (emp_remain,-2292);

5 begin

6 delete from emp where deptno=&deptno;

7 commit;

8 exception

9 when emp_remain then

10 dbms_output.put_line('cannot remove dept'|| 'employee exist');

11end;

87 

 
  

SQL> /

Enter value for deptno: 2

old 6: delete from emp where deptno=&deptno;

new 6: delete from emp where deptno=2;
cannot remove deptemployee exist

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed

SQL> /

Enter value for deptno: 8

old 6: delete from emp where deptno=&deptno;

new 6: delete from emp where deptno=8;

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed

3) Functions for trapping exceptions

When an exception occurs, you can identify the associated error code or error message by
using two functions.

SQLCODE: It returns the numeric value for the error code

SQLERRM: It returns character data containing the message associated with the error
number.

Syntax:

declare;

v_error_code number;
v_error_messgage varchar2(255);

88 

 
  

begin
when others then rollback;

v_error_code:=sqlcode;

v_error_message:=sqlerrm;

dbms_output.put_line(v_error_code||v_error_message);

end;

User defined exception:

User defined PL/SQL exception must be

• Declared in the declare section of a PL/SQL block

• Raised explicitly with RAISE statements

Example:

1 declare
2 invalid_dept exception;

3 begin

4 delete from emp where deptno=&deptno;

5 if sql%notfound then

6 raise invalid_dept;

7 end if;

8 exception

9 when invalid_dept then

10 dbms_output.put_line('the deptnumber is not valid');

11 end;

89 

 
  

Enter value for deptno: 10

old 4: delete from emp where deptno=&deptno; 
new 4: delete from emp where deptno=10;
the deptnumber is not valid
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PL/SQL Block Types

A PL/SQL program comprises one or more blocks.

It is classified into two blocks

• Anonymous Blocks
It is unnamed blocks. It is declared at the point in an application where they are to be
executed and are passed to the PL/SQL engine for execution at run time.

• Subprograms
Subprograms are named PL/SQL blocks that can accept parameters and can be invoked.
It can be declared either as procedures or as functions.

Overview of subprograms

A subprogram is named PL/SQL block that ca accept parameters and be invoked from a calling
environment.

Two types of subprograms

• A procedure that performs an action

• A function that computes a value

Benefits of subprograms

• Easy maintenance
• Improved data security and integrity
90 

 
  

• Improved performance
• Improved code clarity

Procedure

A procedure is a type of subprogram that performs an action. A procedure can be stored in the
database, as a schema object, for repeated execution.

Syntax for creating procedure:

Create [or replace] procedure <procedure_name>

[( parameter1 [mode1] datatype1,parameter2 [mode2] datatype2,..)]

Is| As

PL/SQL Block;

The replace option indicates that if the procedure exists, It will be dropped and replaced with the
new version created by the statement. Parameter name of a PL/SQL variable whose value is
passed to or populated by the calling environment.

Mode: type of argument 

IN, OUT, IN OUT

IN : It is the default mode and value is passed into subprogram.

OUT : It must be specified and is returned to calling environment.

IN OUT: It is passed into subprogram and returned to calling environment.

IN parameter

IN parameters are passed as constants from the calling environment into the procedure.
91 

 
  

Example:1

1 create or replace procedure raise_salary

2 (grade in job_grade.gra%type)

3 is

4 begin

5 update job_grade set lowest_sal=lowest_sal*1.10 where gra= grade;

6* end raise_salary;

7 /

Procedure created.

SQL> execute raise_salary('a'); // executing procedure

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> select * from job_grade;

GRA LOWEST_SAL   HIGHEST_SAL

---- ---------- -----------‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
a   13200     4000

c     3000     6000

d   4000     10000

e 2000     6000

92 

 
  

IN, OUT parameter

Example:1

1 create or replace procedure info

2 (g in job_grade.gra%type,

3 l_sal out job_grade.lowest_sal%type,

4 h_sal out job_grade.highest_sal%type)

5 is

6 begin

7 select lowest_sal,highest_sal into l_sal,h_sal from job_grade where gra=g;

8* end info;

9 /

SQL> edit g:\oracle\sql\info1.sql

SQL> @g:\oracle\sql\info1

Procedure created.

How to view the value of OUT parameters with sql *plus

1.Run the sql script file to generate and compile the source code.

2.Create host variables in sql*plus, using the variable command

3.Invoke the procedure, supplying these host variables as the OUT parameters.: reference the

93 

 
  

host variables in the execute command.

4.To view the values passed from the procedure to the calling environment ,use the print
command.

SQL> variable g_sal number;

SQL> variable g1_sal number;

SQL> execute info('a',:g_sal,:g1_sal)

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> print g_sal;

G_SAL

----------

13200

SQL> print g1_sal;

G1_SAL

----------

4000

IN OUT parameter

Example:1

1 create or replace procedure info

2 (g in out number)

3 is

4 begin

5 select lowest_sal into g from job_grade where highest_sal=g;

6* end info;

7 /
94 

 
  

Procedure created.

SQL> variable g_sal number;

1 begin

2 :g_sal:=4000;

3* end;

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> print g_sal;

G_SAL

----------

4000

SQL> execute info (:g_sal)

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> print g_sal;

G_SAL

----------

13200

Methods for passing parameters

Positional : List actual parameters in the same order as formal parameters

Named : List actual parameters in library order by associating each with its

corresponding formal parameter

Combination : List some of the actual parameters as positional and some as named.

95 

 
  

Removing procedures

Drop a procedure stored in the database

Syntax:

Drop procedure procedure_name

Example:

Drop procedure raise_salary;

Functions

A function is a named PL/SQL block that returns a value. A function can be stored in the
database as a schema object for repeated execution. A function is called as part of an expression.

Syntax:

Create [or replace] function function_name

[(parameter1 [mode1] datatype1,

Parameter2 [mode2] datatype2,

….)]

Return datatype

Is/as

PL/SQL block ;

96 

 
  

Example:

declare

summation number;

average number;

function summa(m4 number,m5 number) return number is

begin

return(m4+m5);

end;

function aver( summ1 number) return number is

begin

return(summ1/2);

end;

begin

summation:=summa(&m1,&m2);

average:=aver(summation);

dbms_output.put_line('summation is:'||summation);

dbms_output.put_line('average is:'||average);

end;

Removing functions

Drop function function_name

97 

 
  

Example:

Drop function summa;

Packages

Packages bundle are related PL/SQL types, items, and subprograms into one container.

A package usually has a specification and a body, stored separately in the database.

Package specification

It is the interface to the application. It declares the types, variables, constants, exceptions,
cursors and subprograms.

A package specification can exist without a package body, but a package body cannot exist
without a package specification.

Syntax

Create [or replace] package package_name

is| as

Public type and item declarations

Subprograms specifications

End package_name;

Example:

1 create or replace package commp is

2 g_comm number:=0.10;

3 procedure reset_comm

4 (p_comm in number);
98 

 
  

5 end commp;

Package created.

Package body

Syntax

Create [or replace] package body package_name

Is| as

Private type and item declarations

Subprogram bodies

End package_name;

Example

1 create or replace package body commp

2 is

3 function validate_comm(p_comm in number)

4 return boolean

5 is

6 v_max_comm number;

7 begin

8 select max(lowest_sal) into v_max_comm from job_grade;

9 if p_comm>v_max_comm then return(false);

10 else return(true);
99 

 
  

11 end if;

12 end validate_comm;

13 procedure reset_comm(p_comm in number)

14 is

15 begin

16 if validate_comm(p_comm)

17 then g_comm:=p_comm;

18 else

19 raise_application_error(-20210,'invalid commision');

20 end if;

21 end reset_comm;

22 end commp;

23 /

Package body created.

Invoking package constructs:

SQL> execute commp.reset_comm(0.15);

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> create or replace package global_con is

2 a constant number:=2;

3 b constant number :=3;

4 end global_con;

5 /

Package created.
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SQL> execute dbms_output.put_line('20 miles='||20*global_con.a||'km');

20 miles=40km

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Referencing a public variable from a stand alone procedure:

SQL> ed

Wrote file afiedt.buf

1 create or replace procedure me( x in number, y out number)

2 is

3 begin

4 y :=x *global_con.a;

5 end me;

SQL> /

Procedure created.

SQL> variable ya number;

SQL> execute me(3,:ya);

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> print ya;

YA

----------

Removing packages:
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drop package package name;

drop package body package_name;

Overloading
It is the use of same name for different subprograms inside a PL/SQL block, a subprogram, or a
package.

Example:

1 create or replace package over

2 is

3 procedure add_dept(p_n in emp.ssn%type,p_na in emp.name%type);

4 procedure add_dept(p_n in emp.ssn%type,p_na in emp.name%type,p_dept in

emp.deptno%type);

5 end over;

6 /

Package created

1 create package body overp is

2 procedure add_dept(p_n emp.ssn%type,p_na emp.name%type)

3 is

4 begin

5 insert into emp (ssn,name) values(p_n,p_na);

6 end add_dept;

7 procedure add_dept(p_n emp.ssn%type,p_na emp.name%type,p_dn emp.deptno%type)

8 is

9 begin

10 insert into emp (ssn,name,deptno) values(p_n,p_na,p_dn);

11 end add_dept;
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12 end overp;

Trigger
A trigger is aPL/SQL block or a PL/SQL procedure associated with a table ,view, schema, or the
database. It executes implicitly whenever a particular event takes place.

It can be:

Application trigger: fires whenever an event occurs with a particular application

Database trigger: fires whenever a data event or system event  occurs on a schema or database.

A triggering statement contains:

• Triggering timing
o For table: BEFORE, AFTER
o For view: INSTEAD OF
• Triggering event: INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
• Table name: on table, view
• Trigger type: row or statement
• When clause: restricting condition
• Trigger body: PL/SQL block

Trigger type

Statement trigger:The trigger body executes once for the triggering event. this is default. A
statement trigger fires once, even if no rows are affected at all.

Row trigger:The trigger body executes once for each row affected by the triggering event. A
row trigger is not executed if the triggering event affects no rows.

Syntax:
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CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name

Timing

Event1 [OR event2 OR event3]

ON table_name

Trigger _body

Example:

create trigger ab

before insert or delete or update on a

for each row

begin

raise_application_error(-20000,'not accessible')

end

This program raises an error during insertion and deletion and update operation in a row.

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