1.

Newton Rings
Aim:
To determine the Radius of curvature of a plano convex lens using Newton rings.

Apparatus required:
A plano convex lens, two glass plates, sodium vapour lamp, Travelling microscope, reading lens
and black paper.

Principle:
D2m −D2n
Radius of curvature R = 4(m−n) cm
D ​m​ : Diameter of the m​th​ ring.

D ​n​ : Diameter of the n​th​ ring.

R : Radius of curvature of the lens (cm).

λ : Wavelength of monochromatic light

Theory:
The experimental setup consists of a plano convex lens(C) of large radius of curvature placed on a plane
optically flat glass plate(P) with the curved surface of plano convex lens facing the plane glass plate. A
thin air film of varying thickness is formed between the plano convex lens and glass plate. Another glass
plate(beam splitter) is arranged above the plano-convex lens making an angle of 45​0​ with the horizontal.
The light from a monochromatic light source(sodium vapour lamp) is allowed to incident on the glass
plate G at 45​0​ as shown in the figure. The light reflected from glass plate G is incidented on the the plano
convex lens in perpendicular direction. By division of amplitude, the light reflected from top and bottom
surface of the air film interferes and produces concentric alternate dark and bright rings called Newton

1
rings. A travelling microscope is arranged vertically on the top of the glass plate G to view the Newton
rings.

Procedure:

1. The source of monochromatic light is switched on and adjusted to illuminate the glass plate G
horizontally.
2. Due to interference of light concentric rings are formed as shown in the diagram which
are clearly visible in the travelling microscope.
3. The microscope is then adjusted until the rings are in sharp focus.
4. The point of intersection of the cross wires is brought to the centre of the rings system.
Starting from the centre of the ring system the microscope is moved to the left across the
field of view counting the number of rings.
5. Then the cross wires of the microscope may be set tangential to the rings. Now the
reading on the horizontal scale are noted for 5​th​,10​th​, 15​th and 20​th fringes. Similarly, the
microscope is moved in the opposite direction say right and corresponding reading for the
5​th​,10​th​, 15​th​ and 20​th​ fringes are noted.
6. Finally, the diameters of the fringes are calculated.

2
Table:
Microscope reading Diameter of the
Fringe number (cm) i​th​ ring
​
i Left(a) Right(b) D​i​=​ (a​
˜ b) D2i (cm​2​)

Precautions:
1. Electric connections of the light source should be carefully handled.
2. Travelling microscope cross-wires should be properly adjusted.
3. Vernier coincidence should be found without parallax error.
4. Travelling microscope must be moved in one direction only to avoid back lack error

Result:
The radius of curvature of the Plano convex lens is found as ______________.

3
 2.DIFFRACTION GRATING

Aim​:
To determine the number of Lines per inch on diffraction grating using normal incidence
method.

Apparatus​:
Plane Diffraction Grating, Spectrometer, Sodium Vapour Lamp and reading Lens.

Principle​:
Sinθ
Number of Lines per cm , N = λn

Where θ :Angle of diffraction

N : Number of lines per cm. on the grating
n :Order of the spectrum
λ = Wavelength of light source

Description​:
A plane diffraction grating consists of a parallel sided glass plate with equidistant parallel
lines drawn very closely on it by means of diamond tip. The number of lines/inch on the grating
will vary from grating to grating and will be mentioned on it. Other types of gratings are replica
of the original grating on a plane celluloid film. The celluloid film is fixed on an optical plane
glass. Care should be taken while handling the grating to avoid any scratches on the grating.

Theory​:
When a parallel beam of monochromatic light from the collimator of a spectrometer is
made to pass normally through a plane diffraction grating mounted on the prism table, diffraction
pattern will be formed which can be observed through the telescope. The diffraction pattern
consists of a central sharp line with other symmetric lines pertaining to first, second,
third..….orders on either side of the central line. If N is the number of lines on the grating per
cm, n, the order of spectrum (1,2,3,…), λ the wavelength of light source and θ, the angle of
diffraction, then the number of lines on the grating per cm is given as
N = Sinθ
λn
and the Number of lines per inch= N x 2.54

Procedure​:

Preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer like

4
a) focusing the telescope to a distance object to receive parallel beam of light rays,
b) adjusting the collimator (illuminated by the given monochromatic light) to produce parallel
beam of light rays and
c) leveling of prism(grating) table using spirit level is done.
The Plane diffraction grating is mounted vertically on the grating(prism) table normal to
the incident light. The telescope in made in line with the collimator by coinciding the vertical
cross wire of the telescope with the vertical slit from the collimator. The readings on the
spectrometer is noted as direct reading. Then the telescope is turned from its position through 90​0
and fixed. The grating platform is released and rotated until the image of the slit reflected from
the grating is observed. The vertical crosswire of the telescope is made to coincide with the fixed
edge of the image then grating platform is fixed. The vernier table is now rotated in the
appropriate direction through 45​0 so that the light rays from the collimator falls normally on the
grating.
Now the telescope from the initial position of direct reading is rotated as shown in the
figure 1 to one side (Left side position) until a slit of reduced intensity is observed which is the
first order slit. The centre of telescope crosswires is made to coincide with the vertical slit and
the spectrometer readings on either side viz., vernier 1 and vernier 2 is noted. Then the telescope
is further moved away from the center to observe the second order slit. Again the center of the
cross wire is made to coincide with the slit and the vernier readings (vernier 1 and vernier 2) are
noted.
This procedure is repeated by moving the telescope to the other side (Right side position)
of the direct reading. The readings are tabulated in the Table 1.

5
Observation Table

Order of Left side readings Right side readings

spectrum θ1 = θ2 = θ= N= Sinθ
λn
(n)
Vernier​1 Vernier2
˜
Vernier1 Vernier2 ( a c) (b˜d) { θ1 +θ2
4 }
(a) (b) (c) (d)
1

Precautions​:
1. Care should be taken while handling the power supply.
2. Experiment should be conducted in absence of any other light.
3. Readings should be taken without parallax error.
4. Conversion of degrees to minutes and vice versa should be done properly.

Result​:

The number of lines on the grating per cm ____________ and number of lines on the grating per
inch is ___________________.

6
 3. Dispersive Power of a Prism

Aim:
To determine the dispersive power of the material of given prism.

Apparatus:
Spectrometer, Prism, mercury vapour lamp and reading lens.

Principle:

{ }
A+DM
sin sin 2
The refractive index of the prism, µ = sin sin A2

A: Angle of the prism.

D ​M​ : Angle of minimum deviation.

μV −μR
The dispersive power of a medium is given by ω = μ−1
μV +μR
Here μ = 2

μ​V​ : Refractive index for violet colour.

μ​R​ : Refractive index for red colour.

7
Description:
Adjustment of the spectrometer:
Eye piece:
Turn the telescope towards a white surface and move the eye piece in or out until the cross
wires are distinctly seen.
Telescope:
Adjust the telescope to get a clear image of a distant object.
Collimator:
The slit of the collimator is fixed vertically and is illuminated by a mercury vapour lamp. Bring
the telescope in line with the collimator and adjust the distance of the slit from the collimator
lens until a clear image of the slit with well defined edges is formed in the plane of the cross
wires without any parallax.
Procedure:
The prism table is released and the vernier table is clamped. The prism is placed on the prism
table with the ground surface of the prism on the left or right side of collimator. The ray of light
passing through collimator strikes one of the surface of prism and undergoes deviation and
emerges out of the prism from the other side. Looking at the spectrum through the telescope the
prism table is turned slowly in such a direction that the spectrum moves towards direct path of
the beam. The process is continued until the spectrum changes its direction of motion, even
though the prism table is turned in the same direction as before. In this limiting position of the
spectrum, deviation of the beam is minimum.

Now the telescope is fixed on violet colour and the readings on Vernier-1 and Vernier-2 are
taken. Similarly, the readings for red colour are also taken. The prism is removed and direct ray

8
 reading is taken. Using the formula given the refractive index and dispersive power are
calculated.

ObservationTable:
Minimum deviation Direct ray position Refractive
Position(a) (b) a˜b Angle of Index( µ )
{ }
A+DM
minimum sin sin 2

Colour Vernier1 Vernier2 deviation = sin sin A

2
Vernier1 Vernier2 Vernier1 Vernier2 (V​1​) ( V​2​) (V​1+V​2)/2

μV +μR
μ= 2
= ______________
μV −μR
The dispersive power of a medium (ω) = μ−1
= ____________________________.

μ​V​ : Refractive index for violet colour.

μ​R​ : Refractive index for red colour.

Precautions:
1. Care should be taken while handling the electrical connections of the source.
2. Spectrometer telescope and collimator should be properly adjusted to produce and
receive parallel beam of light rays.
3. The slit width shoud be sufficiently narrow.
4. Prism should be placed exactly at the center of prism table.

Result:
The dispersive power of the given material is found as _____________________________.

9
 4.SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION USING LASER
Aim:

To determine the wavelength of the monochromatic source ( LASER) by single slit diffraction.

Appartus:

Laser source, single slit, scale, traveling microscope.

Theory:

The single slit may be treated as a large number of equally spaced point sources and each point on
the slit is source of Huygen’s secondary wavelets, which interfere with the wavelets emanating from the
other points. The secondary wavelets traveling in the direction parallel to the slit comes to focus on the
screen at a point. Since all rays are in phase, diffraction pattern is point of maximum intensity. The
secondary waves traveling in a direction making an angle θ converge to some other point on the screen.
The intensity of this point will be maximum are minimum depending upon the path difference between
the secondary waves orienting from the corresponding wave fronts.
The path difference is given by
a sinθ = nλ
Where n is the order of diffraction n=±1, ±2, ±3……
λ is the wavelength of the source

10
 a is slit width
θ is the angle of diffraction
If the path difference is odd multiple of wavelength then it is given by
a sin θ=(2n+1) λ
Where n= 1,2,3……….
The formula given above is derived using small approximation.

For the experiment sin θ≈

Procedure:

1. Place the single slit parallel to the laser source such that the rays are incident on slit width.
2. Adjust the slit width such that we see clear diffraction pattern on screen/ wall.
3. Measure the distance from slit to screen (say L cm).
4. Distance between minima’s is ‘y’.
5. Take the reading on left and right side

11
 6. By varying different lengths (distance between slit and screen ) the corresponding ‘y’ is to be
measured
7. Using travelling microscope measure the slit width(a).
Observation ​:

Slit width ‘a’= cm

Order of L (cm) y (cm) λ=

minima ‘n’
Left Right Mean

Result​:

The wavelength of the given LASER source is…………… Å.

5. ENERGY GAP

Aim : To determine the energy gap of semiconductor using given PN junction diode.

Apparatus : Germanium diode , Thermometer ,Copper Vessel ,Regulated power supply , micro ammeter
,heater and Bakelite lid.

Theory :The energy gap ( E​g​) of a material is defined as the minimum amount of energy required for an
electron to get excited from the top of valence band to the bottom of the conduction band .The energy
gap for the metals is zero since the valence band and conduction band overlap each other where as the
energy gap for the insulators is very high .The energy gap for the semiconductors lies between the
values for metals and insulators.

Energy gap can also be taken as the amount of energy required to break the covalent bond .In
a junction diode hoes are majority carriers in ‘p’ side and electrons in ‘n’ side .Apart from these
majority carriers they have electrons and holes as minority carriers respectively. Minority carriers are

12
 purely because of covalent bond breaking due to thermal energy. In Reverse bias the majority carriers
,which are due to doping are arrested from contributing towards the current and only thermal excited
minority carriers contribute to the reverse saturation current. When a diode is heated the covalent
bonds break and contribute more charge carriers for conduction.

Reverse saturation current in a diode is given as

I​0​ = C

As R=V/I

We have resistance of a semiconductor varying with the temperature as

R=R​0 -------------------------------(i)

Where R​0 ​ is the constant resistance of the semiconductor at absolute zero,

k is Boltzmann constant and

T is the temperature of the material.

By applying the logarithms on both side of the equation (i) we get

Log​10​R = Log​10​R​0​+ (E​g​/kT)log​10​e-----------------(ii)

This is a linear equation between Log​10​R and 1/T and its slope is obtained from

Slope = E​g​ (log​10​e)/k ; (e = 2.71)

E​g​ = (Slope)k/ log​10​e

E​g​ = eV.

13
 Diagram

Procedure​ :

Connections are made as per the circuit diagram . Pour some oil in the copper vessel. Fix the diode to the
Bakelite lid such that it is reversed biased, a hole is provided on the lid through which the thermometer is
inserted in to the vessel . With the help of heater , heat the copper vessel till the temperature reaches up to
80​0​C. Note the current readings at 80​0​C apply suitable voltage say 1.5V(Which is kept constant) and
note the corresponding current with every 5​0​C fall of temperature reaches the room temperature

Observation Table​ :

Temp in C​0 T=t+273 in K Current in µA Log​10​R

(I)
R= in Ω in K​-1

Model graph:

14
 Precautions​ :

(1.) Do not allow the temperature to rise near 100​0​C. If you can switch off the heater at
80​0​C it will keep on rising for few minutes and may go up to 90 degrees before
stabilizing/falling.
(2.) The oil in the container will be hot and hence must be handled carefully.

Result :​ The energy gap of semiconductor is found to be ----------------eV.

15
 6. PHOTO DIODE

AIM​: ​To study the V-I characteristics of photo diode.

Apparatus: ​Photo Diode kit consisting of Photo Diode, light source, ammeter, voltmeter, D.C. source
and connecting wires.

Theory​:

The semiconductor photodiode is a light detector device which detects presence of light. It is used to
convert optical power into electrical current. PN junction Photo diode have P type and N type
semiconductor forms junction. Thin P type layer is deposited on N type substrate. P-N junction has a
space charge region at the interface of the P and N type material. Light enters through P-layer as shown in
the following figure. This diode has relatively thin depletion region around the junction. It is reverse
biased to increase width of the depletion region. Photons of light entering in P-layer ionize electron-hole
pair. Photon generates electron-hole pair in the depletion region that moves rapidly with the drift velocity
by the electric field.

Photodiode symbol, construction and Energy level diagram

Responsivity is important technical term related to the photodiode. It is ratio of photocurrent to incident
optical power. Responsivity of the photodiode is proportional to width of the junction. Photo diode is used
in fiber optic communication at receiver side. It detects incoming light from the fiber end and convert it
into electrical signal. It can be also used in remote control receiver.

16
PROCEDURE​:

1. Connect the power supply, voltmeter, current meter with the photodiode as shown
in the figure on as shown on the kit.
2. Apply 10V from the DC power supply
3. Increase AC power given to lamp to increase intensity
4. Measure reverse leakage current (photo current) of photodiode for different light intensity
5. Draw graph of light intensity versus photocurrent.

OBSERVATION​:

Photocurrent
(At different Lamp intensities )
S. No. Voltage I​1 I​2

17
 7. LED CHARACTERISTICS

Aim:
To plot and study V-I and P-I characteristics of given LED.

Apparatus:
The LED trainer kit, Digital Multimeter and connecting wires.

Theory:
The light emitting diodes (LED) is a popular electronic devices which work on the
principle of injection luminescence, the process that converts electric input in to a light output.
This device basically consists of a direct band gap semiconductor material doped with impurities
to create a structure called PN junction which can be thought of as a border region between P
type and N type blocks.

Under forward bias the positive voltage is applied to P region and negative to the region.
The holes and electrons are pushed towards the junction. The charge carriers diffuse through PN
junction recombine with the majority carriers on the other side and emit photons. Depending on
the band gap different wavelength of light may be produced.

Circuit Diagram:

18
Characteristics of LED:
The schematic arrangement of the experiment is shown in the fig. The diode V-I
Characteristics are measured by applying a sweep voltage by source V to the diode and
monitoring the current by ammeter A. The general V-I characteristics curve is shown in the fig.
It shows the relation between the output current (I) and the driving voltage (V).

Procedure:
1. The circuit is connected as shown in fig. The DC power supply is connected to LED.

2. A milli-voltmeter is connected across the terminals of LED.

19
 3. The power is switched on and varied slowly.

4. The reading in the milli ammeter and the reading in the voltmeter is noted.

5. The procedure is repeated by varying the voltage.

6. At each step the reading of milli ammeter and voltmeter are noted.

7. A graph is drawn between voltage and current.

8. Again the experiment is conducted with the switch on the board changed to L-I characteristics
mode and noting the Light power output against the current flowing through the LED.

Observation Table:

S.no Voltage(V) Current(I)

S.no Current(mA) Optical power output

(in milli-candela)

20
Precautions:
1. Higher voltages should be avoided to safeguard the LED.

2. Reading should be taken without parallax error.

3. Loose contacts are avoided.

Result:

V-I and L-I (P-I) characteristics of the given LED have been plotted and studied.

9.Stewart & Gee’s Experiment

Aim:
To determine the magnetic induction at several points on the axis of a circular current carrying
coil using Stewart and Gees type of tangent galvanometer.

Apparatus:
Stewart and Gees type of tangent galvanometer, Rheostart , ammeter , Deflection magnetometer ,
Battery eliminator , Commutator , Connecting wires.

Circuit diagram:

21
Description:
The Apparatus consists of a circular frame made up of non-magnetic substance. An insulated
copper wire is wounded on the frame. The ends of the wire are connected to the other two
terminals. By selecting a pair of terminals the number of turns can be changed. The frame is
fixed to a long base at the middle in a vertical plane along the breadth side. The base has leveling
screws. A rectangular non-magnetic metal frame is supported on a movable platform. The
platform can be moved on the frame along the axis of the coil. The compass is so arranged that
the center of the magnetic needle always lie on the axis of the coil.

Theory:
The magnetic field (B) at a point on the axis of a circular coil carrying current “i” is given by the
equation
μ0 nia2
B= 3 T esla.
2(x2 +a2 ) 2

n= Number of turns

i= current flowing through the coil

a= radius of the coil (cm)

22
x= distance from the coil along the axis (cm)

μ0 = Permeability of free space

The apparatus is arranged so that the plane of the coil is in the magnetic meridian. The frame
with compass is kept at the center of the coil and the base is rotated so that the plane of the coil is
parallel to the magnetic needle in the compass. The compass is rotated so that the aluminum
pointer reads 0-0. Now the rectangular frame is along East-West direction. When a current “I”
flows through the coil, the magnetic field produced is in the direction perpendicular to the plane
of the coil. The magnetic needle in the compass is under the influence of two magnetic fields “B”
due to the coil carrying the current and the other Earth’s magnetic field ‘B​e​” which are mutually
perpendicular to each other. The needle deflects through an angle satisfying the tangent law,
B
T anθ = Be or

B = B e T anθ

Where B​e​ is the Earth’s Magnetic field, “ θ" is the average of mean deflection angle.

The theoretical value is

μ0 nia2
B= 3 T esla.
2(x2 +a2 ) 2

Procedure:
With the help of deflection magnetometer and a chalk, a long line of about 1meter is drawn on
the working table to represent the magnetic meridian. Another line perpendicular to the line is
also drawn. The Stewart and Gee’s galvanometer is set with its coil in the magnetic meridian as
shown in the figure.

The magnetometer is set at the center of the coil and rotated to make the aluminum pointer reads
0-0 in the magnetometer. The key “K” is closed and the rheostat is adjusted so that the deflection
in the magnetometer is about 60​0​. The current in the commutator is reversed and the deflection in
the magnetometer is observed. The deflections before and after reversal of current are noted
when distance, d=0. The readings are tabulated in the table. The magnetometer is moved towards
East side in steps of either 5 or 4 cms. at a time. At each position, the key is closed and the
deflections before and after reversal of current are noted. The mean deflection be noted as θ E​.
The magnetometer is further moved towards East in steps of 5 or 4 cms. and the deflection each
time before and after reversal of current is noted until the deflections falls to 25​0​.

The experiment is repeated by shifting the magnetometer towards west from the center of the
coil and the deflections are noted before and after reversal of current is noted. The mean
deflection is tabulated as θ W​. The mean value of ​( θ E​) and ( θ W​) for each distance (x) is found and B value
is calculated. A graph is drawn with tan θ on y axis and the distance an X-axis is drawn.

23
Observation Table:
Dista
-nce
Deflection on East side
( θ E​)
Deflection on West side
( θ W​)
θ= [ θE +θW
2 ] B=
T anθ B​e​Tan
(x) θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 θ
θE θE

Precautions:
1. The apparatus should be properly aligned with respect to Earth Magnetic field.
2. Any stray magnetic fields should be kept away from the apparatus during the experiment.
3. The power supply should be placed sufficiently isolated from the setup during
experiment.
4. Electrical connections should be properly inspected before switching on the equipment.
5. Deflection readings should be taken without parallax error.

Result:
The magnetic induction values at different points on the axis of the coil are as below:
μ0 nia2
B= 3 T esla.
Distance “x” in cms. B = B e T anθ 2(x2 +a2 ) 2

10. LCR Circuit

Aim:

To draw the characteristics of a LCR series and parallel resonant circuit and determine the resonance
frequency and band width.

Apparatus required:

24
Inductors, capacitors, resistors, function generator, AC ammeter, Plug key and connecting wires.

Description:

The circuit containing a capacitance C, Inductance L and resistance R, connected in series and parallel as
shown in fig.1 and fig.3 respectively when an alternating emf is applied to the circuit an alternate current
flows in the circuit. The impedance of the circuit is given by

The effective reactance is inductive or capacitive depends upon the x​L​>x​C or x​L​<x​C​. The inductive
reactance is proportional to the frequency and increases as the frequency increases from zero onwards.
The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency, decreases from infinity value
downwards. At certain frequency both reactances become equal and this frequency is called the resonant
frequency. At resonance the impedance is minimum and is equal to the resistance. Under these
conditions, the current I = V/R and cosΦ = 1 or Φ = 0. That is, the current and the voltage are in phase.
Such a circuit is called an acceptor circuit.

In parallel resonant circuit, at resonance, the circuit does not allow the current to flow and works as a
perfect choke for AC. Such a circuit is called Rejecter circuit.

Theory:

In a series LCR circuit (Resonant), the impedance of an inductance and a capacitor are equal in magnitude
and are in opposite directions, hence, the impedance of the circuit is only the resistance. Therefore, the
current is maximum at the resonant frequency. The resonant frequency is given by

In a parallel LCR circuit, the impedence is maximum at the resonant frequency and the current is
minimum.

The resonant frequency for parallel circuit is given by

25
The bandwidth of the circuit is defined as the difference in half power frequencies. These can be
determined by drawing a half power line on the characteristic curve at 70.7% of the resonant or the
maximum value on the curve.

Procedure​:

1. Series Resonance:

The circuit is connected as shown in fig 1. A fixed amplitude of voltage at all frequencies is applied to
the circuit through a function generator. By changing the frequency, the current in the circuit is noted.
The readings are tabulated in table 1. A graph is drawn between frequency (x-axis) and the current
(y-axis). The shape of the curve is shown in fig.2

Band width Hz

Resonant frequency

2. Parallel Resonance:

The circuit for the parallel resonance is shown in fig.3. A constant amplitude of voltage at all frequencies
is to be applied to the circuit through the function generator. By changing the frequency in steps, the
current in the circuit is noted. The readings are tabulated in table 2 and a graph is drawn between
frequency on (x-axis) and the current on (y-axis). The nature of the curve is shown in figure 4. In the
graph i is the magnitude of current.

Resonant frequency

The resonant frequency in series and parallel circuit are compared with theoretical calculations and from
graph.

26
 Fig.1

Fig.2

Observation:

Series Resonance:

Frequency Current

S.No (Hz) (mA)

27
Fig.3 .CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig.4.

Observation:

Parallel Resonance

Frequency Current
S.No log f
(Hz) (mA)

28
Precautions​:

1. Readings should to be taken carefully to avoid parallax error.

2. Amplitude, once fixed, should not be changed in midst of the experiment.

3. Apparatus should be handled carefully as they are sophisticated appliances.

Result:

Series Resonance:

Resonant frequency :

Experimental value =

Theoretical value =

Band width =

Parallel Resonance:

Resonant frequency :

Experimental value =

Theoretical value =

11. R-C Circuit

29
Aim​: ​To study the exponential growth and decay of charge in R-C circuit and to determine RC
time constant.

Apparatus​: ​Fixed power supply, switch, stop watch, voltmeter, Connecting wires,
Combinations of Resistor & capacitors.

Theory: ​When a battery is connected to a circuit consisting of elements like resistor and
capacitors, voltages can develop across these elements and current can flow through them.
Capacitors store charge and develop a voltage drop (V) across them proportional to the amount

of charge (Q) that they have stored, such that V= .The constant of proportionality (C) is called

capacitance (measured in Farad= ).

(i) Charging: The voltage across the capacitor, during the charging phase,

V =V​0

Where (V​0​) is the peak voltage to which the capacitor is charged and (t) is the time.

At time t = RC,

V = V​0​ (1- )

V = 0.63V​0

(ii) Discharging: The voltage across the capacitor, during the discharging phase,

V = V​0​ ( )
Where (V​0​) is the peak Voltage to which the capacitors is charged and (t) is the time.

At time t=RC

V = V​0

30
 or V = 0.37V​0.

Circuit diagram:

Procedure:
(1.) The circuit is connected as shown in figure.
(2.) Taking one set of resistor and capacitor, the capacitor is charged with the
help of switch ‘S’ till the deflection in the voltmeter is maximum and the
switch ‘S’ is released.
(3.) The capacitor starts discharging through the resistance ‘R’ and the
deflections decreases steadily.
(4.) The stop clock is started at suitable initial point then the deflections are
noted at suitable intervals of time say (5sec).
(5.) It is continued till the deflections fall below 0.368 of initial value.
(6.) The Experiment is repeated for the different values of R and C.
(7.) The observations are tabulated and the time constant is calculated
theoretically from the values of R and C used and also from the graph.

31
Observation Table:

Set-1 Set-2 Set-3

R=-----------Ω R=----------- Ω R=----------- Ω

C=-----------Farads C=----------- Farads C=----------- Farads

Time(sec) Voltage(volt) Time(sec) Voltage(volt) Time(sec) Voltage(volt)

Calculation of time constant:

​Theoretical Value:

Time constant = RC

​Experimental Value:

The time corresponding to the decrease of Voltage

to 0.368V​0​ is time constant

V = V​0 (​ )

32
 t=RC

V=V​0
V=0.368 V​0

Graph :

Precautions:
(i) Readings should be taken without parallax error.
(ii) Loose contacts are avoided

Result:
The time constant of RC circuit is found as follows

Theoretical Value Graphical Value

Set-1

Set-2

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 12. NUMERICAL APERTURE OF OPTICAL FIBRE
Aim​ :

To determine the numerical aperture of the given optical fiber.

Apparatus​ :

One or two meters of the step index fiber , fiber optics kit and scale.

Theory​ :

The light collecting capacity of optical fiber is called as Numerical aperture. It is defined as the product of
refractive index of surrounding medium and sine of maximum acceptance angle.

Numerical aperture(NA)=n​0​sin max​-------------------------(1)

For air as surrounding medium n​0​=1

and NA=sinθ​max​------------------------(2)

For step index Fiber , NA is given by NA=(n​1​-n​2​) ½​​ -----------------(3)

Where n​1​ and n​2​ are refractive indices of core and cladding materials.

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Let W be the diameter of one such concentric ring

and the distance between fiber and screen AO = L ( from the triangle AOB )

Sinθ​max​= ;

Sinθ​max​=

Sinθ​max​= ;

NA=Sinθ​max​= ------------------------------------(4)

NA= Sinθ​max​=

Knowing W and L , the NA can be calculated and substituting this NA value in eq(2) the acceptance
angle can be calculated.

Figure

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Procedure ​:

(1.) Connect one end of the optical fiber cable to po and another end to the NA jig.
(2.) Plug the AC mains , red light should appear at the end of the fiber on the NA jig .To set
maximum out put turn the set po knob clockwise . The red light intensity should increase.
(3.) Hold the acrylic white screen which has printed scale at a distance of 5mm (L) from the
emitting fiber end and you will view the red spot on the screen .Measure the diameter W of
the spot .

Substitute the measured values of L and W in the formula

NA= Sinθ​max​=

and calculate the value of the NA of the given fiber.

Repeat the experiment for the various distances .

Observation​:

S.no L in mm W in mm NA θ

Precautions​ :

1. Surroundings should be perfectly dark.

2. Fiber should be coupled smoothly to the connector.

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Result​ : The Numerical aperture of a given optical fiber is found to be ___________.

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