COMMUNICATION THEORY

Dr. Olga J. Domingo

 Table of Contents

Module 1: Concepts of Theory

Introduction 1
Learning Outcomes 2
Lesson 1. Definitions of Theory 2
Lesson 2. Level of Generality 12
Lesson 3. Paradigms 13
Assessment Task 1 14
Summary 15
References 16

Module 2: Value and Goals

Introduction 17
Learning Outcomes 17
Lesson 1. Definition of Communication 18
Lesson 2. Importance of Studying Communication Theory 19
Lesson 3. Goals 20
Assessment Task 2 21
Summary 22
References 23

Module 3. Introducing the Seven Traditions

Introduction 24
Learning Outcomes 24
Lesson 1. Socio-psychological Tradition 25
Lesson 2. The Cybernetic Tradition 26
Lesson 3. The Rhetorical Tradition 27
Lesson 4. The Semiotic Tradition 29
Lesson 5. The Socio-cultural Tradition 31
Lesson 6. The Critical Tradition 33
Lesson 7. The Phenomenological Tradition 35
Assessment Task 3 37
Summary 38
References 39

LIST OF FIGURES
 No. Title Page
1 Theory, an Abstract System of Concepts 2
2 Theory, a Hunch 5
3 Theories as Lenses not as Mirrors 11
4 Composition of Socio-psychological 25
Tradition
5 Ferdinand de Saussure, Founder of 30
Semiotics
6 Arrows as Street Signs 31
7 Patterns of Interaction between People 32
rather than on Individual in Socio-
cultural Tradition
8 Questions of Power and Privilege in 34
Critical Tradition
9 Map of Seven Traditions 36

Course Code: COM 102

Course Description:

Theories, principles and concepts in communication; issues and

perspectives in the study of communication.

Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILO):

At the end of the course, the learner should be able to:

1. explain the different concepts of communication in relation to

different definitions, models, and paradigms;
2. analyze the basic principles, strengths and weaknesses of various
communication and media theories; and
3. propose a communication theory in investigating a particular
research problem, conducting a communication campaign or
program and the likes.

Course Requirements:

Class Standing 60%

Major Exams 40%

Periodic Grade 100%

Prelim Grade 60% Class Standing + 40% Prelim Exam

Midterm Grade 30% Prelim Grade + 70% (60% Midterm

Class Standing + 40% Midterm Exam)

Final Grade 30% Midterm Grade + 70% (60% Final

Class Standing + 40% Final Exam)

Note: Components of Class Standing are reflected in the

OBTLP and Grading Sheets.
 MODULE 1
Concepts of Theory

Introduction

The following story is based from Tolentino, Campos, Solis, & Pangilinan (2014).

You are in a coffee shop in a mall one afternoon. Beside you, wearing school uniforms
and drinking mocha frappes each, are two teenaged girls. You see that they are watching a
YouTube video of a woman parodying scenes from a recent blockbuster Filipino movie. The
girls begin to laugh out loud, and one of them says, “Did you know that she doesn’t really talk
that way? She is actually Fil-Am, at ang galing-galing nyang mag-English!” The other girl is
surprised and say, “Really?! Ang galing naman! Parang Pinoy lang na baluktot talaga mag -
English!”

What does this scenario mean? You might be wondering: what do you mean by “what
does it mean?”? It is just about two girls talking about a funny video. Could it mean something
more than this? This assertion is yes, it means more than meets the eye.

This whole workbook is all about “theory,” and your next question would be: theories on what?
Ostensibly, it is about “communication” and “theory.” As such, it addresses the
“communication” and “media” aspects of a scenario such as the one pictured above. It could

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be about the interpersonal exchange of the two girls or their use of the internet and the
gratifications that they derive from it (Tolentino et al., 2014).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learner should be able to:

1. demonstrate understanding on the definitions about theory;

2. explain level of generality; and

3. discuss paradigms.

Lesson 1. Definitions of Theory

Defining a theory is quite difficult. So

communication scholars defined it in many

ways. Some did it through direct statements,

some describe it, and others did it through

metaphors. Figure 1. “Theory” – an Abstract System of Concepts

(Source: https://images.search.yahoo.com)
Direct Statements

Griffin (2012) defined theory as “an umbrella term for all careful, systematic, and self-

conscious discussion and analysis of communication phenomena. Generally speaking, a

theory is an abstract system of concepts with indications of the relationships among these

concepts that help us understand a phenomenon (West and Turner, 2007). William Doherty

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and his colleagues (1993) have elaborated on Turner’s definition by conveying the notion that

theories are both process and product. In 1986, Jonathan H. Turner defined theory as “a

process of developing ideas that can allow us to explain how and why events occur” (p.5).

Figure 1 shows about the definition of theory.

Describing Theory

Theory is Caring to Ask Questions

Defining theory is a formidable task. Any given definition is always a tentative definition,

a working definition, open to scrutiny and questioning. But it is possible to describe what “doing

theory” is like. While it is difficult to define theory once and for all, nevertheless it is and

remains to be an activity, a process. Defining a theory and describing the activity of “doing

theory” are, therefore, intricately connected (Tolentino et al., 2014).

At this point you might ask: if “theory” is hard to define, why bother? Many practical-

minded people, referring to course like “literary theory” or “film theory” is difficult, impractical,

and unnecessary. And students are sometimes intimidated by apparently dense and difficult-

to-read texts, and by the many hard-to-pronounce names like Michel de Certeau or Gayatri

Chakravorty Spivak, associated with “theory” (Tolentino et al., 2014).

Consider this anecdote. A film producer once complained to his friend who is a film

professor, “You professors and academics have so many complicated ideas about watching

movies, but you wouldn’t know the first thing about using a camera if your life depended on it.

People will pick out what movies they will enjoy and will make something out of it, even without

being taught how. Watching is just watching. Why do you make it so complicated with

‘theory’?” (Tolentino et al., 2014).

“Problematizing” is basically asking questions and attempting to answer them. For

instance, how many people ask why women in so many love stories have to be loved by a

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man to “feel complete”? And how many people ask why they themselves fell so complete after

watching a love story in which a woman sacrifices everything to be completed by a man? We

always watch such stories on film or television or read them in novels. But we “problematize”

only when we begin to interrogate the stories and occur experience of them and not take them

for granted. Such are the kinds of questions that the professor might theorize about (Tolentino

et al., 2014).

Moreover, the professor who “does theory” cares to articulate not just the “who” and

“what” of his interest (in this case, films) but – more complex still – the “how” and “why” which

are more arguably more “theoretical” questions. (For example, “Do people admire a certain

Hollywood romantic-comedy star just because s/he is talented or good –looking? What kind

of influence does s/he exert on the private lives of individuals when it comes to romantic

relationships?”) That is, he cares to ask and attempts to understand. These two attitudes ---

caring and attempting to understand – are two important dispositions for “doing theory” and,

in themselves, are beneficial to the one who “does theory” (Tolentino et al., 2014).

Can you formulate a series of questions about the scenario in the beginning of this

introduction? What about this scenario interests you or piques your curiosity? (Tolentino et

al., 2014).

For example, how did these two students happen to watch the “viral” video mentioned

earlier? Did they happen to view it by chance, or is it because the video has had many “hits”?

How does the internet work? Alternatively, you can ask: Did they find the video funny because

they are girls, because they are teenagers, because they do not speak the same “baluktot”

English, or because the girl in the video is simply funny? Follow-up questions could be: Is the

humor in this video for particular people only, or will anyone who sees it laugh out loud like

the girls? Or alternatively, why is the knowledge or pronunciation of English a point of interest

or humor for the girls? (Tolentino et al., 2014).

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 These are just some examples of what you can ask about the scenario, and certainly you

can think up more (Tolentino et al., 2014).

Theory is a Set of Informed Hunches

One of the introductory textbooks in communication

theory begins with Judee Burgoon’s definition of theory. A

theory is a “set of systematic hunches about the way things

operate” (cited in Griffin 2012, 2).

A “hunch” is a guess, a conjecture which suggests that Figure 2. “Hunch” – a Guess, a

Conjecture
there is uncertainty about something (Figure 2). If (Source:
https://images.search.yahoo.com)
everything in this world were well understood and needed

no explanation, then there would be need for a theory. But

hardly in this world is completely understood, and so a need to speculate is always necessary,

if not desirable (Tolentino et al., 2014).

Once you become a theorist you probably hope that all thinking people will eventually

embrace the trial balloon that you’ve launched, but when you first float your theory, it’s

certainly in the haunch category (Tolentino et al., 2014).

Examples from “Life in Hell,” the cartoon of Matt Groening (1986):

1. If you eat a bunch of fizzies, then drink a glass of water, you will explode.

2. Dogs and bees can smell fear.

3. Rain is just God peeing on you.

4. If you die in your dream, you will die.

5. If you throw a penny off the top of the Empire State Building, it will a foot into the

sidewalk.

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 By referring to a plural “set of hunches” rather than a single “hunch,” Burgoon makes it

clear that a theory is not just one inspired thought or an isolated idea. The young theorist in

the cartoon may be quite sure that dogs and bees can smell fear, but not isolated conviction

is not theory. A developed theory offers some sort of an explanation. For example, how are

bees and dogs able to sniff out fright? Perhaps the scent of sweaty palms that comes from

high anxiety is qualitatively different than the odor of people perspiring from hard work. A

theory will also give some indication of scope. Do only dogs and bees possess this keen sense

of smell, or do butterflies and kittens have it as well? Theory construction involves multiple

hunches (Griffin, 2012).

It’s not simply enough to think about carefully about an idea; a theorist hunches should

be informed. Working on hunch that a penny thrown from the Empire State Building will

become embedded in the sidewalk, the young theorist has a responsibility to check it out.

Before developing a theory, there are articles to read, people to talk to, actions to observe, or

experiments to run, all of which can cast light on the subject. At the very least, a

communication theorist should be familiar with the alternative explanations and interpretations

on of the type of communication they are studying (Griffin, 2012).

Theories are sometimes defines as guesses – but significantly as “educated” guesses.

Theories are not merely based on vague impressions nor are they accidental by-products of

life. Theories tend to result when their creators have prepared themselves to discover

something in their environment, which triggers the process of theory construction (Casmir,

n.d.).

Theory is Linked with Criticism and Scholarship

The collection and operationalization of theories about a certain subject matter constitute

a “field of study,” a “discipline.” In the long run, these fields of study influence, if not benefit,

more people beyond the theorists in the field. At least, that is one purpose of founding a field

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of study, in theory – to be beneficial to people, whether or not it proves to be so (Tolentino et

al., 2014).

The work of theory, then, must involve research – reading existing literature that have

dealt with same questions, gathering data and materials and organizing them, and analyzing,

comparing, and evaluating those data and materials in conjunction with the “theoretical”

questions. Only after taking these systematic steps can one refine one’s questions to better

find precise answers. A the saying goes, there is no need to reinvent the wheel” (Tolentino et

al., 2014).

The theories that constitute a field of study is not always consistent with each other and

are not always satisfactory or widely accepted. A continued engagement with theory develops

and continually reevaluates the discipline. This means that neither the theory nor the field of

study is static. This is so because knowledge production is continuous, new questions are

always being asked, and old questions and answers are always refined or revisited (Tolentino

et al., 2014).

“Theory” continually develops because it is inextricably linked with two fundamental

activities: “criticism” (i.e. the evaluation of theories and research materials; the explication or

deployment of theory by application) and “scholarship” (i.e. the specialization in a field of

study; the application of specific theory-based methodologies to research). In other words,

theory, for it to be sound, must be informed by research and vice versa. Theory, furthermore,

is tested and refined – or refuted and debunked – after being analyzed and evaluated, and

after being deployed as criticism (Tolentino et al., 2014).

Theory is a Mode of Thinking that is Historical, Cross-disciplinary, and Self-reflexive

“Theory,” therefore, is not static, and hence, the work of theory, criticism, and scholarship

is to be viewed historically. Necessarily, the questions and answers previously given do not

always remain useful, valid, or sufficient, for one reason or another. Moreover, given the

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irrepressible historical development of theory, the fields of study themselves develop, change,

branch out, form subcategories or intersect with other fields. Furthermore, the objects of the

study, like the scholars in the field who continually shift in interests and concerns, constantly

develop and change as well (Tolentino et al., 2014).

Certain fields of study are, furthermore, informed by other fields of study ranging from the

likes of anthropology to nueroscience, or from economics to psychology. So the question

about the relationship for example between pleasure and horror films may be addressed as a

“cultural” or a “psychological” or maybe as a question pertaining to “capitalism” or “the

unconscious.” Certainly, pleasure and horror have to do – all at the same time – with the body,

mind, culture and commerce – among others (Tolentino et al., 2014).

We have said that the collection and operationalization of theories constitute fields of

study, but now we see how these fields are apparently permeable and always converging or

intersecting. The reason a pair of quotation marks (“ “) has been used around the word

“theory” is its definition must be constantly suspended in order for us to be able to “do theory.”

If so many disciplines have a claim to the term “theory,” then a definition is always tentative

and incomplete, even while the process of theorizing, criticism, and scholarship never stops

(Tolentino et al., 2014).

But while we have been asserting that a series of interrelated questions may be

addressed by many discrete fields of study, reflecting on “theory” is also a significant starting

point to think not in terms of dividedness in disciplines but in terms of relatedness in meaning-

making (Tolentino et al., 2014).

There is no answer or, at the least, it is not easy to answer the question theories on what?

In contrast to Borgoon’s idea of theory as a set of systematic, hunches about how things work,

8
“theory” as critic Jonathan Culler bluntly puts it, is “not the theory of anything in particular, nor

a comprehensive theory of things in general” (1997, 1).

Indeed, what informs what is called “critical theory,” oftentimes nicknamed just “theory,”
is a work from highly varied fields. However, “critical theory” seeks to answer questions about

being, knowing, and meaning which are interrelated, regardless of discipline. The reference

of Plato (Critical Theory since Plato ) signifies the range of concerns of “theory”: philosophy,

poetry, language, government, morality, essence, just to name a few (Tolentino et al., 2014).

In an important sense, then, “theory” is unstable and impossible to master. Keeping in

mind that is historical, “doing theory” never ends. A particular group of texts always takes

up – to revitalize, to refute, or to reinterpret – other, usually older texts (Tolentino et al., 2014).

Theory is Inseparable from “Praxis”

This process of living out and enacting “theory” is referred to, in critical parlance, as

“praxis.” It is often used to mean politically conscious action. In other words, it means action

(Tolentino et al., 2014).

And while “theory” is about so many things at the same time, “theories” are not always

compatible with one another. ‘Doing theory,” therefore, means choosing sides, taking claims,

and even, if need be, going into combat. One cannot believe in all theories all at the same

time. The one “doing theory” may come to believe that certain ideas have to be accepted,

whole others are rejected. Theorists, critics, and scholars, then make commitments because

they believe that “theory” matters in practice (Tolentino et al., 2014).

According to Hempel (1952), although a theory is an abstract, it enables us to understand

concrete experiences and observations and that a theory itself is capable of being modified

by observations. In addition, his statement asserts that our concrete experiences and

9
observations are interpreted by us through the lens offered by the theory we are using (Griffin,

2012).

Metaphorical Definition (Griffin, 2012)

Images of Theory

Theories as nets: Philosopher of science Karl Popper says that “theories are nets to

cast to catch what we call “the world” … We endeavor to make the mesh ever finer and finer.”

The term “the world’ can be interpreted as everything under the sun --- thus requiring a grand

theory that applies to all communication, all the time.

Theories as lenses: Many scholars see their theoretical constructions as similar to the

lens of a camera or a pair of glasses as opposed to a mirror that accurately reflects the world

out there (Figure 3). The lens imagery highlights the idea that theories shape our perception

by focusing attention on some features, or at least pushing them into the background. Two

theorists could analyze the same communication event --- an argument, perhaps --- and

depending on the lens each uses, one theorist may view this speech act as a breakdown of

communication or the breakup of a relationship, while the other theorist will see it as a

democracy in action.

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 Figure 3. Theories as “Lenses” not as Mirrors
(Source: https://images.search.yahoo.com)

Theories as Maps: Within this analogy, communication theories are maps of the way of

communication works. The truth they depict may have to do with objective behaviors “out

there” or subjective meanings inside our heads. Either way we need to have a theory to guide

us through unfamiliar territory.

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Lesson 2. Level of Generality (West and Turner, 2007)

A common means of classifying theories pertains to their level of generality. Theories are

often seen as being grand (or universal), mid-range (or general), and narrow (or very specific).

The following is the level of generality:

1. Grand theory – a theory that attempts to explain all of the phenomenon such as

communication. Most communication scholars believe that no grand theory exists.

2. Mid-range theory – theory that attempts to explain a specified aspect of a phenomenon

such as communication. Many theories of communication fall into the mid-range theory

category like Uncertainty Reduction Theory, Groupthink Theory, and Face-Negotiation

Theory.

3. Narrow theory – concerns only certain people in certain situations. For example:

“communication rules pertinent to standing in an elevator” (Stacks, Hill, & Hickinson,

1991, p. 284)

According to West and Turner (2007), theories differ in their level of generality due to their

difference in focus, or what they try to explain. Some theories focus on the entire

communication process (ex. Symbolic Interaction Theory) whereas others focus more

specifically on a given aspect of the process, such as the message or the sender (example:

Rhetorical Theory). Still others attend to communication as a means for relationship

development (example: Social Penetration Theory).

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Lesson 3. Paradigms (West and Turner, 2007)

Paradigms (or world view) are intellectual traditions that ground specific theories. They

offer general ways of viewing human communication; theories are the more specific

explanations of a particular aspect of communication behavior.

In the communication discipline, modern communication theory originated with

information processing and the notion of cybernetic tradition (Wiener, 1948).

Paradigms revolve around three areas, representing three philosophical questions

concerning the research enterprise: ontology, questions about the nature of reality;

epistemology, questions about how we know things; and axiology, questions about what is

worth knowing (West and Turner, 2007).

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 Assessment Task 1

Situation (adopted from West and Turner, 2007):

The first time I gave a speech in college I definitely had a communication apprehension.

I wished I knew what to do. I was sweating, and my note cards kept shaking because my

hands were shaking. I couldn’t even look at the group because I thought I would get rolling

eyes or people who wouldn’t even look back at me. But something weird happened. Once

I took a deep breath in the middle of my speech, I relaxed a bit. I also found two people who

were so nice to give me positive head nods while I spoke. There were the best audience

members! So, for the next speech, I got up there and took two deep breaths before I began.

I also searched out audience members who give me encouraging reactions. I did the same

thing for my third speech. The more I relaxed, the better speaker I was. I think I could give

a speech in front of a hundred people and only have a little bit of communication

apprehension.

Instructions (as individual):

1. List down series of questions about the situation above. (Care to ask Questions)

2. Formulate hunches (educated guesses). (Hunches)

3. What aspects would you like to research about to enlighten more or be able to answer

your questions, where can you get those answers, what materials to gather, etc.?

(Criticism and Scholarship)

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4. What fields of discipline this situation is related to? Enumerate and why? (Historical,

Cross-disciplinary and Self-reflexive)

Summary

Communication scholars defined theory in many ways. Theory is defined as “an umbrella

term for all careful, systematic, and self-conscious discussion and analysis of communication

phenomena (Griffin, 2012). It is an abstract system of concepts with indications of the

relationships among these concepts that help understand a phenomenon (West and Turner,

2007). It is both a process and a product (Doherty et al., 1993). It is “a process of developing

ideas that can allow us to explain how and why events occur” (Turner, 1986, p.5).

According to Tolentino, et al. (2014), a theory cares to ask questions, is a set of informed

hunches, is linked with criticism and scholarship, is a mode of thinking that is historical, cross-

-disciplinary, and self-reflexive, and is inseparable from praxis.

Metaphorically, theory is compared to a net, lenses, and a map.

Theory is categorized as grand, mid-range, and narrow.

As cited by West and Turner (2007), paradigms are intellectual traditions that ground

specific theories. The areas are ontology (questions about the nature of reality), epistemology

(questions about how we know things), and axiology (questions about what is worth knowing).

15
 References

Books

Griffin, E. (2012). A First Look at Communication Theory 8th ed. McGraw Hill Publications.

Turner, L. and West, R. (2007). Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application.
3rd ed. McGraw Hill Publications.

Tolentino, R. et al. (2014). Communication and Media Theories. Quezon City, Philippines: UP
Press.

16
 MODULE 2
Value and Goals

Introduction

We’d like to emphasize the importance of communication theory to all our lives. Many of you

may not be immediately aware of the value of this topic. Therefore, we want to give you a glimpse

into the significance of the communication theory. As you read this you will likely develop your own

personal understanding of the importance of communication theory (West and Turner, 2007).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learner should be able to:

1. define communication;

2. explain the importance of studying communication theory; and

3. discuss the goals of theory.

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Lesson 1. Definitions of Communication

What is communication? To ask this question is to invite controversy and raise

expectations that can’t be met. Franck Dance, the University of Denver scholar credited for

publishing the first comprehensive book on communication theory, catalogued more than 120

definitions of communication – and that was more than 40 years ago! The following are some

definitions that we can use for our workbook:

1. Communication is the relational process of creating and interpreting messages that elicit
a response (Griffin, 2012).
2. Communication is a social process in which individuals employ symbols to establish and
interpret meaning in their environment (West and Turner, 2007).
3. Linear model of communication: Communication is sending a messeage sent by a source
to a receiver through a channel (West and Turner, 2007).
4. Interactional model of communication: Communication is the sharing of meaning with
feedback that links source and receiver (West and Turner, 2007).
5. Transactional model of communicatin: Communication is simultaneous sending and
receiving of messages (West and Turner, 2007).

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Lesson 2. Importance of Studying Communication Theory (West and
Turner, 2007)
1. Improve critical thinking skills – communication students are required to think critically

about several issues. Studying, analyzing, understanding, and applying theory in real life

situations require you to cultivate your critical thinking skills.

2. Appreciate richness across various fields of study – Whether you are a communication,

psychology, education, political science, or business major, the theories contained in this

book are based on the thinking, writing, and research of intellectually curious men and

women who have drawn on the scholarship of numerous disciplines. For example,

Relational Dialectics Theory’s principles originate from philosophy, Groupthink Theory is

from foreign policy decision making, Face-Negotiation Theory was influenced by

sociology, and many more.

3. Make sense of your life experiences – Communication theory helps you in understanding

people, media, and events, and help you answer important questions. Why men and

women may speak differently? Muted Group Theory will help you answer that question.

Do the media promote a violent society? The theory of Cultivation Analysis will help you

understand that.

4. You – Learning about who you are, how you function in a society, the influence that you

are able to have on others, the extent to which you are influenced by media, etc. are just

a handful of the possible areas that are either explicitly or implicitly discussed in the

theories.

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Lesson 3. Goals (West and Turner, 2007)

The following are the goals of theory:

1. Explanation – to explain something because of the concepts and relationships specified

in the theory.

2. Understanding – to understand something because of theoretical thinking.

3. Prediction – to predict something based on the patterns suggested by a theory.

4. Social change – to effect social change or empowerment.

Although some theories try to reach all these goals, most feature one goal over the others.

Rhetorical theories, some media theories, and many interpersonal theories seek primarily to

provide explanation or understanding. Others – for example, traditional persuasion and

organizational theories – focus on prediction. Still others – for instance, some feminist and

other critical theories -- have as their goal to change the structures of the society. For critical

theorists, this means effecting social change, not simply improving social lives. For instance,

a theory about conflict management may help people understand how to engage in conflict

more productively, thus enriching their lives. Yet it may do nothing to change the underlying

structures that promoted the conflict in the first place.

Now we have a working definition for theory, and we can see that theories help us answer

why and how questions about our communication experiences. From this, we note that

experience and theory are related, although experience is concrete and theory is abstract.

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 Assessment Task 2

Instructions (as individual):

Read again the Importance of Studying Communication Theory. List down at least three

communication theories for every importance enumerated above and explain why.

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 Summary

According to Griffin (2012), communication is the relational process of creating and

interpreting messages that elicit a response.

As cited by West and Turner (2007), the importance of studying communication theory
are: (1) improve critical thinking skills; (2) appreciate richness across various fields of
study; (3) make sense of your life experiences; and (4) you.

The goals are the following as cited by West and Turner (2007): (1) explanation; (2)

understanding; (3) prediction; and (4) social change.

22
 References

Books

Griffin, E. (2012). A First Look at Communication Theory 8 th ed. McGraw Hill Publications.

Turner, L. and West, R. (2007). Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application.
3rd ed. McGraw Hill Publications.

Tolentino, R., et al. (2014). Communication and Media Theories. Quezon City, Philippines:
UP Press.

23
 Module 3
Introducing the Seven Traditions

Introduction

Robert Craig, a University of Colorado communication professor, describes the seven

traditions in the field of communication theory. The classifications will help you understand
why some theories share common ground, while others are effectively fenced off from each
other by conflicting goals and assumptions (Griffin, 2012).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learner should be able to:

1. enumerate the seven traditions of communication theory;

2. elucidate some background information about the seven traditions in the field of

communication theory and cite theories as examples; and

3. analyze the survey map of traditions.

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Lesson 1. Socio-psychological Tradition (Griffin, 2012)
Communication as Interpersonal Interaction and Influence

The socio-psychological tradition epitomizes the scientific or objective perspective

(Figure 4). Scholars in this tradition believe there are communication truths that can be
discovered by careful, systematic observation. They look for cause-and-effect relationships
that will predict the results when people communicate. When they find causal links, they are
well on the way to answering the ever-present question that relationship and persuasion
practitioners ask: How can I get others to change? In terms of generating theory, this
tradition is the most prolific of the seven traditions. For communication theorists in the socio-
psychological tradition, means designing a series of surveys or controlled experiments.

Examples of theories under the socio-psychological tradition are the Uncertainty

Reduction Theory, Uses and Gratification Theory, Trait Theory, and Social–Judgement
Theory.

Figure 4. Composition of Socio-psychological Tradition

(Source: https://businessjargons.com/socio-psychological-theory.html)

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Lesson 2. The Cybernetic Tradition (Griffin, 2012)

Communication as a System of Information Processing

MIT scientist Norbert Wiener coined the word cybernetics to describe the field of artificial
intelligence. The term is transliteration of the Greek word for “steersman” or “governor,” and
it illustrates the way feedback makes information processing possible in our heads and on our
laptops. Cybernetics is the study of information processing, feedback, and control in
communication systems. During World War II, Wiener developed an anti-aircraft firing
system that adjusted future trajectory by taking into account the results of past performance.
His concept of feedback anchored the cybernetic tradition, which regards communication as
the link connecting the separate parts of any system, such as a computer system, a family
system, a media system, or a system of social support. Theorists in this tradition seek to
answer such questions as How does the system work? What could change it? and How can
we get the bugs out?

Examples of theories under the cybernetic tradition are the Information-Integration

Theory, Expectancy-Value Theory, Systems Theory, Spiral of Silence, and Consistency
Theory.

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Lesson 3. The Rhetorical Tradition (Griffin, 2012)

Communication as Artful Public Address

Rhetoric is the art of using all available means of persuasion, focusing upon lines of
argument, organization of ideas, language use, and delivery in public speaking. Whether
speaking to a crowd, congregation, legislative assembly, or jury, public speakers have sought
practical advice on how best to present their case. Well into the twentieth century, the
rhetorical theory and advice from Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, and other Greco-Roman
rhetors served as the main source of wisdom about public speaking. There are half-dozen
features that characterizes this influential tradition of rhetorical communication:

• A conviction that speech distinguishes humans from other animals. Cicero suggested
that only oral communication had the power to lead humanity out of its brutish
existence and establish communities with rights of citizenship.
• A confidence that public address delivered in a democratic forum is a more effective
way to solve political problems than rule by decree or resorting to force. Within this
tradition, the phrase mere rhetoric is a contradiction in terms.
• A setting in which a single speaker attempts to influence multiple listeners through
persuasive discourse. Effective communication requires adaptive audience.
• Oratorical training as the cornerstone of a leader’s education. Speakers earn to deliver
strong arguments in powerful voices that carry to the edge of the crowd.
• An emphasis on the power and beauty of language to move people emotionally and
stir them to action. Rhetoric is more art than science.
• Oral public persuasion as the province of males. A key feature of the women’s
movement has been the struggle for the right to speak in public.

You might have trouble seeing the link between the main features of the rhetorical
tradition and Aristotle’s comments on friendship. After an in-depth study on Aristotle’s entire
body of work --- not just the Rhetoric – St. John’s University philosopher Eugene Garver
concluded that Aristotle didn’t analyze friendship as a way to help Greek citizens develop
close relationships. Rather, he was instructing orators on how to make their case seem more

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probable by creating a feeling of goodwill among the audience. If by word and deed a speaker
appears friendly, listeners wil be more open to the message.

Rhetoric is the discovery of all available means of persuasion.

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Lesson 4. The Semiotic Tradition (Griffin, 2012)

Communication as the Process of Sharing Meaning through Signs

Semiotics, also called semiology, the study of signs and sign-using behaviour. It was
defined by one of its founders, the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (Figure 5), as the
study of “the life of signs within society.” It is the study of verbal and nonverbal signs that
can stand for something else, and how their interpretation impacts society. A sign is anything
that can stand for something else. High body temperature is a sign of infection. Birds flying
south signal the coming of winter. A white cane signifies blindness. An arrow designates which
direction to go (Figure 6).

Words are also signs, but of a special kind. They are symbols. Symbols are arbitrary

words and nonverbal signs that bear no natural connection with the things they describe; their

meaning is learned within a given culture.

For Cambridge University literary critic I.A. Richards and other semiologists, meaning

doesn’t reside in words or other symbols; meaning resides in people. Most theorists grounded

in the semiotic tradition are trying to explain and reduce the misunderstanding created by the

use of ambigous symbols.

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Figure 5. Ferdinand de Saussure, founder of Semiotics
(Source: https://images.search.yahoo.com)

Figure 6. Arrows as Street Signs

(Source: https://images.search.yahoo.com)

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Lesson 5. The Socio-cultural Tradition (Griffin, 2012)

Communication as the Creation and Enactment of Social Reality

The socio-cultural tradition is based on the premise that as people talk, they produce and
reproduce culture (Figure 7) . Most of us assume that words reflect what actually exists.
However, theorists in this tradition suggest that the process often works the other way around.
Our view of reality is strongly shaped by the language we have used since we were infants.

University of Chicago linguist Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Lee Whorf were
pioneers in the socio-cultural tradition. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic relativity states
that the structure of a culture’s language shapes what people think and do. The “real world”
is to a large extent unconsciously built upon the language habits of the group. Their theory of
linguistic relativity counters the assumption that words merely act as neutral vehicles to carry
meaning. Language actually structures our perception of reality.

Contemporary socio-cultural theorists grant even more power to language. They claim
that it is through the process of communication that “reality is produced, maintained, repaired,
and transformed.” When these worlds collide, the socio-culutral tradition offers help in bridging
the culture gap that exists between “us” and “them.”

Patricia Sias, a communication professor at Washington State University, takes a socio-

cultural approach when studying friendships in organization settings. She writes that
“relationships are not entities external to the relationship partners, but are mental creations
that depend on communication for their existence and form… If relationships are constituted
in communication they are also changed through communication.” Sias uses a social
construction lens through which to view deteriorating friendships in the workplace.

Examples are the Structuration Theory and the Agenda Setting Theory.

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Figure 7. Patterns of Interaction between People rather than on Individual in Socio-cultural Tradition
(Source: https://images.search.yahoo.com)

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Lesson 6. The Critical Tradition (Griffin, 2012)

Communication as a Reflective Challenge of Unjust Discourse

The term critical theory comes from the work of a group of German scholars known as
“Frankfurt School” because they were part of the independent Institute for Social Research at
Frankfurt University. Originally set up to test the ideas of Karl Marx, the Frankfurt School
rejected the economic determinism of orthodox Marxism yet carried on the Marxist tradition of
critiquing the society.

The three features of contemporary society (Figure 8):

1. The control of language to perpetuate power imbalances. Critical theorists condemn any

use of words that inhibits emancipation.

2. The role of mass media in dulling sensitivity to repression. Critical theorists see the

“culture industries” of television, film, MP3s, and print media as reproducing the dominant

ideology of a culture and distracting people from recognizing the unjust distribution of

power within society. Culture industries include entertainment businesses that reproduce

the dominant ideology of a culture and distract people from recognizing unjust distribution

of power within society; i.e. film, television, music, and advertising.

3. Blind reliance on the scientific method and uncritical acceptance of empirical findings.

Critical theorists are suspicious of empirical work that scientists claim to be ideologically

free, because science is not a value-free pursuit of knowledge that it claims to be.

Examples are the Standpoint Theory and the Queer Theory.

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Figure 8. Questions of Privilege and Power in Critical Tradition
(Source: https://images.search.yahoo.com)

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Lesson 7. The Phenomenological Tradition (Griffin, 2012)

Communication as the Experience of Self and Others through Dialogue

Phenomenology is an intentional analysis of everyday experience from the standpoint
who is living it; explores the possibility of understanding the experience of self and others.
Thus, the phenomenological tradition places great emphasis on people’s perception and their
interpretation of their own experience. For the phenomenologist, an individual’s story is more
important, and more autoritative, than any research hypothesis or communication axiom. As
psychologist Carl Rogers asserts, “Neither the Bible nor the prophets – neither Freud nor
research – neither the revelations of God nor man – can take precedence over my own direct
experience.”

The problem, of course, is that no two people have the same life story. Since we cannot
experience another person’s experience, we tend to talk past each other and then lament,
“Nobody understands what it’s like to be me.” Thus, theorists who work within the
phenomenological tradition seek to answer two questions: Why is it hard to establish and
sustain authentic human relationships? and How can this problem be overcome?
Figure 9 shows the the survey map of traditions in the field of communication. It tells us
that cybernetic and socio-psychological on the left are more objective. Phenomenology,
critical theory, and socio-cultural on the right are most interpretive. Specifically:

 Socio-psychological is the most objective thus located in the farthest left position on

the map, solidly rooted in objective territory.

 Phenomenological is the most subjective so it occupies the farthest right position on

the map, firmly grounded in interpretive territory.

 Across the map the traditions become less objective but more interpretive.

 Overlaps or sharing common borders so common basic assumptions.

 Independent from the others

 One topic with several traditions

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 Figure 9. Map of Seven Traditions
(Source: https://images.search.yahoo.com)

Additional Learning Materials:

Read: https://coupleofcreatives.com/communication-theories/

Watch: https://www.coursera.org/lecture/communicationtheory-academia-practice/craigs-7-

traditions-in-communication-theory-EgtYf

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 Assessment Task 3

Instructions (as individual):

1. Put a check mark ( / ) to identify the communication traditions just by using the following
keywords. You may have (multiple) several answers for each row (column).
Keyword SP Cy R S SC Cr P
1. Behavior /
2. Experience /
3. Identity /
4. Emancipation /
5. Network /
6. Logic /
7. Feedback /
8. Effect /
9. Ritual / /
10. Dialectic /

NOTE: #1 IN THE MODULE FOR AT 3 IS LIKE THIS: Research on the similarities and differences of the 7
traditions. Put them in a table or matrix. (20 pts.)

2. Analyze more deeply the survey map of seven traditions. (10 pts.)

(3) a.Explain the position of the traditions.

i. Why is socio-psychological the most objective thus located in the farthest left position

on the map, solidly rooted in objective territory? (5 pts.)

ii. Why is phenomenological the most subjective so it occupies the farthest right

position on the map, firmly grounded in interpretive territory? (5 pts.)

iii. Across the map the traditions become less objective but more interpretive. (5 pts.)

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 iv. Overlaps or sharing common borders so common basic assumptions.

Summary

The seven traditions in the field of communication theory are: (1) socio-psychological

tradition; (2) cybernetic tradition; (3) rhetorical tradition; (4) semiotic tradition; (5) socio-cultural

tradition; (6) critical tradition; and (7) phenomenological tradition.

Figure 9 shows the survey map of the seven traditions in the field of communication

theory.

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 Reference

Book

Griffin, E. (2012). A First Look at Communication Theory. 8th ed. McGraw Hill Publications.

- END OF MODULE FOR THE PRELIM PERIOD -

EXAMINATION FOR PRELIM PERIOD IS ON _____________________.

PLEASE SEE YOUR SPECIFIC SCHEDULE FOR THIS COURSE.

DO NOT FORGET TO TAKE THE EXAM AS SCHEDULED.

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