1020916

research-article2021
AUT0010.1177/13623613211020916AutismDownes et al.

Original Article

Autism

Dyadic coping and coparenting 1­–14

© The Author(s) 2021
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DOI: 10.1177/13623613211020916
https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613211020916

recent autism diagnosis journals.sagepub.com/home/aut

Naomi Downes1 , Marie-Maude Geoffray2,3, Pascale Isnard4,5,6 ,

Eric Lemonnier7, Marie-Joëlle Orêve8,9 and Emilie Cappe1

Abstract
This study explores how parenting couples use their relationship to support each other after their child’s autism diagnosis by
assessing the role of dyadic coping and parenting sense of competence as predictors of their coparenting quality. Mothers and
fathers raising a child on the spectrum (N = 70 couples) individually completed self-report questionnaires measuring stress
appraisal, dyadic coping, parenting sense of competence, and coparenting. Parents were recruited 1–36 months after their
child’s autism diagnosis and data were analyzed using the actor-partner interdependence model. Parents’ dyadic coping and
sense of competence were related to their level of coparenting. Partner effects were found as mothers’ dyadic coping was
positively linked to fathers’ coparenting and a higher sense of competence among fathers predicted mothers’ coparenting.
Further research is needed to understand how these effects evolve throughout the child’s development stages.

Lay abstract
We investigated how couples support each other after their child’s autism diagnosis and whether this affects the way
they work together to raise their child. We recruited 70 couples raising a child on the autism spectrum. Both partners
were asked to complete the same questionnaires measuring how they perceived the experience of having a child on the
autism spectrum, how they used their relationship to support each other during stressful situations, how competent
they felt completing their parenting tasks, and the coparenting relationship to explore how they worked together as a
team when parenting their child. Parents participated in the study 1–36 months after their child’s autism diagnosis. We
used statistical techniques that allowed us to see the impact mothers and fathers had on each other. Overall, parents
who felt more competent and supported by their partner worked better as a team to raise their child on the spectrum.
Fathers invested in the coparenting relationship more when mothers felt more supported by fathers. Mothers invested
in the coparenting relationship more when fathers felt more competent parenting their child. Further research is needed
to better understand how we can support couples as their child gets older.

Keywords
autism, coparenting, couples, diagnosis, dyadic coping, parents

The diagnosis of a child on the autism spectrum can be a despair (Boshoff et al., 2019; Crane et al., 2016; Downes
complex process. Many parents have described it as an et al., 2020). The complexity of this process is also
emotional rollercoaster, reporting feelings of highs, such reflected by parents’ relationships, which can be positively
as relief, as well as lows, for example shock, stress, or or negatively affected by the diagnosis: some relationships

7
1
Université de Paris, LPPS, F-92100 Boulogne-Billancourt, France  entre de Ressources Autisme du Limousin, CHU de Limoges, 2
C
2
Department of Child and Adolescent Neurodevelopmental Avenue Dupuytren, 87000 Limoges, France
8
Psychiatry, Le Vinatier Hospital, 95 Boulevard Pinel, 69678 Bron Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, Inserm, CESP, Equipe DevPsy, 78000,
CEDEX, France Versailles, France
9
3
Health Services and Performance Research (HESPER), Claude Bernard Service Universitaire de Psychiatrie de l’Enfant et de l’Adolescent,
University Lyon 1, 43 Boulevard du 11 Novembre 1918, 69622 Villeurbane Centre Hospitalier de Versailles
CEDEX, France
4 Corresponding author:
APHP, Hôpital Bichat-Claude Bernard, Service de psychopathologie de
Emilie Cappe, Laboratoire de Psychopathologie et Processus de Santé
l’enfant et de l’adolescent, Paris, France
5 UR4057, Institut de Psychologie, Université de Paris, 71 Avenue
Le Moulin Vert, PDAP la Boussole, Paris, France
6 Edouard Vaillant, Boulogne-Billancourt 92100, France.
INSERM, CESP, « Team DevPsy », Villejuif, France
Email: emilie.cappe@u-paris.fr
2 Autism 00(0)

are strengthened, whereas other couples struggle to adapt the coparenting relationship in the field of autism via joint
(Altiere & Von Kluge, 2009; Hock et al., 2012; Saini et al., interviews. Ten couples reported that their coparenting
2015; Sim et al., 2016). Research remains limited regard- relationships changed after their child’s autism diagnosis
ing variables contributing to parenting couples’ positive and adapted differently depending on the quality of cou-
adaptation after a diagnosis. It is important to explore how ples’ relationships before the diagnosis (Downes et al.,
parents adapt and use their relationship to support each 2020). Evidence from the general population highlights
other during this challenging transitional period. the importance of dyadic coping on coparenting and child
The way couples use their relationship to manage stress behaviors. For example, positive dyadic coping is related
together is called dyadic coping (Bodenmann, 2005). Over to better child adjustment and decreased coparenting con-
the past two decades, research among the wider population flict over 1 year (Zemp et al., 2016, 2017).
has adopted this term to systemically conceptualize stress Coparenting corresponds to how parents cooperate,
and coping between two partners (Falconier & Kuhn, 2019). coordinate, and support each other in their parenting efforts
There are various models of dyadic coping that describe the (Gable et al., 1994; McHale, 1995). Theoretical and empir-
interpersonal way stressors affect both partners either ical literature indicates the importance of coparenting on
directly or indirectly (Falconier & Kuhn, 2019). Partners neurotypical child and family functioning (Favez, 2017;
can be directly affected by the same stressful event, or indi- Lamela & Figueiredo, 2016; Rouyer & Huet-Gueye, 2012;
rectly affected by the stress experienced by their partner. In Teubert & Pinquart, 2010). Longitudinal studies and a
Bodenmann’s (1995, 1997, 2005) systemic-transactional meta-analysis showed that the coparenting relationship has
model (STM) of dyadic coping, one partner’s stress appraisal a unique influence on neurotypical children’s social and
is communicated verbally or non-verbally to the other part- emotional development that is independent of child tem-
ner, who then perceives and interprets this information to perament or dyadic parent–child relationships (Davies
respond with a form of either positive or negative dyadic et al., 2002; McHale, 2007). However, few studies have
coping. Positive dyadic coping is considered supportive and explored coparenting a child on the spectrum (Downes &
beneficial, whereas negative dyadic coping refers to hostile, Cappe, 2021). Among the available literature, study find-
superficial, or ambivalent attempts to support one’s partner. ings indicate that autism symptom severity does not pre-
To our knowledge, only six studies have explored dict parents’ individual capacity to cooperate and is
dyadic coping among parents raising a child on the autism associated with a high child-focused parenting alliance,
spectrum (Brown et al., 2020; Downes et al., 2020; García- but not with partner-focused parenting alliance (Hill-
Lopez et al., 2016; Gouin et al., 2016; Putney et al., 2020; Chapman et al., 2013; Mazzoni et al., 2018). Given spe-
Sim et al., 2017). These studies show that positive dyadic cific autism-related behaviors, parents raising a child on
coping is associated with relationship satisfaction, psycho- the autism spectrum are more at risk of experiencing low
logical well-being, reduced stress, and health outcomes levels of parenting efficacy, as they can lack confidence in
(lower systemic inflammation). Dyadic coping seems to be their ability to competently respond to their child’s needs
a valuable and relatively unexplored additional resource when the child does not respond to interactions as expected
for these couples, which promotes a sense of togetherness (García-Lopez et al., 2016; Karst & Van Hecke, 2012;
(Bodenmann, 2005). This may partly explain why some Weiss, MacMullin, & Lunsky, 2015). Supportive copar-
couple relationships are strengthened and adapt positively enting has been associated with a higher level of parenting
to raising a child on the autism spectrum (Downes et al., self-efficacy, especially among fathers of children on the
2020). Indeed, positive dyadic coping has been linked to spectrum (May et al., 2015, 2017). Parental self-efficacy
helping parents raising a child on the autism spectrum refers to parents believing they can successfully raise their
manage stress when individual coping efforts are not suf- child as they have appropriate knowledge of child care
ficient for dealing with stressful circumstances (Brown responses, having confidence in their abilities to care for
et al., 2020; García-Lopez et al., 2016). Whereas couples their child, and predicting their child will respond to their
experiencing negative dyadic coping may disengage from parenting efforts (Coleman & Karraker, 1998). Self-
their relationship during stressful situations (Downes efficacy and satisfaction with one’s parenting role are the
et al., 2020). This could lead to fewer interactions and two core constructs of parenting sense of competence
lower sensitivity regarding their partner’s needs, which (Ohan et al., 2000). Mothers’ and fathers’ sense of compe-
can predict a mutual withdrawal as well as more conflict tence may influence their coparental relationship depend-
and marital distress (Bodenmann & Shantinath, 2004). ing on their expectations and beliefs of their parenting role
Further research is needed to help couples manage stress (Favez, 2017). This merits exploration among families
as parents raising a child on the spectrum are at an increased raising a child on the spectrum as parenting tasks are gen-
risk of experiencing high levels of parenting stress that can erally more complex (Arellano et al., 2019).
be detrimental to the couple and coparenting relationship After a child is diagnosed with autism, couples can
(Bonis, 2016; Hartley et al., 2014; Hill-Chapman et al., traverse a stressful transitional period (Hock et al., 2012;
2013; May et al., 2015; Thullen & Bonsall, 2017). To date, McGrew & Keyes, 2014). The coparenting relationship
only one qualitative study has explored dyadic coping and becomes central as parents reorganize specific roles and
Downes et al. 3

Table 1.  Sample characteristics.

Total (n = 140) Mothers (n = 70) Fathers (n = 70)

Parents
  Age, M (SD) 38.6 (5.6) 36.9 (5.1) 40.3 (5.5)
  Relationship length, M (SD) 11.7 (5.2) – –
  Employment status, N (%)
  Full-time 73 (53) 18 (26) 55 (80)
  Part-time 28 (20) 20 (29) 8 (12)
   Stay at home 37 (27) 31 (45) 6 (9)
  Education level, N (%)
   No high-school degree 6 (4) 3 (4) 3 (4)
   High-school or equivalent 40 (29) 20 (29) 20 (29)
  Undergraduate 44 (32) 26 (37) 18 (27)
  Graduate 48 (35) 21 (30) 27 (40)
  Monthly household income, M (SD) 4236€ (2940€) – –
  Health issues, N (%)
  Physical 23 (16) 13 (19) 10 (14)
  Psychological 4 (3) 1 (1) 3 (4)
   Affects daily life 10 (7) 5 (7) 5 (7)
Child on the autism spectrum
  Age in months, M (SD) 55 (21) – –
 Boy, N (%) 56 (80) – –
 Girl, N (%) 14 (20) – –
  Time since diagnosis in months, M (SD) 21 (17.3) – –
  Average weekly amount of specialized care 10 h – –
  Number of siblings, M (SD) 1.1 (0.8) – –
 Stepfamilies, N (%) 7 (10) – –

responsibilities within the couple to better respond to the Sample characteristics are presented in Table 1. Couples
specific needs of the child (Hock et al., 2012; May et al., had been together 11.7 years on average, which ranged
2017). This study aims to explore the effects of parents’ from 4 to 26 years. Parents had an average age of 38.6 years
dyadic coping and sense of competence on their coparent- ranging from 27 to 53 years. Overall, 80% of fathers
ing relationship after their child is diagnosed with autism. worked full time compared to 26% of mothers, while 45%
This study uses a quantitative framework to analyze dyadic of mothers stayed at home compared to 9% of fathers. A
results as part of a larger mixed-methods research project. total of 27 participants declared health issues, 23 were
physical and 4 were psychological. Ten of these parents
stated that their health issue affected their daily life.
Method Education level varied as 4% of parents had no high-school
degree, 29% had a high-school degree, 32% had an under-
Participants graduate degree, and 35% had a graduate degree. Monthly
A total of 70 couples (70 mothers and 70 fathers) partici- household income was 4236 euros on average, ranging
pated in this study in France. Parenting couples were from 1100€ to 20,000€, and followed a standard log-nor-
included if (1) they cohabited, (2) their biological child mal distribution. Children were aged between 25 and
was diagnosed with autism by a specialized screening 119 months with an average age of 55 months and had been
center between the ages of 2 and 6 years, and (3) they diagnosed on average 21 months previously. In this sam-
received the diagnosis 1–36 months ago. Couples were ple, there were seven stepfamilies and 80% of the children
excluded if (1) they did not speak or write French and (2) on the autism spectrum were boys. A total of 32 families
they had another child previously diagnosed with a disabil- had one other child, 16 families had two other children,
ity. Seven couples declined to participate because fathers and 4 families had three more children.
did not have enough time (4 couples), they were not
expecting such questions (1 couple), one mother did not
Procedure
want to remember the diagnosis as it was described as
traumatic (1 couple), or they did not feel like participating This study presents the quantitative analysis of a mixed-
(1 couple). Among two other couples, only one partner methods research project. After parents received a diagno-
completed the questionnaires (1 mother and 1 father). sis or reevaluation of autism for their child at specialized
4 Autism 00(0)

autism screening centers, child psychiatrists at these cent- situation in a different light.” An overall dyadic coping
ers presented the current study to both parents. Both part- (DC) score is calculated by adding the scores of items 1
ners willing to participate signed consent forms and were through to 35 after reverse coding 8 items (7, 10, 11, 15, 22,
contacted a month later by the first author, a clinical psy- 25, 26, and 27). A high overall DC score corresponds to
chologist, to answer any further questions. Separate book- positive dyadic coping with the following cut-off scores:
lets of the same questionnaires for each parent were then under 111 is below average; between 111 and 145 is consid-
sent by post with a stamped return envelope. Participants ered normal; over 145 is above average. The overall inter-
were asked by the first author to complete questionnaires nal consistency of the scale is satisfactory (α = 0.90), with
separately and were allocated a code on the questionnaires individual subscales ranging from α = 0.50 to α = 0.92
to conserve anonymity and confidentiality. (Bodenmann et al., 2006; Ledermann et al., 2010). There
exist 10 subscales, of which we chose two for further analy-
ses: supportive dyadic coping of the partner and common
Materials
dyadic coping. Supportive dyadic coping of the partner
Socio-demographic variables. A specific questionnaire to contains five items and is calculated by adding the scores of
collect socio-demographic information was created by items 5, 6, 8, 9, and 13. This subscale measures the positive
adapting the questionnaire developed by Cappe (2009). ways an individual experiencing stress is supported and
Participants answered 14 questions about their couple rela- assisted by their romantic partner, for example “My partner
tionship, finances, education level, health, employment, listens to me and gives me the opportunity to communicate
children, and their child’s diagnosis. what really bothers me.” Among a French sample, this sub-
scale presents an acceptable reliability of α = 0.84 (Leder-
Appraisal of Life Events Scale.  The Appraisal of Life Events mann et al., 2010). Common dyadic coping refers to how
scale (ALES-vf; Ferguson et al., 1999) was designed to couples cope together with a shared external stressor, for
assess the three primary appraisals of stress (threat, chal- example, “We try to cope with the problem together and
lenge, and loss) as described by Lazarus and Folkman search for ascertained solutions.” It is assessed among five
(1984). An adapted version (ALES-vf) was translated and items by a sum of items 31, 32, 33, 34, and 35 with a
validated in French to evaluate the stress experienced by reported Cronbach’s coefficient alpha of 0.76 (Ledermann
parents raising a child on the autism spectrum (Cappe et al., 2010). In the present study, the internal consistency
et al., 2017). Participants rate on a 6-point Likert-type of the overall DC score (α = 0.74), common dyadic coping
scale (0: “Not at all” to 5: “very much so”) the extent to (α = 0.73), and supportive dyadic coping of the partner
which 16 adjectives accurately describe their current situ- (α = 0.76) were acceptable. The other eight subscales con-
ation of raising a child on the spectrum. A high score in sist of stress communicated by oneself (four items), sup-
any of the three subscales means the parent perceives their portive dyadic coping by oneself (five items), delegated
situation as a “threat” (e.g. adjectives such as worrying, dyadic coping by oneself (two items), negative dyadic cop-
frightening, threatening), a “challenge” (e.g. stimulating, ing by oneself (four items), stress communication of the
challenging, informative), or a “loss” (e.g. depressing, partner (four items), delegated dyadic coping of the partner
painful, intolerable, or pitiful). The “threat” and “chal- (two items), negative dyadic coping by partner (four items),
lenge” scores range from 0 to 30, whereas the “experience and the evaluation of dyadic coping (two items).
perceived as a loss” score ranges from 0 to 20. Each sub-
scale presents a satisfactory internal consistency ranging Parenting Alliance Inventory.  The “Parenting Alliance Inven-
across: α = 0.87 for the “loss” subscale; α = 0.89 for “chal- tory” (PAI; Abidin, 1992; Abidin & Brunner, 1995) was
lenge”; and α = 0.86 for “threat.” In this study, the internal translated and validated in French by Rouyer et al. (2015).
consistency varied from α = 0.78 for the “loss” subscale, It measures the degree of cooperation and support between
α = 0.79 for “challenge,” and α = 0.77 for “threat.” parents to fulfill their various parental functions. This
inventory is composed of 17 items on a 5-point Likert-type
Dyadic Coping Inventory. The Dyadic Coping Inventory scale ranging from “1: Strongly disagree” to “5: Strongly
(DCI) is a 37-item scale created to evaluate dyadic coping agree.” A high score corresponds to a positive perception
(Bodenmann, 2008). It was translated and validated in of teamwork with one’s partner to fulfill the various paren-
French (Ledermann et al., 2010). The DCI uses a 5-point tal functions. For example, items include the following
Likert-type scale (1: “very rarely” to 5: “very often”) to statements: “The other parent and I have the same goals
assess three dimensions including dyadic coping (positive for our child,” or “The other parent and I communicate
or negative), communication about stressful situations, and well together about our child.” This scale is composed of
feedback. For example, items include statements such as “I four factors: similar perceptions of the child’s develop-
show my partner through my behavior when I am not doing ment; communication and child-rearing agreement; per-
well or when I have problems,” or “I tell my partner that ceived support from the other parent; and the coparent’s
his/her stress is not that bad and help him/her to see the parental competence and involvement. The total score of
Downes et al. 5

this scale was used in this study, not the subscores. This for the APIM models (Stas et al., 2018). The dyads in this
scale presents a good internal consistency of α = 0.78. The article are considered distinguishable by their gender
overall alpha calculated with the current study sample was (Kenny & Cook, 1999). To confirm distinguishability,
acceptable at α = 0.72. tests were conducted for each APIM model. As suggested
by Kenny and Ledermann (2010), we generated bootstraps
Parenting Sense of Competence Scale.  The Parenting Sense for confidence intervals (CI) using 5000 samples (Sadler
of Competence Scale (PSOC; Gibaud-Wallston, 1977) was et al., 2011). This allows for a better interpretation of the k
translated and validated in French by Terrisse and Trudelle parameters as 95% bias-corrected CIs of indirect effects
(1988). This scale of 17 items measures parents’ sense of are generated to correct a presumably skewed distribution
competence in their parental role across two dimensions: of the k ratio. Finally, multicollinearity is a complicated
their satisfaction and efficacy. The present study used the issue in SEM (Grewal et al., 2004). To help reduce multi-
total score of this scale representing parents’ sense of com- collinearity, we centered the means by subtracting the
petence. Parents respond to a 6-point Likert-type scale mean of partners’ joint scores (Cook & Kenny, 2005).
ranging from strongly agree (1) to strongly disagree (6).
Items include, for example, “If anyone can find the answer
to what is troubling my child, I am the one” or “Being a Community involvement
parent makes me tense and anxious.” An overall score of This research project was created by the first author, a
parenting sense of competence is obtained by adding the clinical psychologist (N.D.), after 2 years of multiple dis-
scores of the first 16 items after reversing the efficacy sub- cussions with parents in a care service center providing
scale scores. This scale presents an overall satisfactory early intervention for their child after a recent autism diag-
alpha of 0.87 (Copeland & Harbaugh, 2004). It was evalu- nosis. These parents expressed certain difficulties regard-
ated as 0.76 in the present study. ing their relationships. After searching for studies
providing best practices to support parenting couples’ rela-
Data analysis tionships, N.D. noticed a gap in the literature. An explora-
tory research project was then established. First, a
All analyses were conducted using R software with an qualitative analysis was carried out with 10 parenting cou-
alpha level of 0.05. Missing data represented less than 1% ples raising a child on the spectrum to explore their experi-
of all values. The FIML (Full Information Maximum ences after the diagnosis (Downes et al., 2020). Then, this
Likelihood) method was used to deal with missing data quantitative study was conducted and analyzed.
(Gana & Broc, 2018). There were no outliers. The struc-
tural equation modeling (SEM) technique was chosen for
this study to analyze dyadic data (Kenny et al., 2006). It is Results
important to consider dyadic data as interdependent instead
of independent to examine interpersonal processes and
Preliminary analyses
dyadic patterns. Table 2 presents the means, standard deviations, paired
First, the main study variables were assessed via t-tests, and correlations between the main study variables.
descriptive statistics and correlational analyses. Gender The mean scores of dyadic coping were in the normal
differences or variables related to time since diagnosis range with no significant difference between mothers and
were examined via paired t tests. Then, two independent fathers scores (t = 0.75, p < 0.47). Couples present similar
actor-partner interdependence models (APIM, Kenny, levels of sense of competence, which can be considered
1996; Kenny & Cook, 1999) were used to test two within- high as they are above the 65-point cut-off score (t = 0.95,
dyad independent variables (overall dyadic coping p < 0.34). Stress appraised as a threat was the only varia-
responses and parenting sense of competence) in associa- ble where mothers presented significantly higher scores
tion with one within-dyad dependent variable (coparent- than fathers (t = 2.55, p < 0.01). Parents showed similarly
ing). The APIM analyzes the effect of one partner’s high coparenting scores on average (t = −0.85, p < 0.40).
independent variable on their dependent variable (i.e. actor These results are similar to those found among the mean
effect), as well as the effect of this independent variable on scores of the general population in France (Rouyer et al.,
their partner’s dependent variable (i.e. partner effect). The 2015).
APIM accounts for the interdependence between partners Correlation between maternal and paternal variables
while assessing the interpersonal and intrapersonal influ- highlights the interdependence between partners. As to be
ences within dyads. This non-independence between dyads expected, dyadic coping, common dyadic coping, and sup-
reflects that the behavior of one partner is best understood portive dyadic coping by the partner were highly corre-
by also accounting for the behavior of the other partner lated between each other. The same was observed between
and vice versa. We also used the APIM_SEM application stress appraised as a loss or a threat. Both of these varia-
to compare and confirm findings obtained on R software bles were negatively linked to stress appraised as a
 6

Table 2.  Descriptive statistics and significant correlations between study variables.

Descriptives Correlations

  Mothers Fathers Diffm–f

  M (SD) M (SD) t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1. Dyadic coping (DC) 126.18 (18.92) 123.73 (18.91) 0.75 0.74*** 0.67*** 0.84*** 0.25 –0.08 –0.05 0.61*** 0.44*** –0.16 –0.20 –0.02
2. Common DC 16.94 (4.16) 16.73 (3.56) 0.30 0.81*** 0.63*** 0.46*** 0.35** –0.27* –0.24* 0.61*** 0.31* 0.06 0.02 0.25*
3. Partners’ supportive DC 18.46 (4.87) 17.62 (4.84) 1.00 0.89*** 0.75*** 0.48*** 0.15 0.12 0.12 0.49*** 0.27* –0.03 –0.07 –0.03
4. Challenge 13.63 (7.03) 12.47 (7.82) 0.90 –0.05 0.08 0.02 0.26* –0.30* –0.39** 0.29* 0.20 0.07 0.01 –0.09
5. Threat 15.84 (6.44) 12.72 (7.36) 2.55** 0.04 –0.07 0.02 –0.39*** 0.41** 0.84*** –0.26* –0.34** 0.01 –0.08 –0.02
6. Loss 10.40 (5.20) 8.60 (5.84) 1.90 0.19 0.08 0.02 –0.51** 0.75*** 0.45*** –0.27* –0.27* 0.02 0.02 0.02
7. Coparenting 71.95 (10.32) 73.38 (9.20) –0.85 0.63*** 0.56*** 0.69*** 0.11 –0.05 –0.05 0.76** 0.49*** 0.01 –0.07 0.01
8. Sense of competence 69.53 (8.86) 67.94 (10.26) 0.95 0.34** 0.26* 0.02 –0.28* –0.25 –0.09 0.46** 0.40** –0.15 –0.24 –0.05
9. Time since diagnosisa 21 (17.3) 21(17.3) – –0.13 –0.01 –0.03 0.32** –0.08 –0.10 –0.20 –0.28* – 0.73*** 0.16
10. Child’s agea 55 (21) 55(21) – –0.21 –0.07 –0.12 0.21 –0.18 –0.17 –0.25 –0.36** 0.73*** – 0.18
11. Household income 4236€ (2940) 4236€ (2940) – 0.08 0.13 0.01 0.20 –0.16 –0.14 0.18 –0.03 0.17 0.19 –

Correlations within dyads (i.e. between mothers and fathers) are presented in bold on the diagonal. Mothers’ correlations are below the diagonal and fathers are above the diagonal. For example, the
correlation of the overall dyadic coping score (variable 1) among couples is 0.74. The correlation between the overall score of dyadic coping (variable 1) and common dyadic coping (variable 2) is 0.81***
among mothers and 0.67*** among fathers.
a
In months.
*p < 0.05.
**p < 0.01.
***p < 0.001.
Autism 00(0)
Downes et al. 7

.52***
Mothers’ Mothers’
e1
dyadic coping coparenting

.73*** .63**

Fathers’ Fathers’ e2
dyadic coping .38** coparenting

Figure 1.  APIM model testing the association between dyadic coping and coparenting.
***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; * p < 0.05.

challenge for parents. Coparenting was highly correlated mothers’ dyadic coping on fathers’ coparenting was statis-
with dyadic coping (Mothers: r = 0.63, p < 0.001; Fathers: tically significant (B = 0.300, p < 0.036, power = 0.57),
r = 0.61, p < 0.001), common dyadic coping (Mothers: whereas fathers’ dyadic coping was not significantly
r = 0.56, p < 0.001; Fathers: r = 0.61, p < 0.001), support- related to mothers’ coparenting (B = 0.154, p < 0.35,
ive dyadic coping by the partner (Mothers: r = 0.69, power  = 0.19). We decided to constrain mothers’ and
p < 0.001; Fathers: r = 0.49, p < 0.001), and parents’ sense fathers’ actor and partner effects to be equal across gen-
of competence (Mothers: r = 0.46, p < 0.01; Fathers: ders. This did not worsen the model fit, actor: χ2(1) = 0.214,
r = 0.49, p < 0.001). For fathers, coparenting was also p = 0.644; partner: χ2(1) = 0.170, p = 0.681, meaning that
related to their cognitive stress appraisal of having a child partner and actor effects of dyadic coping on coparenting
on the autism spectrum depending on whether they did not differ by gender. Dyadic coping explained a similar
appraised their situation as a challenge (r = 0.29, p < 0.05), part of variation in coparenting for both mothers and
threat (r = −0.26, p < 0.05), or loss (r = −0.27, p < 0.05). fathers (R2mothers = 0.42; R2fathers = 0.40).
Mothers’ sense of competence was associated with dyadic The second saturated model explored the dyadic pat-
coping (r = 0.34, p <  0.01), common dyadic coping terns of parents’ sense of competence on coparenting
(r = 0.26, p < 0.05), cognitive stress appraisal perceived as (Figure 2). With regard to the actor effects, both mothers
a challenge (r = −0.28, p < 0.05), time since diagnosis, and fathers with a higher sense of competence reported
(r = −0.28, p <  0.05), and the child’s age (r = −0.36, high levels of coparenting (Bmothers = 0.326, p < 0.001,
p < 0.01). Fathers’ sense of competence was related to power = 0.83; Bfathers = 0.493, p < 0.00, power = 0.99).
dyadic coping (r = 0.44, p < 0.001), common dyadic cop- Fathers’ sense of competence had a significant positive
ing (r = 0.31, p < 0.05), supportive dyadic coping by the partner effect on mothers’ coparenting (B = 0.313,
partner (r = 0.27, p < 0.05), threat (r = −0.34, p < 0.01), and p < 0.009, power = 0.78), whereas the partner effect of
loss (r = −0.27, p < 0.05). Common dyadic coping was mothers’ sense of competence on fathers’ coparenting was
only associated with monthly household income (r = 0.25, not statistically significant (B = −0.020, p < 0.85,
p < 0.05) and stress appraised as a challenge (r = 0.35, power = 0.05). The model did not deteriorate when actor,
p < 0.01), threat (r = −0.27, p < 0.05), or loss (r = −0.24, χ2(1) = 0.109, p = 0.741, and partner, χ2(1) = 2.996,
p < 0.05) for fathers. Time since diagnosis was strongly p = 0.083, effects were constrained to be equal across gen-
related to mothers perceiving their situation as a challenge ders. Sense of competence explained 28% of maternal per-
(r = 0.32, p < 0.01). ceptions of coparenting quality and 24% of paternal
perceptions of coparenting quality.
APIM models
Discussion
Various models were tested for saturation to find the most
parsimonious models. The first model (Figure 1) examined This study explored interactions between dyadic coping,
the effect of overall dyadic coping on coparenting and pre- sense of parenting competence, and perceptions of copar-
sented a perfect fit, (χ2(0) = 0.00, comparative fit index enting quality among parenting couples following their
(CFI) = 1.00, root mean square error of approximation child’s diagnosis with autism. Results confirmed that
(RMSEA) = 0.000). Regarding the actor effects of dyadic dyadic coping is linked to parents’ coparenting relation-
coping on coparenting, both mothers and fathers with a ship. However, partner effects showed that only mothers’
higher level of dyadic coping predicted a better coparent- dyadic coping predicted fathers’ coparenting. Fathers’
ing relationship (Bmothers = 0.524, p < 0.002, power = 0.96; dyadic coping was not significantly linked to mothers’
Bfathers = 0.377, p < 0.008, power = 0.78). Partner effects of coparenting. The second model supported previous
8 Autism 00(0)

Mothers’ .33***
Mothers’ e1
sense of
coparenting
competence

.36** .72***

Fathers’
Fathers’ e2
sense of
.49*** coparenting
competence

Figure 2.  APIM model testing the association between parental sense of competence and coparenting.
***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; * p < 0.05.

research showing that parents’ sense of competence was study showed that a higher level of support provided by
related to their coparenting relationship. But only fathers’ mothers of neurotypical 2-year-old children was related to
sense of competence was linked to an increased level of less competitive coparenting and more father involvement.
coparenting among mothers. However, fathers’ level of support toward mothers’ parent-
The first model showed that higher levels of dyadic ing was unrelated to coparenting quality (Murphy et al.,
coping were linked to higher levels of coparenting for both 2017). Mothers tend to remain highly involved in copar-
mothers and fathers. This supports other studies among enting and caregiving regardless of fathers’ involvement or
couples raising a child on the autism spectrum showing support (Coltrane & Shih, 2009; Ehrenberg et al., 2001;
that dyadic coping is an added resource for these parents Murphy et al., 2017).
(Brown et al., 2020; Downes et al., 2020; García-Lopez A higher parenting sense of competence was related to
et al., 2016; Gouin et al., 2016; Sim et al., 2017). Higher greater coparenting quality for both parents. This indicates
levels of dyadic coping may help these partners support that parents may feel more capable in their parenting role
each other during stressful situations, which in turn leads when they act in accordance with their parental beliefs.
to a higher quality coparenting relationship. This is con- These parental cognitions could motivate parents to engage
current with findings from longitudinal and observational in their coparenting relationship (Favez et al., 2016). In
studies among the general population showing that sup- this study, only fathers’ sense of competence was related to
portive relationships between parents positively impact higher levels of coparenting among mothers, meaning
various domains of coparenting (Christopher et al., 2015; mothers tended to be more positive about their coparenting
Stroud et al., 2011; Zemp et al., 2017). Interestingly, only relationship when fathers felt more competent and satis-
mothers’ dyadic coping was significantly related to fathers’ fied in their parenting role. The link between coparenting
coparenting in the current study. As a result, fathers pre- quality and autism-specific parenting self-efficacy has
sented better coparenting when both them and their part- been shown to be more important among fathers (Downes
ners engaged in higher levels of dyadic coping, whereas & Cappe, 2021; May et al., 2015). Indeed, in our sample,
mothers’ coparenting was only related to their own level of mothers’ sense of competence did not significantly predict
dyadic coping. Indeed, fathers raising a child on the autism fathers’ coparenting relationship quality, meaning that
spectrum may be more likely to negatively coparent when paternal perceptions of coparenting quality were not linked
they experience higher levels of stress than mothers to maternal perceptions of parenting competence. These
(Downes & Cappe, 2021; May et al., 2015; Thullen & mothers also spent more time at home with their child than
Bonsall, 2017). In our sample, fathers also spent more time fathers, so fathers may have expected mothers to be more
at work than mothers, which has been associated with competent accomplishing certain parenting tasks, espe-
higher levels of stress for fathers (Downes & Cappe, 2021; cially as these mothers could have had more time to receive
Hartley et al., 2014). Fathers who spend more time at work support from care service professionals. Among parents of
may rely more on their partner for support and informa- children on the autism spectrum, mothers and fathers do
tion, whereas mothers could have more direct access to not necessarily fulfill the same roles and responsibilities as
professional support (Lee, 2009; Paynter et al., 2018). they seem to divide tasks in a complementary manner after
Thus, mothers’ dyadic coping may act as fathers’ primary the autism diagnosis to accommodate their child’s special
source of support to cope with stressors, which then helps care needs (Downes et al., 2020). It is possible that these
fathers engage in positive coparenting behaviors. Overall, parents may feel more competent completing certain par-
this finding showing that only mothers’ dyadic coping pre- enting tasks and less competent with others, so they may
dicts their partners’ coparenting is consistent with previous choose their parenting tasks depending on their sense of
research among the general population. Indeed, a recent competence with each task. This may lead to a more
Downes et al. 9

harmonious coparenting relationship as parents work Keyes, 2014). However, negative appraisals did not
together depending on their level of competence and natu- decrease over time meaning mothers experienced as many
ral affinity with certain tasks to complete their daily par- positive appraisals as they did negative 18 months after the
enting responsibilities (Downes et al., 2020; Favez, 2017). autism diagnosis (McGrew & Keyes, 2014). For mothers
Mothers’ sense of competence was lower when children in the present study, the relationship between parenting
were older, which was not found for fathers. This finding sense of competence and perceiving their child’s autism as
seems to confirm other studies in the field of autism even a challenge could have been mediated by the time since
though there exists limited research relating parents’ sense diagnosis. Indeed, among mothers, time since diagnosis
of competence with their child’s age. Most research evalu- was related to a lower sense of competence and higher
ates parenting self-efficacy, which is a construct of parent- likelihood to appraise stress as a challenge. Moreover,
ing sense of competence. A study assessing P-ESDM appraising the situation as a challenge was positively
(Parent-Implemented Early Start Denver Model), offered related to time since diagnosis but not child’s age for moth-
mostly to mothers of children on the spectrum with an ers, whereas their sense of competency was negatively
average age of 21 months, found a borderline significance linked to their child’s age and time since diagnosis.
suggesting that parenting self-efficacy decreased when the Mothers may appraise raising a child on the spectrum as a
children became older (Estes et al., 2014). This finding challenge during the 36 months after a diagnosis but when
was supported by a systematic review of parent training the child gets older mothers could feel less competent as
programs showing that parenting self-efficacy was higher perceptions of their situation as a challenge fade with lived
when children were younger than 5 (Hohlfeld et al., 2018). experience. Further research is needed to see how these
In these programs, professionals provided early interven- variables evolve throughout the child’s development.
tion guidance to help parents deal with developmental dif- Especially as these parental cognitions are not fixed traits
ficulties, such as imitation or communication skills but vary depending on various factors, such as the chang-
(Hohlfeld et al., 2018). Parents learned techniques that had ing demands of the environment, the task, as well as inter-
direct observable effects on the child’s behavior from an personal and intrapersonal characteristics (Coleman &
early age. When children became older, the relationship Karraker, 1998). For example, research has linked parent-
between maladaptive child behaviors and mothers’ parent- ing sense of competence and stress appraisal among moth-
ing stress became more evident (Zaidman-Zait et al., ers to variables that were not assessed in the current paper,
2018). This seems to mostly affect mothers as a study such as increased fatigue, diminished initial optimism,
recently found that greater levels of autism symptom lack of success in parenting efforts, child’s behavior prob-
severity and maladaptive behaviors were related to a lower lems, reflected appraisal, and perceived social support
sense of parental efficacy among mothers but not fathers (Albanese et al., 2019; Arellano et al., 2019; Benson, 2014;
(Mathew et al., 2019). Over time, mothers may experience Coleman & Karraker, 1998; Giallo et al., 2013; Kinnear
more stress and feel like they are not succeeding at parent- et al., 2016; Kuhn & Carter, 2006; Nader-Grosbois &
ing if children continue to present challenging behaviors Cappe, 2015; Weiss, Tint, Paquette-Smith, & Lunsky,
that are socially stigmatizing (Miranda et al., 2019). 2015).
Indeed, parenting self-efficacy decreases when parents A significant difference between mothers’ and fathers’
believe they are not able to accomplish certain parenting average score of perceiving the stress of raising a child on
tasks (Goodnow, 1988; Jones & Prinz, 2005). the spectrum as a threat was observed. Mothers felt more
Significant negative correlations were found between threatened than fathers by stressors related to raising a
parents’ sense of competence and their stress appraisal of child on the spectrum, meaning they are more likely to
raising a child on the spectrum. Fathers with a higher sense anticipate future danger and believe they do not possess
of competence experienced the situation as significantly the resources necessary to deal with this danger (Kaniel &
less of a threat or loss. Whereas mothers with a higher Siman-Tov, 2011). Interestingly, parents’ stress appraisal
sense of competence perceived the experience as signifi- of raising a child on the spectrum was not linked to their
cantly less of a challenge. A high challenge score was overall dyadic coping or partners’ supportive dyadic cop-
obtained when parents described their experience of hav- ing. It was only associated with common dyadic coping
ing a child on the autism spectrum as stimulating, chal- among fathers: higher scores of common dyadic coping
lenging, informative, exciting, enjoyable, and exhilarating among fathers were related to perceiving the stress of rais-
(Cappe et al., 2017). Theoretically, one would expect indi- ing a child on the autism spectrum as more of a challenge,
viduals with a higher sense of competence to encounter and less of a threat or loss. Fathers who worked with moth-
adversity as more of a challenge, rather than a threat or ers to cope with raising a child on the spectrum as a “we-
loss beyond their control (Jerusalem & Mittag, 1995). problem” were more likely to perceive the situation as a
However, this was not the case for mothers in the current challenge. Research suggests that parents who view their
sample. A study found that mothers reported more positive experience as a challenge are more likely to report greater
appraisals of stressors 18 months after a diagnosis, such as levels of self-fulfillment, happiness, and less conflictual
finding their life as being more meaningful (McGrew & relationships with their child (Cappe et al., 2011, 2018).
10 Autism 00(0)

Finally, higher levels of common dyadic coping among standards and expectations toward their financial respon-
fathers were also linked to higher monthly income. sibilities (Falconier & Epstein, 2011).
Common dyadic coping refers to responding to a stressor
experienced by both partners or to shared difficulties
Limits and future directions
viewed as a “we-problem.” An important aspect of com-
mon dyadic coping is open communication between part- This is the first study to use dyadic data to assess how cou-
ners about the stressor, as well as finding solutions together ples cope together and engage in coparenting efforts after
(Cutrona et al., 2018). Multiple hypotheses may explain their child is diagnosed with autism. Given the exploratory
why fathers are more able to engage in joint efforts to cope nature of this research project, there exist certain limits
and find solutions for their child when family finances are that can be improved in future analyses. First, as this is a
high and why this may be more difficult when finances are cross-sectional study, it would be interesting to explore
low. First, financial difficulties have been associated with these study variables using a longitudinal study design, as
multiple issues regarding individual and couples’ function- well as including observational techniques. This would
ing, which could prevent fathers from engaging in com- help to provide evidence of causal relationships and shed
mon dyadic coping (Falconier & Epstein, 2011; Rusu more light on the current findings. Certain methods show
et al., 2018). For example, fathers with a lower monthly promising results, such as daily diary designs or ecological
income may experience more stress related to financial momentary assessment techniques (Gunthert & Wenze,
difficulties. Indeed, a recent qualitative study described 2012; Trull & Ebner-Priemer, 2009). Second, the global
financial difficulties as the most reported stressor among pandemic of Covid-19 prevented us from recruiting a big-
fathers of young children on the autism spectrum (Paynter ger sample size. As a result, we chose to use simple APIM
et al., 2018). This stress linked to a lower income may models. These were sufficiently powered for actor effects,
affect fathers by adding challenges, such as difficulty find- but were poorly powered to detect most partner effects.
ing and financing their child’s care, or by hindering their Furthermore, the focus of this study remains quite narrow,
available resources to engage in effective coping efforts which prevented the exploration of other relevant varia-
with their partner (Neff & Karney, 2009). For example, bles, for example, challenging child behavior, familial
higher levels of stress have been linked to an increased use support network, or sibling data. Future research with big-
of negative dyadic coping strategies and a decreased use of ger sample sizes could explore other potentially relevant
positive dyadic coping strategies among parents of chil- variables and more complicated models, by including
dren on the autism spectrum (Putney et al., 2020). mediators for example. It is also important to ensure that
Second, common dyadic coping is more likely to occur samples remain heterogeneous by recruiting families with
when partners feel jointly affected by a stressor and different cultural backgrounds and socio-demographic
engage together to deal with the issue, either via problem- characteristics (e.g. more girls, parents on the autism spec-
focused or emotion-focused strategies (Cutrona et al., trum, LGBTQ+ families). Third, this research project
2018). It is possible that fathers with higher monthly consciously recruited parenting couples in an intimate
incomes felt they worked as a team with mothers to raise relationship. However, other family structures including
their child and confront difficulties linked to autism. separated couples, single parents, or families with other
Either by sharing time in paid employment, which would children presenting a disability remain understudied in this
lead to a higher monthly income and give the impression domain.
of providing financially for their child’s needs together,
or, in a more complementary manner, by working full
Conclusion
time while the other parent participates more in caregiv-
ing responsibilities (Lien et al., 2021). Third, fathers with These results highlight the importance of exploring trans-
a lower monthly income may have different needs and actional processes that contribute to understanding how
resources preventing them from engaging in the common families adapt to raising a child on the spectrum after their
dyadic coping effort. For example, a study showed that child’s autism diagnosis. This is the first article to demon-
fathers in a lower income household reported a lower strate a link between coparenting quality and dyadic cop-
number of important support needs compared to fathers in ing in these families. Given parents’ increased isolation
higher income families. The researchers posited that this after their child’s diagnosis, these findings offer promising
may be due to fathers being more preoccupied with pro- leads to help parents find resources within their relation-
viding for their family’s basic needs, such as food and ship to support each other and work together while raising
essential treatments (Hartley & Schultz, 2015). Finally, their child. This article calls for other research using longi-
multiple factors, such as age, culture, or life experiences, tudinal data as well as larger and more diverse sample
could also be related to fathers’ cognitions regarding their populations to start focusing on coparenting and dyadic
finances. These cognitions play a role within the couples’ coping in the field of autism. This would provide the nec-
relationship and their dyadic coping, for example, fathers’ essary knowledge to create best practice guidelines
Downes et al. 11

throughout the child’s developmental stages to support Bodenmann, G., & Shantinath, S. D. (2004). The Couples Coping
both mothers and fathers, as well as their parenting couple Enhancement Training (CCET): Approach to prevention
relationship. of marital distress based upon stress and coping. Family
Relations, 53, 477–484.
Bodenmann, G. (1995). A systemic-transactional conceptual-
Acknowledgements
ization of stress and coping in couples. Swiss Journal of
We would like to thank all parents who participated in this Psychology, 54, 34–39.
research project, as well as the Centre Hospitalier de Versailles Bodenmann, G. (1997). Dyadic coping: A systemic-transactional
for supporting this project. We are also very grateful for the sup- view of stress and coping among couples: Theory and empir-
port provided by Pr Mario Speranza, Dr Pauline Chaste, the team ical findings. European Review of Applied Psychology, 47,
at PEDIATED and DIPEA, Dr Nathalie Arveiller, Saadia 137–141.
Soualah, and Lydia Luperto. Bodenmann, G. (2005). Dyadic coping and its significance for
marital functioning. In T. A. Revenson, K. Kaysor, & G.
Declaration of conflicting interests Bodenmann (Eds.), Couples coping with stress: Emerging
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with perspectives on dyadic coping (pp. 33–50). American
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this Psychological Association.
article. Bodenmann, G. (2008). Dyadisches Coping Inventar [Dyadic
Coping Inventory] (Manual). Huber & Hogrefe.
Bodenmann, G., Pihet, S., & Kayser, K. (2006). The relation-
Funding
ship between dyadic coping and marital quality: A 2-year
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support longitudinal study. Journal of Family Psychology, 20(3),
for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: 485–493. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.20.3.485
This study is part of a mixed-methods doctoral dissertation that Bonis, S. (2016). Stress and parents of children with autism: A
received funding of 2500€ from the Fondation Mustela. review of literature. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 37(3),
153–163. https://doi.org/10.3109/01612840.2015.1116030
Ethical approval Boshoff, K., Gibbs, D., Phillips, R. L., Wiles, L., & Porter, L.
(2019). A meta-synthesis of how parents of children with
This research project was approved by the Ethics Commission
autism describe their experience of advocating for their chil-
for the Protection of Persons (CPP) in France.
dren during the process of diagnosis. Health & Social Care
in the Community, 27(4), 143–157. https://doi.org/10.1111/
ORCID iDs hsc.12691
Naomi Downes https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3997-9247 Brown, M., Whiting, J., Kahumoku-Fessler, E., Witting, A. B., &
Pascale Isnard https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6664-3533 Jensen, J. (2020). A dyadic model of stress, coping, and mari-
tal satisfaction among parents of children with autism. Family
Relations, 69(1), 138–150. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12375
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