NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL ECONOMICS

COURSE CODE: ECO 718

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS

Course Content Developer

Dr. David UMORU

Department of Economics,
Faculty of Arts, Management & Social Sciences
Edo University Iyamho

Course Content Editor

Prof. Edward Oladipo OGUNLEYE

Department of Economics,
Faculty of Social Sciences
Ekiti State University, Ado Ekiti
Ekiti State

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© 2020 by NOUN Press
National Open University of Nigeria,
Headquarters,
University Village,
Plot 91, Cadastral Zone,
Nnamdi Azikiwe Expressway,
Jabi, Abuja.

Lagos Office
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way,
Victoria Island, Lagos.

e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any
means, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed: 2020
ISBN:

Printed:

ISBN:

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CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. COURSE CONTENT
3. COURSE AIMS
4. COURSE OBJECTIVES
5. WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE/SUCCESS GUIDE
6. COURSE MATERIALS
7. STUDY UNITS
8. TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES
9. ASSIGNMENT FILE
10. PRESENTATION SCHEDULE
11. ASSESSMENT
12. TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMAS)
13. FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING
14. COURSE MARKING SCHEME
15. COURSE OVERVIEW
16. HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE
17. TUTORIALS
18. CONCLUSION/SUMMARY

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INTRODUCTION
ECO718: ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL ECONOMICS (2 Units)

ECO718: Advanced Mathematical Economics is a two-credit and one-semester postgraduate

course for Economics students. The course is made up of twelve units spread across sixteen
lectures weeks. This course, Advanced Mathematical Economics, develops the students with the
essential tools, skills and knowledge base necessary to operate as a practicing macroeconomist.
In reality, the course also exposes the students to practical use of mathematical models in
analyzing economic problems.

COURSE CONTENTS
The contents of ECO718: Advanced Mathematical Economics are such that it provides the
concepts of calculus to the analysis of functions of several variables. Then it covers convex
multivariate optimization. This is followed by analysis of constrained optimization and
unconstrained optimization, as applied to problems of firm and consumer behavior. The course
extends to matrix algebra in solving problems of production and allocation in mutually
dependent economies. It also provides essential elements of dynamic optimization in discrete
time. Other relevant topics covered in the course include Economic Models, Components of a
Mathematical Model, Types of Functions, Functions of Two or More Independent Variables,
Equilibrium Analysis in Economics, Constant Elasticity of Substitution Function, Integrals and
Some Economic Applications, Differential Equations, Linear Programming, Input-Output
Analysis and Linear Programming, Non-Linear Programming, and Game Theory.

COURSE AIMS
The aim of the course is to give the student comprehensive knowledge of the Mathematical
economics with reference to:

1. Concept of Mathematical Economics,

2. Economic Models, Components of a Mathematical Model,
3. Types of Functions, Functions of Two or More Independent Variables
4. Equilibrium Analysis in Economics,
5. Matrix-Algebra,
6. Optimization: Constrained Optimization: Lagrange-Multiplier Method
7. Constant Elasticity of Substitution Function
8. Cobb Douglas Function as a Special Case of the CES Function
9. Differential Calculus/Derivatives and Some Economic Applications
10. Integrals Calculus and Some Economic Applications
11. Differential Equations
12. Simultaneous Equations Dynamic Models
13. Linear Programming: Simplex Method

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 14. Input-Output Analysis and Linear Programming
15. Non-Linear Programming,
16. Game Theory

COURSE OBJECTIVES
To achieve the aims of the course, there are general objectives which the course seeks to
accomplish. These general objectives serve as a guide to the specific unit objectives and hence
the course objectives are study guide for every student. The students at the completion of this
course should be able to:

1. Explain the Concept of Mathematical Economics

2. Explain meaning of Economic Models, Components of a Mathematical Model
3. Discuss the Types of Functions, Functions of Two or More Independent Variables
4. Evaluate Matrix Algebra
5. Find the inverse of Matrix
6. Use the Cramer’s Rule in solving simultaneous equations
7. Solve some simultaneous equations using matrix algebra
8. Solve mathematical problems on Constant Elasticity of Substitution Function.
9. Solve Optimization problems including Constrained Optimization using the Lagrange-
Multiplier Method.
10. Solve Integral calculus
11. Solve Integration by Substitution
12. Solve Integration by Parts
13. Carry out Applications of Integral
14. Solve some first order Differential Equations
15. Solve some Simultaneous Equations Dynamic Models
16. Solve problems of Linear Programming
17. Use Matrix Algebra to evaluate input Output Models
18. Solve problems of Non-Linear Programming using substitution method
19. Non-Linear Programming,
20. Explain Game Theories and also evaluate games problems.

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE/SUCCESS GUIDE

This course consists of sixteen (16) units with study exercises called Student Assessment
Exercises (SAE). Students would as a matter of necessity be required to submit home/class
assignments for assessment drives. At the end of the course there is a final examination. This
course is designed to be taught for a minimum of 16 weeks before examining students.

COURSE MATERIAL

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The major component of the course, what you have to do and how you should allocate your time
to each unit in order to complete the course successfully on time are listed follows:
1. Course guide
2. Study unit
3. Textbook
4. Assignment file
5. Presentation schedule

STUDY UNIT
This course consists of sixteen (16) units as earlier mentioned and these units are structured into
four (4) modules as shown below:

MODULE ONE: OVERVIEW OF MATHEMATICAL ECONOMICS,

MODELS, FUNCTIONS AND ECONOMIC
EQUILIBRIUM ANALYSIS
UNIT 1 Overview of Mathematical Economics
UNIT 2 Economic Models, Components of a Mathematical Model
UNIT 3 Function, Types of Functions, Functions of Two or More Independent Variables
UNIT 4 Equilibrium Analysis in Economics

MODULE TWO: MATRIX ALGEBRA, SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS AND

MATRIX APPLICATION TO ECONOMICS: INPUT-OUTPUT
ANALYSIS
UNIT 1 Matrix-Algebra
UNIT 2 System of Linear Equations and Cramer’s Rule
UNIT 3 System of Linear Equations and Matrix Inversion
UNIT 4: Matrix Application to Economics: Input-Output Analysis

MODULE THREE: DIFFRENTIATIONS, INTEGRATION AND OPTIMIZATION

TECHNIQUES
UNIT 1 Differential Calculus and Some Economic Applications
UNIT 2 Integral Calculus and Some Economic Applications
UNIT 3 Optimization Techniques
UNIT 4 Differential Equations

MODULE FOUR: LINEAR/NON-LINEAR PROGRAMMING, AND GAME THEORY

UNIT 1 Linear Programming: Simplex Method
UNIT 2 Non-Linear Programming,
UNIT 3Game Theory

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Each study unit will take at least two hours, and it includes the introduction, objective, main
content, self-assessment exercise, conclusion, summary and reference. Other areas border on the
Tutor-Marked Assessment (TMA) questions. Some of the self-assessment exercise will
necessitate discussion, brainstorming and argument with some of your colleges. You are advised
to do so in order to understand and get acquainted with historical economic events as well as
notable periods.

There are also textbooks under the reference and other (on-line and off-line) resources for further
reading. They are meant to give you additional information if only you can lay your hands on
any of them. You are required to study the materials; practice the self-assessment exercise and
tutor-marked assignment (TMA) questions for greater and in-depth understanding of the course.
By doing so, the stated learning objectives of the course would have been achieved.

TEXTBOOK AND REFERENCES RECOMMENDED

For further reading and more detailed information about the course, the students are advised to
consult the following materials:

Adler, Ilan; Christos, Papadimitriou; & Rubinstein, Aviad (2014), "On Simplex Pivoting Rules
and Complexity Theory", International Conference on Integer Programming and
Combinatorial Optimization, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 17: 13 - 24,
Akira Takayama, (1985). Mathematical Economics (2nded.). Cambridge
Alpha C. Chiang and Kevin Wainwright (2005). Fundamental Methods of Mathematical
Economics, McGraw-Hill Irwin.
Anton, H. (1995). Calculus with Analytic Geometry (5th ed.), John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Aumann R. J. (2008). "Game Theory" The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, (2nded.).
Begg, D., Fischer, S., &Dornbusch, R. (2000). Economics (6th ed.), McGraw-Hill.
Bertsekas, Dimitri P. (1999). Nonlinear Programming (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Athena Scientific.
Brown, Murray (2017). "Cobb - Douglas Functions". The New Palgrave Dictionary of
Economics. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 1- 4.
Camerer, Colin (2003). "Introduction", Behavioral Game Theory: Experiments in Strategic
Interaction, Russell Sage Foundation, pp. 1- 25.
Chastain, E. (2014). "Algorithms, games, and evolution". Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences, 111 (29): 10620 - 10623
Chiang, Alpha C. (1992). Elements of Dynamic Optimization, Waveland. TOC & Amazon.com
link

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Chiang, Alpha C.; Kevin Wainwright (2005). Fundamental Methods of Mathematical
Economics. McGraw-Hill Irwin. pp. 3 - 4.
Cobb, C. W.; Douglas, P. H. (1928). "A Theory of Production" (PDF). American Economic
Review, pp. 139 - 165.
Conn, A. R.; Scheinberg, K.; & Vicente, L. N. (2009). Introduction to Derivative-Free
Optimization. MPS-SIAM Book Series on Optimization. Philadelphia: SIAM.
Cornelis Roos, Tamás Terlaky, & Jean-Philippe Vial (2006). Interior Point Methods for Linear
Optimization. (2nd ed.), Springer-Verlag.
Cramer, H. Mathematical Methods of Statistics. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1946
Craven, B. D. (1988). Fractional programming. Sigma Series in Applied Mathematics. 4. Berlin:
Heldermann Verlag.
Dantzig, George B. (2008). "Linear programming” (2nd ed.).
David M. Kreps (1990). Game Theory and Economic Modelling.
Davidson, Russell; & MacKinnon, James G. (1993). Estimation and Inference in Econometrics.
Oxford University Press.
Debreu, Gérard (2008). "Mathematical Economics" (2nded). Econometrica, 54(6), pp. 1259-
1270.
Disser, Yann; & Skutella, Martin (2018). "The Simplex Algorithm is NP-Mighty". ACM Trans.
Algorithms 15 (1): 5:1 - 5:19.
Dixit, A. K. (1990). Optimization in Economic Theory, (2nded.) Oxford, Dmitris Alevras&
Manfred W. Padberg (2001). Linear Optimization and Extensions: Problems and Solutions.
Universitext, Springer-Verlag.
Dmitris Alevras and Manfred W. Padberg (2001). Linear Optimization and Extensions:
Problems
and Extensions, Universitext, Springer-Verlag.
Dorfman, Robert, Paul A. Samuelson, & Robert M. Solow (1990). Linear Programming and
Economic Analysis. McGraw - Hill (3rded) the General Case.” The American Statistician
49(1995): 59 - 61.
Douglas, Paul H. (1976). "The Cobb-Douglas Production Function Once Again: Its History, Its
Testing, and Some New Empirical Values". Journal of Political Economy. 84 (5): 903 -
916.
Dowling, E.T., (2001) Schaum's Outline of Introduction to Mathematical Economics, (3rded.),
McGraw Hill

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Drew Fudenberg (2006). "Advancing Beyond Advances in Behavioral Economics," Journal of
Economic Literature, 44(3), pp. 694 - 711
Driscoll, M.F. and B. Krasnicka. “An Accessible proof of Craig’s Theorem in
Dutta, Prajit K. (1999). Strategies and Games: Theory and Practice. MIT Press.
Eaton, B. Curtis; Eaton, Diane F.; & Allen, Douglas W. (2009). "Competitive General
Equilibrium". Microeconomics: Theory with Applications (7thed.). Toronto: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Eric Rasmusen (2007). Games and Information, (4th ed.), Description.
Evar D. Nering and Albert W. Tucker (1993). Linear Programs and Related Problems,
Academic Press.
Fearnly, John; & Savani, Rahul (2015), "The Complexity of the Simplex Method", Proceedings
of the Forty-seventh Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing: 201 - 208,
Filipe, Jesus; Adams, F. Gerard (2005). "The Estimation of the Cobb-Douglas Function: A
Retrospective View". Eastern Economic Journal. 31 (3): 427 -445.
Gärtner, Bernd; &Matoušek, Jiří (2006). Understanding and Using Linear Programming. Berlin:
Springer.
Geanakoplos, John (1987). "Arrow-Debreu Model of General Equilibrium". The New Palgrave:
A Dictionary of Economics. 1. pp. 116 - 124.
George B. Dantzig & Mukund N. Thapa. (2003). Linear Programming 2: Theory and Extensions.
Springer-Verlag.
Gerard Sierksma; & Yori Zwols (2015). Linear and Integer Optimization: Theory and Practice.
CRC Press.
Giancarlo Gandolfo, (2009). Economic Dynamics, (4th ed.), Springer.
Gintis, Herbert (2000). Game Theory Evolving: A Problem-Centered Introduction to Modelling
Strategic Behavior, Princeton University Press.
Glaister, Stephen (1984). Mathematical Methods for Economists, 3rd ed., Blackwell.
Hansen, Thomas; &Zwick, Uri (2015). "An Improved Version of the Random-Facet Pivoting
Rule for the Simplex Algorithm". Proceedings of the Forty-seventh Annual ACM
Symposium on Theory of Computing: 209 - 218.
Hayashi, Fumio (2000). "Multiple-Equation GMM". Econometrics. Princeton University Press.
pp. 276 - 279.
Hoy, M., Livernois, J., McKenna, C., Rees, R., & Stengos, T. (2001) Mathematics for Economics
(2nded) MIT Press.

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Illés, Tibor; Szirmai, Ákos; &Terlaky, Tamás (1999). "The finite criss-cross method for
hyperbolic programming". European Journal of Operational Research. 114 (1): 198 -
214.
Intriligator, Michael D. (2008). "Nonlinear Programming" (2nded.). TOC.
Isaacs, Rufus (1999). Differential Games: A Mathematical Theory with Applications to Warfare
and Pursuit, Control and Optimization. New York:
Jain, T.R. (July 2006). Microeconomics and Basic Mathematics. New Delhi: VK Publications. p.
28.
Jean-Pascal Bénassy (1990). "Non-Walrasian Equilibria, Money, and Macroeconomics,"
Handbook of Monetary Economics, v. 1, ch. 4, pp. 103-169.
Jean Tirole (1988). The Theory of Industrial Organization. MIT Press. "
John Stachurski, (2009). Economic Dynamics: Theory and Computation. MIT Press.
Jörg Bewersdorff (2005). Luck, Logic, and White Lies: The Mathematics of Games. A K Peters,
Ltd., pp. ix - xii.
Jorgensen, Dale W. (2000). Econometric Modelling of Producer Behavior. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press.
Joseph Y. Halpern (2008). "Computer Science and Game Theory". The New Palgrave Dictionary
of Economics. (2nded).
Karl-Heinz Borgwardt (1987). The Simplex Algorithm: A Probabilistic Analysis, Algorithms and
Combinatorics, Volume 1, Springer-Verlag, 1987.
Klump, R; McAdam, P; &Willman, A. (2007). "Factor Substitution and Factor Augmenting
Technical Progress in the US: A Normalized Supply-Side System Approach". Review of
Economics and Statistics 89 (1): 183 - 192.
Kubler, Felix (2008). "Computation of General Equilibria: New developments". The New
Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (2nded.).
Kyle Bagwell and Asher Wolinsky (2002). "Game theory and Industrial Organization,"
Handbook of Game Theory with Economic Applications, v. 3, pp. 1851- 1895.
Larson, Ron; Edwards, Bruce H. (2009). Calculus (9thed.). Brooks/Cole.
Lasdon, Leon S. (2002). Optimization Theory for Large Systems. Mineola, New York:
Leader, Jeffery J. (2004). Numerical Analysis and Scientific Computation. Addison Wesley.
Leonard, Robert (2010). Von Neumann, Morgenstern, and the Creation of Game Theory. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Maddala, G. S. (2001). "Simultaneous Equations Models". Introduction to Econometrics (3rded.).
New York: Wiley. pp. 343 - 390.
Mandal, Ram Krishna (2007). Microeconomic Theory. Atlantic Publishers & Dist.

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Mankiw, N. G. (2001). Principles of Economics, (2nd ed.), Harcourt College Publishers.
Mark de Berg, Marc van Kreveld, Mark Overmars, and Otfried Schwarzkopf (2000).
Computational Geometry (2nded.). Springer-Verlag.
Maros, István (2003). Computational Techniques of the Simplex Method. International Series in
Operations Research & Management Science. 61. Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic
Publishers.
Michael Carter (2001). Foundations of Mathematical Economics, MIT Press.
Michael J. Todd (February 2002). "The Many Facets of Linear Programming". Mathematical
Programming 91 (3): 417 - 436.
Miller, James H. (2003). Game Theory at Work: How to Use Game Theory to Outthink and
Outmanoeuvre Your Competition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Mirowski, Philip (1992). "What Were von Neumann and Morgenstern Trying to Accomplish?”
In Weintraub, E. Roy (ed.). Toward a History of Game Theory. Durham: Duke University
Press.
Mitra-Kahn, Benjamin H. (2008). "Debunking the Myths of Computable General Equilibrium
Models" (PDF). Schwarz Center for Economic Policy Analysis Working Paper 01-2008.
Murty, Katta G. (1983). Linear Programming. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. xix
Murty, Katta G. (2000). Linear programming. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Newton, Jonathan (2018). "Evolutionary Game Theory: A Renaissance". Games. 9 (2): 31.
Nicola, PierCarlo (2000). Mainstream Mathematical Economics in the 20th Century. Springer.
Nisan, Noam; Ronen, Amir (2001), "Algorithmic Mechanism Design". Games and Economic
Behavior, 35 (1 - 2): 166 - 196.
Noam Nisan et al., ed. (2007). Algorithmic Game Theory. Cambridge University Press. Osborne,
Martin J. (2004). An Introduction to Game Theory. Oxford University Press.
Osborne, Martin J.; & Rubinstein, Ariel (1994). A Course in Game Theory. MIT Press.
Owen, Guillermo (1995). Game Theory. (3rded.). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing.
Piraveenan, Mahendra (2019). "Applications of Game Theory in Project Management: A
Structured Review and Analysis". Mathematics. 7 (9): 858.
Prosser, Mike (1993). "Constrained Optimization by Substitution". Basic Mathematics for
Economists New York: Routledge. pp. 338 - 346
Published in Europe as Gibbons, Robert (2001). A Primer in Game Theory. London: Harvester
Wheatsheaf.
Rao, C.R. Linear Statistical Inference and its Application (2nded.). New -York: Wiley, 1973.

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Renshaw, Geoff (2005). Maths for Economics. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 516 –
526.
Richard W. Cottle, (2003). The Basic George B. Dantzig. Stanford Business Books, Stanford
University Press, Stanford, California.
Robert A. Hearn; Erik D. Demaine (2009). Games, Puzzles, and Computation. A K Peters, Ltd.,
Robert J. Vanderbei (2008). Linear Programming: Foundations and Extensions (3rd ed.),
International Series in Operations Research & Management Science, Vol. 114, Springer
Verlag.
Robert W. Clower (2008). "Non-clearing markets in general equilibrium," in The New Palgrave
Dictionary of Economics, (2nded.).
Scarf, Herbert E. (2008). "Computation of General Equilibria". The New Palgrave Dictionary of
Economics (2nded.).
Schmedders, Karl (2008). "Numerical Optimization Methods in Economics". The New Palgrave
Dictionary of Economics, (2nded.)
Shoham, Yoav (2008) "Computer Science and Game Theory". Communications of the ACM, 51
(8): 75 - 79.
Shubik, Martin (2002). "Game Theory and Experimental Gaming", in R. Aumann and S. Hart,
ed., Handbook of Game Theory with Economic Applications, Elsevier, v. 3, pp. 2327 -
2351.
Silberberg E. et al. (2001). The Structure of Economics: A Mathematical Analysis.
Silberberg, Eugene; Suen, Wing (2001). "Elasticity of Substitution". The Structure of Economics:
A Mathematical Analysis (Third Ed.). Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill. pp. 238 - 250.
Spielman, Daniel; Teng, & Shang-Hua (2001). "Smoothed Analysis of Algorithms: Why the
Simplex Algorithm Usually Takes Polynomial Time". Proceedings of the Thirty-Third
Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing. ACM. pp. 296 – 305.
Stewart, James (2008). Calculus: Early Transcendentals (6thed.). Brooks/Cole.
Stone, Richard E.; Tovey, Craig A. (1991). "The simplex and projective scaling algorithms as
iteratively reweighted least squares methods". SIAM Review 33 (2): 220 - 237.
Stone, Richard E.; Tovey, Craig A. (1991). "Erratum: The Simplex and Projective Scaling
Algorithms as Iteratively Reweighted Least Squares Methods". SIAM Review 33 (3): 461.
Suranovic, Steve (2004). International Trade Theory and Policy.
Sydsaeter, K. and Hammond, P. J. (2008) Essential Mathematics for Economic Analysis, 3rd
Edition, FT Prentice Hall.
Takayama, Akira (1985). Mathematical Economics, (2nd ed.), Cambridge.

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Thomas, George B.; Weir, Maurice D.; & Hass, Joel (2010). Thomas' Calculus: Early
Transcendentals (12thed.). Addison-Wesley.

Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, & Clifford Stein (2001).
Introduction to Algorithms (2nded.). MIT Press and McGraw-Hill.
Vanderbei, Robert J. (2001). Linear Programming: Foundations and Extensions. Springer
Verlag.
Vapnyarskii, I.B. (2001). "Lagrange Multipliers", in Hazewinkel, Michiel (ed.), Encyclopedia of
Mathematics. Springer.
Vazirani, Vijay V. (2001). Approximation Algorithms. Springer-Verlag.
Wade D. Hands, (2004). Introductory Mathematical Economics, 2nd ed. Oxford.
Webb, James N. (2007) Game Theory: Decisions, Interaction and Evolution, Undergraduate
Mathematics, Springer.
Weintraub, E. Roy (1982). Mathematics for Economists, Cambridge. Contents.
Weintraub, E. Roy (2002). How Economics Became a Mathematical Science. Duke University
Press
Weintraub, E. Roy (2008). "Mathematics and economics", (2nded.).
Wenyu Sun; &Ya-Xiang Yua (2010). Optimization Theory and Methods: Nonlinear
Programming. Springer.
Williams H. P. (2013). Model Building in Mathematical Programming (5thed.)
Zelikin, M. I. (2008). "Pontryagin's Principle of Optimality", (2nded.).

HOME WORK/ASSIGNMENT FILES

Assignment files and marking scheme will be made available to you. This file presents you with
details of the work you must submit to your instructor for marking. The marks you obtain from
these assignments shall form part of your final mark for this course. Additional information on
assignments will be found in the assignment file and later in this Course Guide in the section on
assessment.

There are four assignments in this course. The four course assignments will cover:
Assignment 1 – All TMAs’ Questions in Units 1 – 4 (Module 1)
Assignment 2 – All TMAs’ Questions in Units 5 – 8 (Module 2)
Assignment 3 – All TMAs’ Questions in Units 9 – 12 (Module 3)
Assignment 4 – All TMAs’ Questions in Units 13 – 16 (Module 4)

PRESENTATION SCHEDULE

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The presentation schedule included in the course materials gives important dates in the year for
the completion of tutor-marking assignments and attending tutorials. Remember, every student is
required to submit all your assignments by due date. You should guide against failure to meet up
with the deadline.

ASSESSMENT
The assessment for this course is a combination of continuous assessment and final
examinations. The continuous assessment is 30% of the final grade and it is made up of all home
works/assignments given in the course of lectures as contained in the units of the four modules.
The home works and/or assignments must be submitted to your instructor for formal Assessment
in compliance with the deadlines. Classroom tests will also be given to facilitate learning of the
more challenging areas of the course. A final examination will be written at the end of the course
and this will cover 70%.

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS (TMA)

There are four homework/assignments to be done by each student this course. Students are
required to submit all the assignments as the TMAs constitute 30% of the total score.Assignment
questions for the units in this course are contained in the Home Work/Assignment File. Students
are advised to eagerly demonstrate that researched knowledge outside the course material. When
you have completed each assignment, send it, together with a TMA form, to your instructor.
Make sure that each assignment reaches your instructor on or before the deadline given in the
Presentation File. If for any reason, you cannot complete your work on time, contact your
instructor before the assignment is due to discuss the possibility of an extension. Extensions will
not be granted after the due date unless there are exceptional circumstances.

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

The final examination will be of three hours' duration and have a maximum score of 70% of the
total course grade. The examination will consist of questions which reflect the types of
study/practice exercises and tutor-marked problems students have previously encountered. All
topics of the course will be assessed.

Revise the entire course material using the time between finishing the last unit in the module and
that of sitting for the final examination. You might find it useful to review your self-assessment
exercises, tutor-marked assignments and comments on them before the examination. The final
examination covers information from all parts of the course.

COURSE MARKING SCHEME

In this course, the total marks of 100% is to be earned by students. The allocation of total score
would include the best three assignments out of four that are marked 10% each making a total of

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30% while the final Examination would be graded over 70%. This is explained in the table
below:

Table 1: Scores Allocation

Assignment Marks
Assignments (Best three assignments out of four that is 30%
marked)
Final Examination 70%
Total 100%

COURSE OVERVIEW
The Table presented below indicates the units, number of weeks and assignments to be taken by
the students in order to successfully complete the course.

Table 2: Course Overview

Units Title of Work Week’s Assessment
Activities (end of unit)
Course Guide
MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF MATHEMATICAL ECONOMICS,
MODELS, FUNCTIONS AND ECONOMIC
EQUILIBRIUM ANALYSIS
1 Overview of Mathematical Week 1 Assignment 1
Economics
2 Economic Models, Components of a Week 2 Assignment 2
Mathematical Economic Models
3 Functions/Ordered Pairs, Types of Week 3 Assignment 3
Functions, and Continuity of
Functions
4 Equilibrium Analysis in Economics Week 4 Assignment 4
MODULE 2: MATRIX ALGEBRA, SYSTEM OF LINEAR
EQUATIONS AND MATRIX APPLICATION TO
ECONOMICS: INPUT-OUTPUT ANALYSIS
1 Matrix-Algebra Week 5 Assignment 1
2 System of Linear Equations and Week 6 Assignment 2
Cramer’s Rule
3 System of Linear Equations and Week 7 Assignment 3

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 Matrix Inversion
4 Matrix Application to Economics: Week 8 Assignment 4
Input-Output Analysis
MODULE 3:DIFFRENTIATIONS, INTEGRATION AND
OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES
1 Derivatives and Some Economic Week 9 Assignment 1
Applications
2 Integrals and Some Economic Week 10 Assignment 2
Applications
3 Optimization Techniques Week 11 Assignment 3
4 Differential Equations Week 12 Assignment 4

MODULE 4: LINEAR/NON-LINEAR PROGRAMMING, AND GAME

THEORY

1 Linear Programming Week 13 Assignment 1

2 Non-Linear Programming Week 14 Assignment 2

3 Game Theory Week 15 & Assignment 3
16
Examination Week 17,
18 & 19

HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE

In distance learning the study units replace the university lecturer. This is one of the great
advantages of distance learning; you can read and work through specially designed study
materials at your own pace and at a time and place that suit you best. Think of it as reading the
lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. In the same way that a lecturer might set you some
reading to do, the study units tell you when to read your books or other material, and when to
embark on discussion with your colleagues. Just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise,
your study units provide exercises for you to do at appropriate points.

Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to the subject
matter of the unit and how a particular unit is integrated with the other units and the course as a
whole. Next is a set of learning objectives. These objectives let you know what you should be
able to do by the time you have completed the unit.

You should use these objectives to guide your study. When you have finished the unit, you must
go back and check whether you have achieved the objectives. If you make a habit of doing this
you will significantly improve your chances of passing the course and getting the best grade.

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The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from other sources. This will
usually be either from your set books or from a readings section. Some units require you to
undertake practical overview of historical events. You will be directed when you need to embark
on discussion and guided through the tasks you must do.

The purpose of the practical overview of some certain historical economic issues are in twofold.
First, it will enhance your understanding of the material in the unit. Second, it will give you
practical experience and skills to evaluate economic arguments, and understand the roles of
history in guiding current economic policies and debates outside your studies. In any event, most
of the critical thinking skills you will develop during studying are applicable in normal working
practice, so it is important that you encounter them during your studies.

Self-assessments are interspersed throughout the units, and answers are given at the ends of the
units. Working through these tests will help you to achieve the objectives of the units and
prepare you for the assignments and the examination. You should do each self-assessment
exercises as you come to it in the study unit. Also, ensure to master some major historical dates
and events during the course of studying the material.
The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If you run into any trouble,
consult your tutor. Remember that your tutor's job is to help you. When you need help, don't
hesitate to call and ask your tutor to provide it.

1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly.

2. Organize a study schedule. Refer to the `Course overview' for more details. Note the time
you are expected to spend on each unit and how the assignments relate to the units.
Important information, e.g. details of your tutorials, and the date of the first day of the
semester is available from study centre. You need to gather together all this information
in one place, such as your dairy or a wall calendar. Whatever method you choose to use,
you should decide on and write in your own dates for working breach unit.
3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you can to stick to it. The
major reason that students fail is that they get behind with their course work. If you get
into difficulties with your schedule, please let your tutor know before it is too late for
help.
4. Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the unit.
5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need for a unit is given in the
`Overview' at the beginning of each unit. You will also need both the study unit you are
working on and one of your set books on your desk at the same time.
6. Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been arranged to provide a
sequence for you to follow. As you work through the unit you will be instructed to read
sections from your set books or other articles. Use the unit to guide your reading.
7. Up-to-date course information will be continuously delivered to you at the study centre.

17 | P a g e
 8. Work before the relevant due date (about 4 weeks before due dates), get the Assignment
File for the next required assignment. Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing the
assignments carefully. They have been designed to help you meet the objectives of the
course and, therefore, will help you pass the exam. Submit all assignments no later than
the due date.
9. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have achieved them. If you
feel unsure about any of the objectives, review the study material or consult your tutor.
10. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit's objectives, you can then start on
the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your study so that
you keep yourself on schedule.
11. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking do not wait for its
return `before starting on the next units. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is
returned, pay particular attention to your tutor's comments, both on the tutor-marked
assignment form and also written on the assignment. Consult your tutor as soon as
possible if you have any questions or problems.
12. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the final
examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of
each unit) and the course objectives (listed in this Course Guide).

TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

There are some hours of tutorials (2-hours sessions) provided in support of this course. You will
be notified of the dates, times and location of these tutorials together with the name and phone
number of your tutor, as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group.

Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close watch on your progress
and on any difficulties you might encounter, and provide assistance to you during the course.
You must mail your tutor-marked assignments to your tutor well before the due date (at least two
working days are required). They will be marked by your tutor and returned to you as soon as
possible.

Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion board if you need help.
The following might be circumstances in which you would find help necessary. Contact your
tutor if.
• You do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings
• You have difficulty with the self-assessment exercises
• You have a question or problem with an assignment, with your tutor's comments on an
assignment or with the grading of an assignment.
• You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance to have face to
face contact with your tutor and to ask questions which are answered instantly. You can
raise any problem encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit

18 | P a g e
 from course tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a lot
from participating in discussions actively.

CONCLUSION/SUMMARY
The course, gives the student comprehensive knowledge of the mathematical economics with
reference to: economic/mathematical model, types of functions, functions of two or more
independent variables, equilibrium analysis in economics, matrix-algebra, theory optimization
including free and constrained simultaneous equations dynamic models, linear programming:
simplex method, input-output analysis and linear programming and non-linear programming.

This course also gives you an insight into differential calculus/derivatives and some economic
applications as well as integrals calculus and some economic applications. Finally, Game theory
is also examined to enhance the student techniques of logical reasoning. After the successful
study of this course, the student would have developed acute mathematical skills with the
techniques required for analytical execution of economic problems with high levels of accuracy
within an economic setting. We wish you success with the course and hope that you will find it
fascinating and handy.

MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF MATHEMATICAL ECONOMICS, MODELS,

FUNCTIONS AND ECONOMIC EQUILIBRIUM ANALYSIS
UNIT 1 Overview of Mathematical Economics
UNIT 2 Economic Models, Components of a Mathematical Model
UNIT 3 Types of Functions, Functions of Two or More Independent Variables
UNIT 4 Equilibrium Analysis in Economics

UNIT 1: OVERVIEW OF MATHEMATICAL ECONOMICS

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Mathematical Economics
3.2 Why Study Mathematical Economics?
3.3 Economic Applications of Mathematics

4.0 Conclusion
4.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

19 | P a g e
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit focuses on concept of mathematical economics, rationale for studying mathematical
economics and the various areas where mathematics can be applied in economics.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After a successful study of this unit, students would be able to do the following:
• Describe what mathematical economics is all about
• Discuss the rationale for mathematical economics
• Formulate economic problems in mathematical expressions

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Mathematical Economics
Mathematical economics is an aspect of economics that utilizes mathematical methods to resolve
economic problems in order to arrive at results. Such mathematical methods refer to differential
and integral calculus, differential equation, matrix algebra, mathematical programming etc. By
convention, the subject thus relies on numerical observations to predict economic behavior.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe in your own words what you understand as Mathematics for Economists

3.2 Why Study Mathematical Economics?

1. Mathematical economicsaids mathematical formulation/economic modelling of
theoretical and economic interactions.
2. Mathematics aid economists in carrying out quantifiable assessmentsin order
toforecasttrend/forthcoming economic activity.
3. Mathematics aid economists in the act of making positive claims about historical
economic arguments.
4. It is particularly useful in solving optimization problems where a policymaker, for
example, is considering the best policy option out of a given menu of economic policies.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Explain major advantages for studying mathematical economics

3.3 Economic Applications of Mathematics

The economic applications include:
• Policy maker, household or firm optimization
• Input-output modeling & analysis
• Equilibrium analysis application in which economic unit such as a household or firm or
economic system such as a market or overall economy is modeled as not changing

20 | P a g e
 • Comparative statics application in which a variation from one equilibrium to another
equilibrium is induced by a variation in one or more factors
• Dynamic analysis application which entails tracing changes in an economic system over
time, for example from the growth rate of national income.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe the various areas where mathematics can be applied to economics

4.0 CONCLUSION
Advanced mathematical economics is an important aspect of economic analysis as it provides the
skills for application of mathematical knowledge to economic problems and also to analyze and
simulate real economic situations. Its fundamentals embrace understanding of the one variable
calculus as well as models of simultaneous equations.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to articulate the concept of mathematical economics, rationale for
mathematical economics and also the various areas of economics where mathematics can be
applied for purpose of decision making.

6.0 TUTORED MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

1. Briefly give an overview definition of mathematical economics.
2. In what ways can it be deduced that the study of mathematical economics is justifiable?
3. Describe the various areas where mathematics can be applied to economics

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Chiang, Alpha C.; & Kevin Wainwright (2005). Fundamental Methods of Mathematical
Economics. McGraw-Hill Irwin. pp. 3 - 4.
Cramer, H. (1946). Mathematical Methods of Statistics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Debreu, Gérard (2008). "Mathematical Economics" (2nded.). Econometrica, 54(6), pp. 1259-
1270.
Dowling, E.T. (2001) Schaum's Outline of Introduction to Mathematical Economics,(3rded.),
McGraw Hill.
Driscoll, M.F. &Krasnicka B. (1995). “An Accessible proof of Craig’s Theorem in the General
Case.” The American Statistician 49:59-61.
Glaister, Stephen (1984). Mathematical Methods for Economists, (3rd ed.), Blackwell.
Hocking, R. R. Methods and Applications of Linear Models. New York: Wiley, 1996.
Hoy, M., Livernois, J., McKenna, C., Rees, R., Stengos, T. (2001) Mathematics for Economics
(2nded) MIT Press.
Rao, C.R. (1973). Linear Statistical Inference and its Application (2nded.). New York: Wiley.
Sydsaeter, K. and Hammond, P. J. (2008). Essential Mathematics for Economic Analysis, (3rd

21 | P a g e
 ed.), FT Prentice Hall.
Silberberg E. et al. (2001). The Structure of Economics: A Mathematical Analysis. McGraw
Hill Universities of Washington & Hong Kong
Takayama, Akira (1985). Mathematical Economics, 2nd ed. Cambridge.

UNIT 2: ECONOMIC MODELS, COMPONENTS AND TYPES OF

MATHEMATICAL/ECONOMIC MODEL

CONTENTS
1.0. Introduction
2.0. Objectives
3.0. Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Economic Model
3.2 Components of a Mathematical Economic Model
3.3 What Makes Good Mathematical Economic Models?
3.4 Types of Models
3.4.1 Linear Models
3.4.2 Polynomial Models
3.4.3 Reciprocal Models
3.4.4 Exponential Models
3.4.5 Nonlinear Models: Cobb-Douglass Function
3.4.6 Models of Constant Elasticity: CES Function
3.4.7 Translog Indirect Utility Models
3.4.8 Dynamic vs. Static Models

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0. Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit discusses the meaning of economic model, components of a mathematical economic
model, what makes good mathematical economic models and the various types of models. Also,
our focus of discussion is on meaning of Cobb-Douglass Function and constant elasticity of
substitution function (CES), properties of Cobb-Douglass Function and CES function while also
providing solutions to some numerical problems on Cobb-Douglass Function and CES.

22 | P a g e
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After a successful study of this unit, students should be able to do the following:
• Define an economic model
• Discuss the various components of a mathematical model
• Explain what makes good mathematical models
• Discuss types of models
• Explain what the Cobb-Douglass function (CES) is all about
• Solving numerical problems on Cobb-Douglass function
• Explain what the constant elasticity of substitution function (CES) is all about
• Solving numerical problems on constant elasticity of substitution function (CES)

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1. Meaning of Economic Model
An economic model is a depiction of a system using mathematical concepts. In effect, an
economic model is a formal exemplification of an economic theory based on a set of
mathematical equations. The process of developing an economic model is called mathematical
modeling. An economic model is used to study the effects of different components, and to make
predictions about economic behaviour.

3.2 Components of Mathematical Economic Model

Mathematical Component: This entails a discussion of the number of equations, linear or non-
linear form of these equations and the type of equation in addition to the type of variables say
endogenous, or exogenous variables.

Stochastic Component: Every economic model consists of a stochastic disturbance often known
as the error term. The error term is a random variable that measures all the factors affecting the
endogenous variable under study but not integrated in the model hence the incompleteness
property of a model.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe the various components of economic mathematical model

3.3 What Makes Good Mathematical Economic Models?

• Variable Representation Property: In mathematical models, parameters are most
often represented by variables and once there is a change in the values of any
variable, it mathematically brings a change upon the model.
• Simplification: Every mathematical model simplifies essential structure of the
economy being described.

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 • Incompleteness Property: Mathematical models are necessarily incomplete in
specification. The reason being that a mathematical model is a representation of
real life situation and there is therefore no mathematical model that can include
every aspect of real life.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe the qualities of Mathematical Models

3.4 Types of Models

3.4.1 Linear Model: This is a model that has its variable raised to the power of one. Examples
are demand and supply models given mathematically as; q = a − bp and q = −d + cp respectively.
For example:
y = 28 − 0.5 x (1)
y = 500 + x (2)
From the above example, we can see that the equations have a power of one (1) and this is the
reason why they are linear models. In addition, these models are linear because they can be
plotted on a graph as a straight lines with the equationwhere -0.5 and 1 are the slope
coefficientsof the respective linesor equations (1) and (2) and 28 and 500 are the intercept on
y − axis for equations (1) and (2) respectively.

3.4.2 Polynomial Models: A polynomial is an equation of the following form

y = d0 + d1x + d2 x2 + d3 x3 + + dn x n
where y is the dependent variable, x is the independent variable, d0 is a constant and xi (i = 1, 2,  n)
are the underlying parameters of the equation. The specified equation is a polynomial of degree n because
n is the highest power of x . Other relevant eexamples of polynomial models include the following:
i. Polynomial of degree one, y = a + d1 x . This is a linear function and it is of degree
one because 1 is the highest power of x in the equation.
Polynomial of degree two, y = a + d1 x + d2 x . This is a quadratic equation and it is of
2
ii.
degree two because 2 is the highest power of x in the equation.

Polynomial of degree three, y = a + d1 x + d 2 x + d 3 x . This a cubic equation and it is

2 3
iii.
of degree three because 3 is the highest power of x in the equation. Economically
speaking, an example of a polynomial equation of degree three is the total cost function.

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3.4.3 Reciprocal Model:(Please, define the model before giving example) Examples of reciprocal
models include the following:
Q = a + bZ −1
Where Q is dependent variable,
Z is explanatory variable,
a is intercept coefficient,
b is slope coefficient.

3.4.4 Translog Indirect Utility Model: The translog equation is given by:
P P P
− LogeQ =  +  d p Loge [ wp / M ] +   pl Loge [ wp / Z ][ wl / Z ]
p =1 p =1 l =1

Where Q is indirect utility,

P is price level for the kth commodity,
Z is income level [see Christensen, Jorgenson & Lau (1975)]

3.4.5. Dynamic Model vs. Static Model: A dynamic model is a model that accounts for
dependent changes in the state of the system, thus, dynamic models are constructed to determine
the time-path of variables such as GDP, employment, consumption, investment, price, sale,
income etc. Example of dynamic model are shown below:
Y = 2000 + 4Zt-1 + 60Z2
P = - 0.8 - 90Qt-1
As shown above, the “t” indicates time trend and this makes the mathematical model dynamic
model. Dynamic models are useful in the following regards:
i. deciding the speed of adjustment,
ii. deciding whether or not there is going to be an adjustment to equilibrium in event of disequilibrium.

The static mathematical model is often referred to as the Steady state model because it is a
mathematical model that is time invariant as it analyzes the system in equilibrium. In effect, static
models simply reflect changes from one point in time to another without respect to speed of arriving at the
new position. Below are some examples of static model.
Y = 1000 + 6Z + 40Z2
P = - 0.8 - 90Q
As seen above, there is no time which is denoted by letter “t” in the equation. Dynamic models are
of two types; namely: difference and differential equations.

TABLE 1: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STATIC AND DYNAMIC MODELS

Dynamic Models Static Models
Dynamic models keep changing with reference Static models are at equilibrium of in a
to time steady state

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Dynamic modeling comprises of series of Static modeling comprises class and object
operations, state changes, activities and diagrams used in depicting static elements
interface
Dynamic model is a behavioral representation Static model is structural representation of
of static components of the system the system
Dynamic modeling is highly elastic as it varies Static modeling is rigid as it is time
with time, that is, time dependent observation independent observation of a system
of the system.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1. What is the relationship between static and dynamic models?
2. What is the relationship between Static and Dynamic models?

3.4.6. Non-linear Models: Cobb-Douglass Model: These models can be classified into two (2)
types and these include mathematical models that are nonlinear in the variables but still linear in
terms of the unknown parameter. This class of non-linear models includes model which are made
linear in the parameters through transformation. Example is the Cobb Douglas function that
relates output (Y) to labour (L) and capital (K) as shown below:
Y = (aLqKg)

This function is nonlinear in the variable while it is linear in the parameters a, q and g. There is
also the nonlinearity in parameters. These category of models cannot be made linear following
transformation. The CD function is a functional form of the production function transmits the
technological relationship between two inputs and output.

The Mathematical Formulation of Cobb-Douglas Function with two factors is as follows:

Y = WK q L(1− q )
where Y = total output
L = units of labour input (number of person-hours)
K = units of capital input (machinery, equipment, and buildings etc.)
W = total factor productivity
q,1 − q are the coefficients of output elasticity of capital and labor, separately.

The CD function can be mathematically formulated in a general multi-factors case as a linear

relation thus:
ln(Y ) = b0 +  bi ln( Ii )

26 | P a g e
where Y = total output
I = units of input
bi = input coefficients
In the two-factor case the CD function form can be mathematically formulated as a linear
relation as follows:

ln(Y ) = ln(W ) + q ln( K ) + (1 − q) ln( L)

The Cobb-Douglas Function can be specified as a Special Case of CES Functionas:


  −
Y = W (qL + (1− q)K ] (1)

Taking the log of the CES function in equation (1), we have equation (2) as follows:

ln(Y ) = ln(W ) − ln[qL + (1 − q) K  ] (2)

By applying l'Hôpital's rule, such that  = 0 we derive a limiting case that corresponds to CD
 
function as follows: As can be seen in equation 2, if o → 0
0
,and hence
o
(
ln qLo + (1 − q ) K o )
will tend to  ).

The features of Cobb-Douglas Function are as follows:

a. The CD function is characterized by constant returns to scale such that
q + (1 − q ) = 1 ,
b. The CD function is characterized by decreasing returns to scale such that
[q + (1 − q )]  1
c. The CD function is characterized by increasing returns to scale such that
[q + (1 − q )]  1
d. The constant returns to scaleassumption holds under a perfect competition

SELF ASSESSEMENT QUESTION

Discuss the properties of CD function
Discuss the meaning and properties of CD function
Mathematically formulate CD function

Numerical Example 1: Consider the following Cobb-Douglas function which is to be optimized

1 3
Q = 81z 4 y 4
s.t. 3 z + 6 y = 90

27 | P a g e
 (a) Optimize the CD function
(b) Determine the optimal value of the function at z = 124 & y = 54 respectively
(c) Use the results to explain fully the concept of MRTS between the factor inputs z & y.
(d) State and derive with regards to CD function, Euler’s theorem

Solution to Numerical Example 1: Form the Langragian function as follows:

1 3
L = 81z 4 y 4 + [90 − 3z − 6 y ]
L −
3 3
Lz = = 20.25 z 4 y 4 − 3 = 0 (1)
z
L 1
−
1
Ly = = 60.75 z 4 y 4 − 6 = 0 (2)
y
L
L = = 90 − 3z − 6 y = 0 (3)


Diving equation (1) by equation (2), we have:

3 3
−
20.25 z y 4 4
3
=
1
4
−
1
4
6
60.75 z y
20.25 y 3
=
60.75 z 6
121.5 y = 182.25 z
182.25 z
y=
121.5
y = 1.5 z
Substituting for y in equation (3), we have that:
90 − 3 z − 6(1.5 z ) = 0
90 − 3 z − 9 z = 0
12 z = 90
90
z=
12
z = 7.5
y = 1.5(7.5)
= 11.25

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 Lzz Lzy
For the S. O. C. shows that Lyz Lyy  0 , therefore the solution set is a maximum

3.4.7. Models of Constant Elasticity:

Models of constant elasticity are most often given as: just as the name suggest, it is a model with
The Constant Elasticity of Substitution Function (CES) function is a
a constant value of elasticity.
neoclassical function that displays constant elasticity of substitution. In other words, it is a
technological function that has a constant percentage change in factor proportions due to a
percentage change in marginal rate of technical substitution.
It can be given in its non-logarithmic form.
 
k
Q = A L−  + (1 −  )K − 
−


The logarithmic representation of the model is given as:

LneQ = Lne d − (c / a) Lne [bL− a + (1 − b) K − a ]
Where Q is the output of production,
L is labour man-hours,
K is capital stock [units],
d is production intercept,
b is constant labour share,
(1-b) is constant capital share,
e is natural logarithmic base.

The mathematical formulation of CES function is given as follows:


Y = W (qL− + (1− q)K − ]
−
−

Where, Y = quantity of output

• W = factor productivity
• q = share parameter
• L = units of labour inputs
• K = units if capital inputs
 −1
•  = is substitution parameter

1
• = = is elasticity of substitution
1− 

29 | P a g e
•  = homogeneity degree.
• Where  = 1 (constant return to scale),
•  < 1 (decreasing return to scale),
•  > 1 (increasing return to scale).

The CES function exhibits constant elasticity of substitution between factors. Leontief and Cobb
Douglas (CD) functions are special cases of the CES function. That is,
1. Suppose that substitution coefficient is equal to 1, that is,  goes to 1, we have a linear or
perfect substitutes function;
2. Suppose that the substitution coefficient is equal to zero, that is,  goes to0 in the limit,
we get the CD function; and
3. Suppose that the substitution coefficient approaches negative infinity we get
the Leontief or perfect complements function.
4. The CES is homogenous of degree 1.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Explain what you understand by elasticity of substitution

Numerical Example 2: For the following CES function,

1
− ( − 0.5)
Q = 20 0.5 z − ( − 0.5) + 0.5 y − ( − 0.5)  ,

Cost constraint, 150 = 5 z + 2 y

(a) Optimize the CES Production Technology subject to the constraint.
(b) Estimate the elasticity of substitution
(c) Interpret the results economically.
Solution to Numerical Example 1: Form the Langrangian function as follows:
1
− ( −0.5)
L = 20 0.5 z − ( − 0.5) + 0.5 y − ( − 0.5)  + [150 − 5 z − 2 y ]
L
Lz =
z
(
= 40 0.5 z 0.5 + 0.5 y 0.5  0.25 z −0.5 − 5 = 0 )
= 10 z −0.5 0.5 z 0.5 + 0.5 y 0.5  − 5 = 0 (1)
L
Ly =
y
(
= 40 0.5 z 0.5 + 0.5 y 0.5  0.25 y −0.5 − 2 = 0 )
= 10 y −0.5 0.5 z 0.5 + 0.5 y 0.5  − 2 = 0 (2)
L
L = = 150 − 5 z − 2 y = 0 (3)


30 | P a g e
 Diving equation (1) by equation (2), we have as follows:
10 z −0.5 0.5 z 0.5 + 0.5 y 0.5  −5
=
10 y −0.5
0.5 z 0.5
+ 0.5 y 
0.5
−2
z −0.5
= 2.5
y −0.5
y 0.5
= 2.5
z 0.5
y 0.5 = 2.5 z 0.5
y = 2.52 z
y = 6.25 z
Substituting for y in equation (3), we have that:
Substituting for y in equation (3), we have
150 = 5 z + 2(6.25 z )
150 = 17.5 z
150
z=
17.5
z = 8.57
y = 6.25(8.57)
= 53.57
L zz L zy L z
For the S. O. C. show that L yz L yy L y  0
Lz Ly L
d ln(z / y ) d (z / y ) f y / f z
b. For elasticity of substitution, evaluate  = =
d ln( f y / f z ) d ( f y / f z ) z / y
1
or simply compute,  =
1− 

1 1
= =2
1 +  1 − 0.5
c. Given that   1, substitution among factor inputs is said to be elastic. Suppose that the
substitution coefficient is equal to zero, that is,  goes to0 in the limit, we get the CD function;
and suppose that the substitution coefficient approaches negative infinity we get the Leontief or
perfect complements function.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

31 | P a g e
Describe the properties of CES function
Explain the concept of elasticity of substitution

4.0 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model is an applied or empirical representation of the economic reality.
Mathematical Models are therefore used for the sole purpose of testing economic theories.
Economists use economic theories and models as primary tools of economic analysis. The
treatment of the Cobb-Douglass function under this unit was carried out focussing on the Cobb-
Douglas production technology and not the Cobb-Douglass utility function.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed economic model, components of a mathematical model, qualities
of good mathematical models and types of models. Also, in this unit, we have discussed the
meaning of CD function, mathematically formulated CD function, mathematically derived the
relationship between CD function and CES function and also solved some numerical problems of
CD function. The CES arises as a specific type of aggregator function which combines two
types of factor inputs into an aggregate magnitude. This aggregator function exhibits constant
elasticity of substitution.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss the various components of a mathematical economic model.
2. What are the differences between static and dynamic models
3. Distinguish between an economic model and a mathematical model
4. Briefly discuss 6 different types of mathematical economic models.
5. How would you define models in economics?
6. When do we need to apply models in economic analysis?
7. How would you define a Cobb-Douglas function?
8. Given the CD equation:
Z = WL K 1− , [0    1]

(a) Prove that MPLK = MPKL

(b) Prove that Z L L + Z K K = Z

(c) Prove that the elasticity of substitution  = 1

9. Consider a firm annual production function is of the form given below:

G ( z, y ) = 4 z 0.25 y 0.75

32 | P a g e
 Estimate the minimum cost of the firm producing 200 units of output given that the unit
annual costs for z and y are given as N13 and N15 respectively.
10. Given the CD equation:

Z = L K 1− , [0    1]
Suppose L and K both grow at constant, though different rates, that is,

L = L0ent , K = K0emt ,
dz
(a) Find dt
(i) Using direct substitution
(ii) Using chain rule (t is “time” factor)
(b) Prove that the degree of homogeneity is 1
11. Consider that a firm’s annual production function is of the form given below:
D ( z, y ) = 30 z 0.4 y 0.6
Estimate the maximum output (D) of the firm if it supplies total output of 460 while the
unit price of input z is N24 and that of y is N60.
12. Given the CES function
−

− −
Y = W (qL + (1− q)K ] −

(a) Prove that the CES function is homogeneous of degree 1

(b) What is the economic interpretation of linear homogeneity
13. Given the CES function
−

Y = W (qL− + (1− q)K − ] −
(a) Derive the elasticity of substitution for the CES function
(b) Define the elasticity of substitution. What is the economic implication of
it?
14. For the following CES function,
1
−
Q = 550 0.6 z −0.4 + 0.4 y −0.4  0.4 ,

Cost constraint, 300 = 10K + 4L

(a) Estimate the elasticity of substitution
(b) Interpret the results economically.
(c) Optimize the CES function subject to the constraint.

33 | P a g e
 (d) Use the optimal capital-labour ratio to examine the optimization solution.

7.0. REFRENCES/FURTHER READING

Baltas, George (2001). "Utility-Consistent Brand Demand Systems with Endogenous Category
Consumption: Principles and Marketing Applications". Decision Sciences 32 (3): 399 –
421.
Berndt, Ernst R.; Christensen, & Laurits R. (1973). "The Translog Function and the Substitution
of Equipment, Structures, and Labor in U.S. Manufacturing 1929 - 68". Journal of
Econometrics 1 (1): 81 - 113.
Brown, Murray (2017). "Cobb-Douglas Functions". The New Palgrave Dictionary of
Economics. Palgrave Macmillan UK.
Cobb, C. W.; & Douglas, P. H. (1928). "A Theory of Production" (PDF). American Economic
Review, 139 - 165.
de La Grandville, Olivier (2016). Economic Growth: A Unified Approach. Cambridge University
Press.
Douglas, Paul H. (1976). "The Cobb-Douglas Production Function Once Again: Its History, Its
Testing, and Some New Empirical Values". Journal of Political Economy 84 (5): 903 -
916.
Filipe, Jesus; & Adams, F. Gerard (2005). "The Estimation of the Cobb-Douglas Function: A
Retrospective View". Eastern Economic Journal, 31 (3): 427-445.
Gechet, S.; Havranek, T.; Irsova, Z.; & Kolcunova, D. (2019). "Death to the Cobb-Douglas
Production Function? A Quantitative Survey of the Capital-Labor Substitution
Elasticity". EconStor Preprints.
Green, Jerry R.; Mas-Colell, Andreu; & Whinston, Michael D. (1995). Microeconomic Theory.
Oxford University Press.
Houthakker, H.S. (1955), "The Pareto Distribution and the Cobb-Douglas Production Function in
Activity Analysis", Review of Economic Studies, 23 (1): 27 - 31.
Jorgensen, Dale W. (2000). Econometric Modelling of Producer Behavior. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press.
Klump, R; McAdam, P; & Willman, A. (2007). "Factor Substitution and Factor Augmenting
Technical Progress in the US: A Normalized Supply-Side System Approach". Review of
Economics and Statistics 89 (1): 183 - 192.
Renshaw, Geoff (2005). Maths for Economics. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 516 -
526.
Silberberg, Eugene; & Suen, Wing (2001). "Elasticity of Substitution". The Structure of
Economics: A Mathematical Analysis (Third Ed.). Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill. pp. 238 -
250.
Uzawa, H (1962). "Production Functions with Constant Elasticities of Substitution". Review of
Economic Studies. 29 (4): 291 - 299.

34 | P a g e
UNIT 3: FUNCTIONS, TYPES OF FUNCTIONS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

CONTENTS
1.0. Introduction
2.0. Objectives
3.0. Main Content
3.1 Function and Ordered Pair
3.2. Relationship between Function and Ordered Pairs
3.3 Types of Functions
3.3.1. Explicit Function
3.3.2. Implicit Function
3.3.3. Constant Function
3.3.4. Signum Function
3.3.5. Quadratic Function
3.3.6. Cubic Function
3.3.7. Rational Function
3.3.8. Modulus Function
3.3.9. Exponential Functions
3.3.10. Logarithmic Functions
3.3.11. Trigonometric or Sinusoidal function
3.4 Continuity of Functions
3.4.1 Solving Numerical Problems on Continuity of Functions

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0. Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit provides both theoretical and mathematical discussion of the concept of functions,
types of functions and continuity of functions.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After a successful study of this unit, students would be able to do the following:
• Explain the meaning of a function
• Discuss the various types of functions
• Explain the difference between functions and ordered pairs as well as functions of two or
more independent variables

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

35 | P a g e
3.1. Function and Ordered Pair
Function:A function is a distinct relation which charts each entry of set G with a parallel entry
of set H on the condition that both the sets G and H are non-empty. Having total regard to the
previous definition, it can be said mathematically that a function is a binary relation over two
arrays or circles of values that links to each entry or element of the first set to just one element of
the second set. Typical examples are functions from integers to integers or from the real numbers
to real numbers.Accordingly, f: G → H is a function such that for g∈G there is a unique entry h∈
H whereby (g, h) ∈ f. In effect, a function relates each element of a set with accurately one
element of another set which are most often the same set. This can be demonstrated as follows:

Figure 1: Graph of a Function

Source: Mathematics-Wikipedia

Ordered Pair: An ordered pair is a pair of elements a, b having the property that (g, h) = (s, m)
if and only if g = s, and h = m. The relation is such that each value from the set of the first
components of the ordered pairs is associated with exactly one value from the set of second
components of the ordered pair.

Consider the following relation, [(−4, 0) (1, 6) (−3, 2) (2, 9)]

From these ordered pairs, we can generate the sets of first components and second components
as follows:
[(−4, 0) (1, −6) (−3, 2) (2,9)]
1st components [−4,1, −3, 2]
2nd components [0, −6, 2,9]
Ltaking 1 from the set of first components, it can be seen that there is exactly one ordered pair
with 1 as a first component, (1, −6) . Therefore, the list of of values from the set of second
components associated with 1 is exactly one number, -6. In effect, there should not more than
one ordered pair with 1 as a first component. The relation is a function.

Consider the following relation, [(5, 0) (2, 6) (7, −3) (5, 4)]
From these ordered pairs, it can be seen that there are two ordered pairs with 5 as a first
component, (5, 0) & (5, 4) . Therefore, the list of of values from the set of second components

36 | P a g e
associated with 5 are two, namely 0 and 4. This negates the principle of ordered pair as there are
more than one ordered pair with 5 as a first component. Thus, the relation is not a funtion.

3.2. Relationship between Function and Ordered Pairs: The relationship between a function
and an ordered pair is intuitive in the sense that, a function is a process or a sequence that
associates to each element of a set Z a single element of a set Y.

Mathematically therefore, a function f from a set Z to a set Y is defined by a set F of ordered

pairs (z, y) such that z∈ Z, y ∈ Y, and every element of Z is the first component of correctly one
ordered pair in F.By implication, it so follows that for every z in Z, there is just one element y
such that the ordered pair (z, y) belongs to the set of pairs outlining the function f. The set F is
called the graph of the function as shown in figure 1 above.

Relatively, a relationship may not serve as a function because of the following:

i. A given value in set A has no relation in set B
ii. A given value in set A is related to more than one value in set B

The common notation of a “function” is f(z) ( f (x ) )called f of z or g(z) called g of z. Some

Examples of functions include the following:
(1) "f of z equals z squared", that is, F(z) = z2
(2) "f of z equals x cubed plus one", that is, F(z) = z3+1
(3) f(z) = 2 + z + z3
Function 3 can as well be written as:
• f(s) = 2 + s + s3
• g(z) = 2 + z + z3
• h(w) = 2 + w + w3
The variable (s, z, x) all take the same position as x. So also are g and h taking same position as
f. Consequently,
f(4) = 2 + 4 + 64 = 70

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Explain the meaning of a function.
Explain the conditions that makes a “relation” to serve as a function.
What is a linear equation?

3.3Types of Functions
3.3.1. Explicit Function: Explicit function is the classicy = f(x) type of function which shows
how to go directly from x to y. this is specified as follows:
y = x8 + 6x +10
In this case, once x is known, y can be evaluated.

37 | P a g e
3.3.2. Implicit Function: Implicit function is the function that is not given directly. This can be
demonstrated as follows:
x5 – 5xy + y2 = 0
Consequently, even when x is known, it requires an indirect approach to find y.

3.3.3. Constant Function: This is the function f: R→R whereby f(x) = h = k, for z ∈ R and k is a
constant in R. The domain of the function f is R and its range is a constant, k.

3.3.4. Signum Function: This is the sign function whereby f: R→R defined by f(x) = {1, if x> 0;
0, if x = 0; -1, if x< 0.

3.3.5. Quadratic Function: This is the degree two polynomial function given as f(x) = dx2 + ax
+ k, where d ≠ 0 and d, a, k are constant and x is a variable & R is both domain and range of the
function.

3.3.6. Cubic Function: This a degree three polynomial function given as f(x) = dx3 + ax2 + kx
+g, where d ≠ 0 and d, a, k, and g are constant &x is a variable & R is both domain and range of
the function.

3.3.7. Rational Function: This is a rational polynomial function where f: R→R is defined as =
f(x)/g(y) in which g(y) ≠ 0.

3.3.8. Modulus Function: This is an absolute value function denoted | | such that f: R→ R is
defined by f(x) = |x| and for every non-negative value of x, f(x) = z and for every negative value
of x, f(x) = -x. accordingly therefore, f(x)= {x, if x ≥ 0; – x, if x< 0.

3.3.9. Exponential Functions

Exponential models are growth equations which when transformed becomes semi-logarithmic.
Q = ded1Z
Q
On transformation ln  = d1 Z
d
Transformed LnQ = ln d + d1Z
Where Q is dependent variable,
Z is explanatory variable,
d is intercept coefficient,
d1 is slope coefficient.

38 | P a g e
3.3.10. Logarithmic Functions: Logarithmic function is the inverse of an exponential function.
That means the logarithm of a given number x is the exponent to which the base b, must be
raised, to have that number z.The logarithm of z to base b is denoted as logb ( z ) . Unambiguously,
the defining relation between exponentiation and logarithm is:
log b ( z ) = y
where b y = z , z  0, b  0, b  1, (b = e = 2, 718)
For purpose of pedagogy, it can be shown that the logarithm base 2 of 256 is 8, or log2(256) = 8.
That is,

log b ( z ) = y log 2 (256) = 8

as 28 = 256
Therefore, the logarithmic of 256 to base 2 is 8. The inverse of the exponential function
y = b z is z = b y . So, the logarithmic function logb ( z) is equivalent to the exponential equation
z = by .

3.3.11. Trigonometric or Sinusoidal function: Trigonometric functions are real functions

which transmit an angle of a right-angled triangle to ratios of two side lengths. For example,
given an acute angle A = θ of a right-angled triangle, the hypotenuse h is the side that connects
the two acute angles. This is shown in figure 1 below:

Figure 1: Right-Angled Triangle

Source: Wikipedia

If the angle θ is given, the ratio of any two side lengths is determined on the basis of θ. These
ratios define different trigonometric functions of θ, which includesine, cosine, tangent,
cotangent, secant and cosecant. These are shown in the table below:

39 | P a g e
 Table 1: Relationships between Trigonometric Functions
Function Radians Measurement
opp 1
sin  = sin  =
hyp csc 

adj 1
cos  = cos  =
hyp sec 

opp 1
tan  = tan  =
adj cot 

hyp 1
csc  = csc  =
opp sin 

hyp 1
sec  = sec  =
adj cos 

adj 1
cot  = cot  =
opp tan 

Trigonometric functions can be evaluated as coordinate values of points on the Euclidean plane
that are related to the unit circleradius one centered at the origin of the coordinate system. Thus,
whereas, the right-angled triangle explanationscertifies the classification of the trigonometric
functions for angles between 0 and 90°, the unit circle classificationsprovides an extension of the
domain of the trigonometric functions to all positive and negative real numbers.

In figure 2 below, the six trigonometric functions of angle θ are represented as Cartesian
coordinates of points in relation to the unit circle. The ordinates of A = sin θ, B = tan θ and D =
csc respectively, while the abscissas of A = cos θ , C = cotθ and E = sec θ correspondingly.

40 | P a g e
Figure 2: Unit Circle and Cartesian coordinates
Source: Wikipedia

Circling a ray from the direction of the positive half of the x-axis by an angle θ for >0, and for
<0yields intersection with the unit circle at point A . Also, by extending the ray to the line x=1,
we have a coordinate values of B and to the line of y=1, we have another coordinate points of
C.

The tangent line to the unit circle at point A, intersects the xand y-axis at point E and D
respectively. The coordinate values of these points give all the existing values of the
trigonometric functions for real values of θ as the x- and y-coordinate values of point A such
thatfulfills the Pythagorean identity in which: sin 2  + cos 2  = 1

Therefore, with the application of the Pythagorean identity, we have that:

sin  cos  1 1
tan  = , cot  = , sec  = , csc  =
cos  sin  cos  sin 

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Explain the meaning of a trigonometry function.
Explain the relationship between logarithmic and exponential functions

3.3 Continuity of Functions

A function g(x) is continuous at a point z = b, in its domain if the following three conditions are
satisfied:
3. f(b) exists. In other words, the value of f(b) is finite
4. limx→b f(x) exists and it is finite

41 | P a g e
 5. limx→b f(x) = f(b)
In effect, the function f(x) is continuous in the interval I = [x1,x2] if the conditions above are
satisfied for each point in the interval I.

Examples of typical continuous functions include, trigonometric functions, polynomial functions

and exponential functions as well as logarithmic functions in their domain.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Explain the different types of functions. Define a relation?
Under what conditions would a “relation” not served as a function?

3.3.1 Solving Numerical Problems on Continuity of Functions

Numerical Example 1:
Consider the function
x−9
g ( x) =
x 2 − 81
Determine whether or not the function is continuous (a) @ x =9, (b) @ x = 8.

Solution:
Applying the above conditions for continuity, we have as follows:
(a) @ x = 9,

9−9 0
g (9) = = . Thus, g(x) does not exist.
9 − 81 0
2

 x−9 
im 2 
x →9 x − 81
 
 x−9 
= im 
x →9
 ( x + 9)( x − 9) 
 x−9
= im 
x →9 x + 9
 
1 1
= =
9 + 9 18
 x−9 
g ( x) @ x = 9  im  2 
x →9 x − 81
 
1
i.e. 0 
18

In sum, g(x) does not exist, and limx→b g(x) = g(9)

Thus, the function is not continuous at x= 9.

42 | P a g e
 (b) @ x = 8
8−9 1
g (8) = = . This indicates that g (x) exists @x=8
8 − 81 17
2

 x−9  8−9 1
im =  2 = 2 =
x →8
 x − 81  8 − 81 17

 x −9 
g ( x) @ x = 8 = im =  2 
x →8
 x − 81 

Accordingly, the function is continuous at x= 8.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe the relationship between an explicit and an implicit function.

4.0 CONCLUSION
Operationally, a function is characterized in such a way that an input produces a corresponding
output. This brings into focus the concept of ordered pair. The intuition is that a function is a rule
that defines a relationship between dependent and independent variables. By swapping the
dependent and independent variables in a given function, one obtains an inverse function and this
in turn changes the roles of the variables in question.Functions are ever-present in mathematical
analysis because they are essential for formulatinginteractions in the social and physical
sciences.Non-algebraic functions, such as exponential and trigonometric functions, are
transcendental functions.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed meaning of function, types of functions as well as continuity of
functions and also we solved some numerical problems on continuity of functions.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss with relevant equations, the relationship between function and ordered pairs
2. What are the differences between functions of two or more independent variables?
3. Using a pictographic analogy, distinguish between a relationship and a function
4. Is the following function continuous at the indicated points

d 2 + 18d + 2
f (d ) = @ d = 2,6
d − 14
5. Are the following functions continuous at the indicated point?

43 | P a g e
 g (d ) = 28d 2 − 10d + 9 @ d = 9
d −8
g (d ) = @ d =0
d 2 − 64
6. Are the following functions continuous at the indicated point
d 2 − 2d − 24
g (d ) = @ d =4
d −6
d 2 + 6d + 12
g (d ) = @ d =8
d −6

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Anton, H. (1995). Calculus with Analytic Geometry (5th ed.), John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Begg, D., Fischer, S., & Dornbusch, R. (2000). Economics (6th ed.), McGraw-Hill.
Conn, A. R.; Scheinberg, K.; Vicente, L. N. (2009). Introduction to Derivative-Free
Optimization. MPS-SIAM Book Series on Optimization. Philadelphia: SIAM.
Hoy, M., Livernois, J., McKenna, C., Rees, R., & Stengos, T. (2001) Mathematics for
Economics, (2nd ed.), MIT Press.
Mankiw, N. G. (2001). Principles of Economics, (2nd ed.), Harcourt College Publishers.
McClave, J. T., Benson, P. G., & Sincich, T. (1998). A First Course in Business Statistics (7th
ed.) Prentice Hall.
Sydsaeter, K. & Hammond, P. J. (2008) Essential Mathematics for Economic Analysis, 3rd
edition, FT Prentice Hall.

44 | P a g e
UNIT 4: EQUILIBRIUM ANALYSIS IN ECONOMICS

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Equilibrium in Economics
3.2 Types of Equilibrium in Economics
3.2.1 Partial Equilibrium Analysis
3.2.3 General Equilibrium Analysis
3.3 Importance of Equilibrium in Economic Analysis

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit focuses on concept of equilibrium in economics, partial equilibrium analysis, general
equilibrium analysis and importance of equilibrium in economic analysis.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After successful study of this unit, students should be able to do the following:
• Explain the meaning of equilibrium in economics
• Discuss the types of equilibrium in economics
• Explain why equilibrium is important in economic analysis

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Equilibrium in Economics
Economic equilibrium is a state in which economic forces are balanced such that economic
variables remain unchanged from their stability values in the absence of external stimuli.
Economic equilibrium is also known as market equilibrium. The point of equilibrium represents
a theoretical state of stability where all economic transactions that ought to take place with
respect to the initial state of all relevant economic variables have taken place.

3.2 Types of Equilibrium in Economics

3.2.1 Partial Equilibrium/Marshallian Analysis: This is the type of equilibrium analysis that
determinesthe price of one good with the assumption that prices of all other goods remain
constant. A good example of Partial Equilibrium is Marshallian theory of demand and supply.

45 | P a g e
3.2.3 General Equilibrium/Walrasian equilibrium Analysis: This is Walrasian (Léon Walras,
1874) type of equilibrium analysiswhere determination of price of a good is considered within
the context of several interacting markets. In effect, general equilibrium analyzes numerous
markets in the quest of ascertaining interaction of demand and supply in an all-inclusive
equilibrium.

For an economy to be in general equilibriumevery consumers, every firm, every industry and
every factor-service are in equilibrium simultaneously and they are interlinked through
commodity and factor prices. Therefore, general equilibrium exists when all prices are stable;
every consumer spends income in a manner that yields the maximum utility; every firms in every
industry is in equilibrium at all prices and output while demand and supply for productive
resources are synchronized.

Table 1: Difference between Partial and General Equilibrium

General Equilibrium Partial Equilibrium
General equilibrium theory analyzes many Partial equilibrium theory only analyzes
markets. single markets.
Analyzes more than one variable Analyzes single variable
All markets are cleared at a given price level Only one market is cleared at a given price
in both product and factor markets level.
There is an effect on other sectors due to Other sectors of economy are not affected due
change in one sector. to change in one sector.
Different sectors of the economy are jointly Based on assumption of Ceteris Paribus.
interdependent.
Prices of goods are determined With Ceteris Paribus assumption, price of a
simultaneously and mutually. good is determined.

Stable Equilibrium and Unstable equilibrium should be considered as well

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Differentiate between partial and general equilibrium analysis

3.3 Importance of Equilibrium Analysis in Economic Analysis

(a) Useful in explaining functions of price system in the economy
(b) Useful in providing basis for the input-output analysis
(c) Useful for analyzing problems of the market together with the working of the economic
system
(d) It provides basis for evaluating determinants of the patterns of the economy

46 | P a g e
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Describe in your own words role of equilibrium in economic analysis

4.0 CONCLUSION
Economic equilibrium is a fundamentally theoretical construct that may never actually occur in
an economy because the conditions underlying demand and supply are often dynamic and
uncertain. Consequently, given that the state of all relevant economic variables changes
constantly, it would be difficult for any economy to actually reach economic equilibrium in
practice.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to discuss the concept of equilibrium in economics, types of
equilibrium in economics as well as the importance of equilibrium in economic analysis.

6.0 TUTORED MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

1. Briefly give an overview equilibrium analysis in economics.
2. In what ways is partial equilibrium analysis different from general equilibrium analysis?
3. Describe the rationale for equilibrium analysis in economics

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Black, Fischer (1995). Exploring General Equilibrium. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Eaton, B. Curtis; Eaton, Diane F.; & Allen, Douglas W. (2009). "Competitive General
Equilibrium". Microeconomics: Theory with Applications (7th ed.). Toronto: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Kubler, Felix (2008). "Computation of General Equilibria: New developments". The New
Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (2nd ed.).
McKenzie, Lionel W. (1981). "The Classical Theorem on Existence of Competitive Equilibrium"
(PDF). Econometrica 49 (4): 819 - 841.
McKenzie, Lionel W. (1983). "Turnpike Theory, Discounted Utility, and the von Neumann
Facet". Journal of Economic Theory 30 (2): 330 - 352.
McKenzie, Lionel W. (1987). "General equilibrium". The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of
Economics. 2. pp. 498 - 512.
McKenzie, Lionel W. (1999). "Equilibrium, Trade, and Capital Accumulation". Japanese
Economic Review 50 (4): 371–397.
Robert W. Clower & Peter W. Howitt (1996). "Taking Markets Seriously: Groundwork for a
Post-Walrasian Macroeconomics", in David Colander, ed., Beyond Microfoundations, pp.
21–37.
Robert W. Clower (1993). "Nonclearing Markets: Microeconomic Concepts and
Macroeconomic Applications," Journal of Economic Literature 31(2), pp. 732 - 761.

47 | P a g e
Robert W. Clower (2008). "Non-clearing markets in general equilibrium," in The New Palgrave
Dictionary of Economics, (2nd ed.).
Scarf, Herbert E. (2008). "Computation of General Equilibria". The New Palgrave Dictionary of
Economics (2nd ed.).

48 | P a g e
MODULE 2: MATRIX ALGEBRA, SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS AND MATRIX
APPLICATION TO ECONOMICS: INPUT-OUTPUT ANALYSIS
UNIT 1 Matrix-Algebra
UNIT 2 System of Linear Equations and Cramer’s Rule
UNIT 3 System of Linear Equations and Matrix Inversion
UNIT 4: Matrix Application to Economics: Input-Output Analysis

UNIT 1: MATRIX-ALGEBRA

CONTENTS
1.0. Introduction
2.0. Objectives
3.0. Main Content
3.1 The Meaning of Matrix and Size of Matrix
3.2 Matrix Representation of System of Linear Equations
3.3 Minors of a Matrix
3.4 Cofactors of a Matrix
3.5 Adjoint of a Matrix
3.6 Basic Operations with Matrix

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0. Tutor-Marked Assignment
6.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be discussing the meaning of matrix as well as the size of matrix, matrix
representation of system of linear equations, minor, cofactors and the adjoint of a matrix as well
as thebasic operations with matrix.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After a successful study of this unit, students would be able to do the following:
• Understand the meaning of a matrix
• Demonstrate an understanding of what the size of a matrix is all about
• Represent a system of linear equations in matrix format
• Obtain the minors of a matrix and be able to calculate the cofactors and adjoint of a
matrix
• Carry out basic operations with matrix.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

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3.1 Meaning of Matrix and Size of Matrix:A matrix is a quadrangular collection of numbers,
parametersor constants for which mathematical summations and multiplications are performed.
In particular therefore, a matrix is a set of figures arranged in rows and columns so as to form a
rectangular array. The numbers are called the elements, or entries, of the matrix. In an (h × g)
matrix, the h rows are horizontal and the g columns are vertical. Each element of a matrix is
often symbolized by a variable with two subscripts. For example, z2,1 represents the element at
the second row and first column of the matrix.

The matrix size is determined by the number of rows and columns therein. A matrix with m rows
and n columns is called an (m × n) which reads, “m-by-n” matrix, with m and n called
dimensions of the matrix.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Define a matrix. What do you understand as the size of a matrix?

3.2 Matrix Representation of System of Linear Equations: A system of linear n-equations can
be symbolized in matrix form using a coefficient matrix, a variable matrix, and a constant matrix.
The standard matrix representation of a system of linear equations is given thus:
Az = B
Where A is the coefficient matrix,
z is the column vector of unknown variables,
B is the column vector of constant,
Consider the system of two equations in two variables,
6 w + 12 y = 32
5w − 3 y = −6
The simultaneous system can be represented in matrix format as follows:
 6 12  w   32 
   =  
15 − 3  y   − 6 
 6 12   w  32 
A =   , z =   , B =  
15 − 3   y  − 6
In a similar way, for a system of three equations in three variables,
3w + 6 y + 9 x = 15
6 w + 12 y + 15x = 12
9 w + 15 y + 18x = 21

Now, the simultaneous system can be represented in matrix format as follows:

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 3 6 9  w   15 
    
 6 12 15  y  = 12 
 9 15 18  x   21
    
3 6 9   w 15 
     
A =  6 12 15 , z =  y, B = 12 
 9 15 18  x  21
     

Types of Matrices: There are different types of matrices. The common types include the
Row and Column Vectors: A row matrix is a matrix with one row and it is a (1 by n) matrix.
This is given below:
7 4 5
A column vector is a matrix with one column and it is denoted by (n by 1) matrix. Thi is given
below:
2
6 
 
9 
Square matrix: A square matrix is a matrix with the similar number of rows and columns.
Hence, it is popularly referred to as an n by n matrix of order n. Any two square matrices of the
matching order can be added and multiplied.
11 12 13
21 22 23
31 32 33
Diagonal Matrix: The diagonal matrix is the type of matrix in which all entries outside the main
diagonal are zero. An example is given below:
a 0 0
0 d 0
0 0 b
Upper Diagonal Matrix: The Upper diagonal matrix is the type in whichall entries of the matrix
below the main diagonal are zero. An example is given below:
a c f
0 d h
0 0 b
Lower Diagonal Matrix: The lower diagonal matrix is the type in which all entries of the matrix
above the main diagonal are zero. An example is given below:

51 | P a g e
 a 0 0
c d 0
f e b
Identity Matrix: The identity matrix is the n by n matrix in which all the elements along the
principal diagonal are equal to 1 and all other elements are equal to 0. This is an example:
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
3.3. Minors of a Matrix: The minor of a matrix A is the determinant of some minor square
matrix, taken out from the original matrix by removing one or more of its rows and columns.
Minors obtained by removing just one row and one column from square matrices (first minors)
are required for calculating matrix cofactors, which in turn are useful for computing both the
determinant and inverse of square matrices.
Let the matrix A be given by:

a d e
A= b c f
g w h
The Matrix of Minors is generated thus: For each element of the matrix, ignore the values on the
current row and column, calculate the determinant of the remaining values and obtain the
"Matrix of Minors".

 c f b f b c 
 
 wh g h g w
 d e a e a d 
Matrix of Minors =  
 wh g h g w 
 
 d e a e a d 
 c f b f b c 

3.4. Cofactors of a Matrix

A cofactor is the number obtained following the remove of the column and row of a chosen
element in a matrix.The cofactors feature prominently in Laplace's formula for the expansion of
determinants, which is a method of computing higher determinants in terms of lesser
determinants.

52 | P a g e
In effect therefore, the cofactor matrix of A is the n × n matrix C whose (i, j) entry is the (i, j)
cofactor of A, which is the (i, j)-minor times a sign factor as shown below:

+ − + 
Sign Matrix  − + − 
 
 + − + 

 ( + ) C11 (−)C12 ( + )C13 

T

 
Cij   ( − ) C21 (+ )C22 (−)C23 
 + C (−)C ( + )C 
 ( ) 31 32 33 

i+ j
Algebraically, accepting the definition that Ci j = (−1) Sij it thus implies that both the cofactor
expansion along the j thand the ithcolumns respectively are given by:
A = 1 j C1 j + 2 j C2 j + 3 j C3 j + 4 j C4 j + ...
+ nj Cnj =  j =1ij Cij =  j =1ij (−1)i + j Sij
n n

A = i1Ci1 + i 2Ci 2 + i 3Ci 3 + i 4Ci 4 + ...

+ inCin =  j =1ij Cij =  j =1ij (−1)i + j Sij
n n

Given an n × n matrix A = (ij ) , then A equals the sum of the cofactors of any row or column of
the matrix multiplied by the entries that generated them.

The Matrix of Minors is turned into the Matrix of cofactors by applying the checker sign matrix
of minuses/pluses to the "Matrix of Minors". In other words, we need to change the sign of every
element of the Matrix of Minor by multiplying the Matrix of Minors by each minus and plus
element in the sign matrix below:
+ − + 
Sign Matrix  − + − 
 
 + − + 

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  c f b f b c 
( + ) ( −) (+) 
 wh g h g w 
 d e a e a d 
Matrix of Cofactors = ( − )
 (+ ) ( −) 
 w h g h g w 
 
 (+) d e a e a d 
( −) (+)
 c f b f b c 

3.5 Adjoint of a Matrix: The adjoint also called the adjugate, is the transpose of its cofactor
matrix. In effect, the "adjoint" of a matrix denotes the equivalent adjoint operator, which is its
conjugate transpose. Thus, for the matrix A, the adjoint is given by:

 ( + ) C11 (−)C12 (+)C13 

T

 
Adj ( A) =  ( − ) C21 (+)C22 (−)C23 
 + C 
 ( ) 31 (−)C32 (+)C33 
Adj ( A) = C T = [(−1)i + j Sij ](1i , j  n )
i+ j
Where C is the cofactor matrix of A, that is, C = [(−1) Sij ](1i , j n )
S ij is the (i,j) minor of matrix A, and it is the determinant of the (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix
that results from deleting row i and column j of A.

Consequently, defining the adjoint of matrix A such that the product of A with its adjugate yields
a diagonal matrix whose diagonal entries are the determinant det(A), we then have:
Aadj ( A) = adj ( A) A  A I
where I is the n×n identity matrix.

Given that matrix A is invertible provided the determinant of A is invertible, it then implies that:
adj ( A) = A A−1

3.2. Basic Operations with Matrix

The basic operations that can be carried out with matrices include matrix addition, scalar
multiplication, transposition, matrix multiplication, and sub-matrix.

Matrix Addition: The sum A+B of two m-by-n matrices A and B is calculated entry wise:

54 | P a g e
 1 6 9  0 7 9 
 
A =  4 2 8  , B = 3 1 2 
3 5 7  5 4 6 

1 + 0 6 + 7 9 + 9  1 13 18 
A + B =  4 + 3 2 + 1 8 + 2  = 7 3 10 
3 + 5 5 + 4 7 + 6  8 9 13

Scalar Multiplication:Scalar multiplication of kA where k is a constant and A is an (n by n )

matrix is calculate by multiplying every entry of A by k.Thus, (kA)i,j = k · Ai,j. This is shown
below:

 −3 4 8
A =  4 10 7  ,
5 − 9 2 

 −12 16 32 
4 A =  16 40 21
 20 36 8 

Multiplication of two matrices is defined if and only if the number of columns of the left matrix
is the same as the number of rows of the right matrix. If A is an m-by-n matrix and B is an n-by-
g matrix, then their matrix product AB is the m-by-g matrix whose entries are given by product
of the corresponding row of A and the corresponding column of B:

3 4 5 1 0 2
A = 1 0 6  , B = 0
 3 5 
5 1 2   2 −4 0 

3(1) + 4(0) + 5(2) 3(0) + 4(3) + 5( −4) 3(2) + 4(5) + 5(0) 

AB = 1(1) + 0(0) + 6(2) 1(0) + 0(3) + 6(−4) 1(2) + 0(5) + 6(0) 
5(1) + 1(0) + 2(2) 5(0) + 1(3) + 2(−4) 5(2) + 1(5) + 2(0) 

13 3 15
= 13 − 24 2 

9 − 5 15 

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Matrix Transposition: The transpose of a matrix is the carried out by turning columns into rows
and rows into columns. For an m-by-n matrix A, the transposition is simply the n-by-m matrix
symbolized by AT.
6 10 7 
A=
2 
,
5 −4

6 5 
A = 10
T
− 4 
7 2 

Submatrix Operation: The submatrix operation of a matrix is obtained by cancelling any

collection of rows and columns. For example, from the subsequent 3-by-4 matrix, we can
construct a 2-by-3 submatrix by removing row 3 and column 2:
0 4 8 1

A =  4 − 5 7 4  ,
 2 − 9 2 6 

4 −5 7

2 −9 2 

0 8 1

4 7 4 

0 4 8 

4 −5 7 

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe the following: matrix addition, scalar multiplication, transposition, matrix
multiplication, and sub-matrix.

4.0 CONCLUSION
Matrices have wide ranging applications in economics. We have different types of matrix, and
these matrices all play significant roles in matrix application.The different types of row
operations which include addition, subtraction and the interchange of two rows of a matrix all
jointly play significant roles including finding solutions to linear equations and evaluating matrix
inverses.

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5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussedconcept of matrix and size of matrix, evaluated basic operations
with matrices.

7.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Add up the following matrices

9 6 8  0 7 − 4 
A=  ,B =  
3 5 7  3 1 2 

2 6 9  6 7 9 
C =  4 7 8  , D = 3 1 2 
3 5 7  5 4 6 
2 Form 3 sub matrices of order 2 by 3 from the following 3 by 4 matrix
12 16 8 11 
A = 14 − 5 27 24  ,
 2 39 0 15 

3. Multiply the following matrices:

19 60 2  0 7 − 4
A = 3 37 20  , B = 3 1 2 
 
1 0 13   4 5 9 

2 6 0  6 8 9 
C =  4 7 3  , D = 3 0 2 
3 0 7   4 1 6 

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

David Poole (2014). Linear Algebra: A Modern Introduction. Cengage Learning. p. 276.
Dowling, E.T. (2001) Schaum's Outline of Introduction to MathematicalEconomics, (3rd ed.),
McGraw Hill.
Gärtner, Bernd; & Matoušek, Jiří (2006). Understanding and Using Linear Programming. Berlin:
Springer.
Gerard Sierksma; & Yori Zwols (2015). Linear and Integer Optimization: Theory and Practice.
CRC Press.

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Hoy, M., Livernois, J., McKenna, C., Rees, R., & Stengos, T. (2001) Mathematics for
Economics, (2nd ed.), MIT Press.
Joe D. Hoffman; Steven Frankel (2001). Numerical Methods for Engineers and Scientists, (2nd
ed.), CRC Press.
Katz, Victor (2004). A History of Mathematics. Pearson Education. pp. 378 - 379.
Renshaw, Geoff (2005). Maths for Economics. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 516 -
526.
Sydsaeter, K. & Hammond, P. J. (2008) Essential Mathematics for Economic Analysis, (3rd ed.),
FT Prentice Hall.
Thomas S. Shores (2007). Applied Linear Algebra and Matrix Analysis. Springer Science &
Business Media.

UNIT 2: SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS AND CRAMER’S RULE

CONTENTS
1.0. Introduction
2.0. Objectives
3.0. Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Cramer’s Rule
3.2 Determinants and the Features of Determinants
3.3 Cramer’s Rule
3.3.1. Cramer’s Rule for Two Variable Matrix
3.3.2. Cramer’s Rule for Three Variable Matrix
3.4 Solving Linear Equations with Cramer’s Rule

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0. Tutor-Marked Assignment
8.0 References/Further Readings

2.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be discussing the meaning of Cramer’s rule, determinants and the features
of determinants, sign rule, Cramer’s rule technique and also solved some linear equations with
Cramer’s rule.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After a successful study of this unit, students would be able to do the following:
• Understand what Cramer’s rule is all about
• Demonstrate the application of Cramer’s rule
• Solve simultaneous equation problems with Cramer’s rule

58 | P a g e
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Meaning of Cramer’s Rule: The Cramer’s rule due to Gabriel Cramer (1704–1752).
Cramer's rule is a mathematical formulae for the finding solution of a system of linear equations
by means of determinants. It expresses the solution in terms of the determinants of the (square)
coefficient matrix and of matrices obtained from it by replacing one column by the column
vector of right-hand-sides of the equations.

Cramer's rule is computationally effectual for finding the solution of a system of two or three
linear equations. In the case of n equations in n unknowns, it requires computation of n + 1
determinants.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What do you understand by Cramer’s rule?

3.2 Determinants and the Features of Determinants: Thedeterminant is a scalar value that can
be computed from the elements of a square matrix and translates properties of the linear
transformation described by the matrix. The determinant of a matrix W is denoted det(W), or
|W|. Mathematically, it is the volume scaling factor of the linear transformation defined by the
matrix such that we obtained a positive determinant or a negative determinant depending on
whether or not the linear mapping preserves or reverses the orientation of n-space.

The features of determinants are hereby summarized as follows:

1. Determinant of a matrix in upper triangular arrangement is equal to the product of entries
along the main diagonal.
2. The interchange of two rows leaves the matrix determinant to change sign.
3. Determinant would be equal to zero when two rows are the same or two columns are the
same.
4. Determinant of a matrix whose row or column has zero values is equal to zero.
5. The determinant of an inverse matrix A−1 is the reciprocal of the determinant of the
matrix, A.
6. Multiplying a column or a row of a matrix by a constant increases the determinant by
same constant.

Considering a 2 × 2 matrix, the determinant may be computed as:

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  30 0 
A= 
 12 −3 
30 0
A= = 30(−3) − 0(12) = −90
12 −3

Correspondingly, for a 3 × 3 matrix A, the determinant is calculated thus:

3 0 4

A =  6 −3 7 
5 2 1

3 0 4
−3 7 6 7 6 −3
A = 6 −3 7 = 3 −0 +4
2 1 5 1 5 2
5 2 1
= −3[−3(1) − 2(7)] − 0 + 4[2(6) − 5(−3)]
= −51 + 108
= 57
In the above evaluation of determinant, we have the Laplace formula given by:

3 0 4
−3 7 6 7 6 −3
A = 6 −3 7 = 3 −0 +4
2 1 5 1 5 2
5 2 1

Likewise manner, we have the Leibniz formula for the determinant given by:

3 0 4
A = 6 −3 7 = −3[−3(1) − 2(7)] − 0 + 4[2(6) − 5(−3)]
5 2 1
Higher determinants are evaluated following a stepwise procedure, expanding them into sums of
terms, each the product of a coefficient and a smaller determinant. Any row or column of the
matrix is selected, each of its elements arc is multiplied by the factor (−1)r + c and by the smaller
determinant formed by deleting the ith row and jth column from the original array. Each of these
products is expanded in the same way until the small determinants can be evaluated by checkup.
At each stage, the process is facilitated by choosing the row or column containing the most zeros.

3.4 Cramer’s Rule: Cramer’s rule was invented by Gabriel Cramer (1704 – 1752). In linear
algebra, Cramer's rule is an explicit formula for obtaining a unique solution of a system of linear
equations by expressing the solution in terms of the determinants of the coefficient matrix and of
matrices obtained from it by replacing one column by the column vector of right-hand-sides of

60 | P a g e
the equations. Given the system of n linear equations for n unknowns, represented in matrix form
as follows:
Az = B
A is (n × n) coefficient matrix with a non-zero determinant, z is the vector of variables and B is
the column vector of the variables. The Cramer’s rule is thus given by:

zi = det( Ai )
det( A)
where i = 1, 2, 3,..., n , Ai is the matrix formed by replacing the ith column of coefficient matrix A
by the column vector B.

3.3.1. Cramer’s Rule for Two Variable Matrix: Given a systems of Linear Equations with
Two Variables as shown below:

x+  y =b
 x + y = d
   x   b 
  =
    y   d 

Thus, we obtain the coefficient, x and y matrices as follows:

 
coefficient matrix, A =  
 
b 
x matrix, Dx =  
d  
 b
y matrix, D y =  
 d 


Finding the solution for variable x, we have it as follows:

b 
 
Dx  d  
x= =
A  
 
 
Finding the solution for variable y, we have it as follows:

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  b
 
Dy   d 
y= =
A  
 
 
Observe that both denominators in finding the solutions of x and y are the same. They emanates
from the columns of x and y respectively.

3.3.2. Cramer’s Rule for Three Variable Matrix: Given a systems of Linear Equations with
three Variables as shown below:

 x +  y + z = b
 x +  y + z = d
 x + y + z = c
In matrix notation, we have it as:
    x   b 
 
     y  =  d 

     z   c 

Thus, we obtain the coefficient, x and y matrices as follows:

  
 
coefficient matrix, A =    
   

b  
 
x matrix, Dx =  d   
c   

 b 
 
y matrix, D y =   d 
 c  


  b
 
z matrix, Dz =    d
  c 

Finding the solution for variable x, we have it as follows:

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 b  
 
d   
   
Dx  c
x= =
A   
 
  
   

Finding the solution for variable y, we have it as follows:

 b 
 
 d 
Dy Dy  c  
y= = y= =
A A   
 
  
   

Finding the solution for variable z, we have it as follows:

  b
 
  d
 
Dz Dz   c 
z= =z= =
A A   
 
  
   

From the above procedures, observe the following:
i. Both denominators in finding the solutions of x, yand z are the same. They
emanates from the columns of x, yand z respectively.

ii. The numerator in finding the solution for x is such that the coefficients of x-
column are replaced by the constant column
iii. Also, the numerator in finding the solution for y is such that the coefficients of
y-column are replaced by the constant column

3.5. Solving Linear Equations with Cramer’s Rule: Consider our system of two equations in
two variables above,

63 | P a g e
 6 12  w   32 
   =  
15 − 3  y   − 6 
The column vector of unknown, w and y can be calculated using Cramer's rule as:

32 12 6 32
−6 −3 15 −6
w= , y=
6 12 6 12
15 − 3 15 − 3
Evaluating the determinants for w and y respectively, we have it as follows:

32 12
−6 − 3 32(−3) − 12(−6) −24
w= = = = 0.12
6 12 6(−3) − 12(15) −198
15 − 3
6 32
15 − 6 6(−6) − 32(15) −516
y= = = = 2.6
6 12 6(−3) − 12(15) −198
15 − 3
Consider our system of three equations in three variables above,
 3 6 9  w   15 
    
 6 12 15  y  = 12 
 9 15 18  x   21
    
The column vector of unknown, w, y and e can be calculated using Cramer's rule as:
15 6 9 3 15 9 3 6 15
12 12 15 6 12 15 6 12 12
21 15 18 9 21 18 9 15 21
w= , y= , x=
3 6 9 3 6 9 3 6 9
6 12 15 6 12 15 6 12 15
9 15 18 9 15 18 9 15 18

Numerical Example 3: Solve the system of equations using Cramer’s Rule.

36w + 9 y = 45
6w − 9 y = 39
Solution to Numerical Example 3: Representing the simultaneous system in matrix format, we
have as follows:

64 | P a g e
 36 9   w 45
   = 
6 − 9  y  39
36 9
= −324 − 54
6 −9
= −378
45 9
39 −9
w=
36 9
6 −9
= −405 − 351
= −756
−756
w=
−378
=2

36 45
6 39
y=
36 9
6 −9
= 1404 − 270
= 1134

1134
y=
−378
= −3
Numerical Example 4: Find the solution to the following system of equations using Cramer’s
Rule.
3w + 3 y − 3a = 18
9w − 6 y + 3a = −15
3w + 9 y − 6a = 42
Solution to Numerical Example 4: Representing the simultaneous system in matrix format, we
have as follows:

65 | P a g e
 3 3 − 3  w 18 
    
9 − 6 3   y  =  −15
3 9 − 6   a   42 
    
3 3 −3
−6 3 9 3 9 −6
9 −6 3 =3 −3 −3
9 −6 3 −6 3 9
3 9 −6
= 3(9) − 3(−63) − 3(99)
= 27 + 189 − 297
= −81
18 3 −3
−6 3 −15 3 −15 − 6
Dw = −15 − 6 3 = 18 −3 −3
9 −6 42 − 6 42 9
42 9 −6
= 18(9) − 3(−36) − 3(117)
= 162 + 108 − 351
= −81

18 3 3
15 6 3
42 9 6
w=
3 3 3
9 6 3
3 9 6

−81
w=
−81
=1
3 18 − 3
−15 3 9 3 9 − 15
Dy = 9 −15 3 =3 − 18 −3
42 − 6 3 −6 3 42
3 42 − 6
= 3(−36) − 18(−63) − 3(423)
= −108 + 1134 − 1269
= −243

66 | P a g e
 3 18 − 3
9 − 15 3
3 42 − 6
y=
3 3 −3
9 −6 3
3 9 −6
−243
y=
−81
=3
3 3 18
−6 − 15 9 − 15 9 −6
Da = 9 − 6 − 15 = 3 −3 + 18
9 42 3 42 3 9
3 9 42
= 3(−117) − 3(423) + 18(99)
= −351 − 1269 + 1782
= 162
3 3 18
9 −6 − 15
3 9 42
a=
3 3 3
9 6 3
3 9 6

162
a=
−81
= −2
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Describe the relationship between Cramer’s rule and matrix inversion.

4.0 CONCLUSION
Determinants can be used to solve system of linear equations, however, there are other methods
for finding solution of linear equations. In linear algebra, a singular matrix is not invertible
because determinant is zero. In that case, determinants can be used to typify the polynomial of a
matrix, whose roots are the eigenvalues.

67 | P a g e
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed concept of Cramer’s rule, determinants and the features of
determinants, sign rule, Cramer’s rule technique and also solved some linear equations with
Cramer’s rule.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Solve algebraically the following system of equations
64 x − 4 y − 4 z + 48 = 0
−4 x + 96 y − 4 z + 32 = 0
168 x − 4 y − 4 z − 64 = 0
(a) Using Cramer’s rule

2. Solve algebraically the following system of equations

24s − 36 f + 48 z + 144 = 0
−48s + 12 f − 12 z + 84 = 0
−36s − 12 f + 12 z = 0
(a) Using Cramer’s rule

3. Solve the following sets of simultaneous equations

135z1 +27 z 2 = 324
81z1 + 54z 2 = 135

75z1 +90 z 2 = -50

30z1 + 120z 2 = 200

(a) Using Cramer’s rule

4. Consider the data below on inflation (X1), money demand (X2) and Income (Y).

Z 10 14 2 2 5 3 8
D1 12 12 16 5 1 2 5
D2 24 22 25 6 8 5 7

(a) Formulate the basic model for money demand in matrix format.
(b) Calculate the solution using matrix cramer’s rule.

68 | P a g e
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Alexander Schrijver (1998). Theory of Linear and Integer Programming. John Wiley & Sons.
Dowling, E.T. (2001) Schaum's Outline of Introduction to Mathematical Economics, (3rd ed.),
McGraw Hill. Springer.
Gerard Sierksma; & Yori Zwols (2015). Linear and Integer Optimization: Theory and Practice.
CRC Press.
Hedman, Bruce A. (1999). "An Earlier Date for "Cramer's Rule"" (PDF). Historia Mathematica,
26 (4): 365 - 368.
Hoy, M., Livernois, J., McKenna, C., Rees, R., & Stengos, T. (2001) Mathematics for
Economics, (2nd ed.), MIT Press.
Joe D. Hoffman; Steven Frankel (2001). Numerical Methods for Engineers and Scientists, (2nd
ed.), CRC Press.
Katz, Victor (2004). A History of Mathematics. Pearson Education. pp. 378 - 379.
Ken Habgood; & Itamar Arel (2012). "A Condensation-based Application of Cramerʼs Rule for
Solving Large-Scale Linear Systems" (PDF). Journal of Discrete Algorithms.
Kosinski, A. A. (2001). "Cramer's Rule is due to Cramer". Mathematics Magazine. 74: 310 -
312.
McClave, J. T., Benson, P. G., & Sincich, T. (1998). A First Course in Business Statistics (7th
ed.) Prentice Hall.
Renshaw, Geoff (2005). Maths for Economics. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 516 -
526.
Robinson, Stephen M. (1970). "A Short Proof of Cramer's Rule". Mathematics Magazine 43: 94
- 95.
Sydsaeter, K. & Hammond, P. J. (2008) Essential Mathematics for Economic Analysis, (3rd ed.),
FT Prentice Hall.
Zhiming Gong; M. Aldeen; & Elsner L. (2002). "A Note on a Generalized Cramer's Rule".
Linear Algebra and Its Applications, 340: 253 - 254.

69 | P a g e
UNIT 3: SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS AND MATRIX INVERSION

CONTENTS
1.0. Introduction
2.0. Objectives
3.0. Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Matrix Inversion
3.2. Invertible Matrix Theorem
3.3. Properties of Invertible Matrix
3.4 Matrix Inversion Technique
3.4.1. Matrix Inversion Technique for Two Variable Matrix
3.4.2. Matrix Inversion Technique for Three Variable Matrix
3.5 Solving Linear Equations with Matrix Algebra

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0. Tutor-Marked Assignment
9.0 References/Further Readings

3.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be discussing the meaning of matrix as well as the size of matrix, matrix
representation of system of linear equations, system of linear equations and matrix inversion,
system of linear equations and Cramer’s rule and also we shall solve some numerical problems
on matrix algebra.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After a successful study of this unit, students would be able to do the following:
• Understand what matrix inversion is all about
• Carry out matrix inversion
• Solve simultaneous equation problems with matrix inversion

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Matrix Inversion:
Matrix inversion is the process of finding a unique solution to a system of linear equations with
unknown variables. Thus, the inverse of a matrix is the transpose of the cofactor matrix
multiplied by the reciprocal of the determinant of the matrix. A square matrix that is not
invertible is called singular or degenerate matrix. A square matrix is singular once its
determinant is zero.

3.2. Invertible Matrix Theorem

70 | P a g e
Let A be a square n by n matrix over a field R of real numbers, it thus holds that:
i. A is invertible. This implies that A has an inverse, it is nonsingular and as such it is
non-degenerate.
ii. The columns of A are linearly independent.
iii. The columns of A span Kn, thus, Col A = Kn.
iv. The transpose AT is an invertible matrix (hence rows of A are linearly independent,
span Kn, and form a basis of Kn).
v. The number 0 is not an eigenvalue of A.
vi. The matrix A is mathematically describable as a finite product of elementary
matrices.
vii. The columns of A form a basis of Kn.
viii. The linear transformation mapping z to Az is a bijection from Kn to Kn.
ix. There is an n-by-n matrix B such that AB = In = BA.
x. A is row-equivalent to the n-by-n identity matrix In.
xi. A is column-equivalent to the n-by-n identity matrix In.
xii. A has n pivot positions.
xiii. Determinant of A ≠ 0. In general, a square matrix over a commutative ring is
invertible if and only if its determinant is a unit in that ring.
xiv. A has full rank.
xv. The equation Az = 0 has only the trivial solution z = 0.
xvi. The kernel of A is trivial, that is, it contains only the null vector as an element, ker(A)
= {0}.
xvii. The equation Az = d has exactly one solution for each d in Kn.
xviii. The matrix A exhibit a left inverse for which there exists a B such that BA = I.
xix. The matrix A exhibit a right inverse for which there exists a C such that AC = I.
xx. Both left and right inverses exist and B = C = A−1.
(Source: Wikipedia)

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

How would you describe the invertible theorem of matrix?

3.3. Properties of Invertible Matrix: Furthermore, the following properties hold for an
invertible matrix A:
a d e
Given the matrix, A = b c f
g w h
i. ( A−1 ) −1 = A
ii. ( AT )−1 = ( A−1 )T
−1
iii. A−1 = A

71 | P a g e
 iv. For nonzero scalar k; (kA) −1 = k −1 A−1
v. For any invertible n-by-n matrices A and B, ( AB) −1 = A−1 B −1
1
vi. If A is an (n by n) invertible matrix, then ( A) −1 = Adj ( A)
A
vii. Following the associativity of matrix multiplication for finite square matrices, A and
B, then, AB = I BA = I
viii. If A has orthonormal columns, where + denotes Moore-Penrose inverse and z is a
vector; then, ( Az ) + = z + A−1
ix. The rows of the inverse matrix B of a matrix A are orthonormal to the columns of A
and vice versa interchanging rows for columns.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe 3 properties of an invertible matrix

3.4 Matrix Inversion Technique: A system of linear n-equations can be symbolized in matrix
form using a coefficient matrix, a variable matrix, and a constant matrix. The standard matrix
representation of a system of linear equations is given thus:
Az = B (1)
Where A is the coefficient matrix,
z is the column vector of unknown variables,
B is the column vector of constant,

Considering the existence of the inverse of A, we multiply both sides of equation (1) by it to
obtain:
A−1 ( Az ) = A−1 ( B )
whereas, A−1 ( A) = I ,
Iz = A−1 ( B )
Iz = z
Thus,
z= A−1 B ( B )
Adjoint ( A)
A−1 =
A

3.4.1. Matrix Inversion Technique for Two Variable Matrix: The two variable matrix is
given by:

72 | P a g e
 a d
b c
The Inverse of a two variable Matrix can be calculated as follows:
Step 1: Generate the Matrix of Minors: This step is to create a "Matrix of Minors". For each
element of the matrix, ignore the values on the current row and column, calculate the
determinant of the remaining values and obtain the "Matrix of Minors".

Step 2: Generate the Matrix of Cofactors: The Matrix of Minors is turned into the Matrix of
cofactors by applying the checker sign matrix of minuses/pluses to the "Matrix of Minors". In
other words, we need to change the sign of every element of the Matrix of Minor by multiplying
the Matrix of Minors by each minus and plus element in the sign matrix below:
+ − 
Sign Matrix  
− + 
a d (+) c ( −) b
Matrix of Cofactors = AT =
b c ( −) d (+) a
Step 3: Calculate the Adjoint: This entails a transpose all elements of the matrix of cofactors, that
is, swapping theposition of each of the element in the Matrix of cofactors over the diagonal while
the diagonal remains unchanged.
a d a b
A= AT =
b c d c
Step 4: Calculate the Determinant of the Coefficient Matrix: This involves a computation of the
determinant of the original matrix.
a d
A= = a (c ) − b ( d )
b c

Step 5: Divide the Adjoint Matrixby Determinant: This entails a division of the adjoint matrix by
the determinant of the original coefficient matrix to obtain the inverse of the matric. In other
words, we multiply the adjoint matrix by the reciprocal of the determinant of the coefficient
matrix to obtain the inverse of the matrix.

3.4.2. Matrix Inversion Technique for Three Variable Matrix:The three variable matrix is
given by:

a d e
b c f
g w h
The Inverse of a three variable Matrix can be calculated as follows:
73 | P a g e
Step 1: Generate the Matrix of Minors: This step is to create a "Matrix of Minors". For each
element of the matrix, ignore the values on the current row and column, calculate the
determinant of the remaining values and obtain the "Matrix of Minors".

Step 2: Generate the Matrix of Cofactors: The Matrix of Minors is turned into the Matrix of
cofactors by applying the checker sign matrix of minuses/pluses to the "Matrix of Minors". In
other words, we need to change the sign of every element of the Matrix of Minor by multiplying
the Matrix of Minors by each minus and plus element in the sign matrix below:
+ − + 
Sign Matrix  − + − 
 
 + − + 
 ( + ) C11 (−)C12 (+)C13 
 
Matrix of Cofactors =  ( − ) C21 (+)C22 (−)C23 
 + C (−)C (+)C 
 ( ) 31 32 33 
Step 3: Calculate the Adjoint: This entails a transpose all elements of the matrix of cofactors, that
is, swapping the position of each of the element in the Matrix of cofactors s over the diagonal
while the diagonal remains unchanged.
a d e a b g
A= b c f A =d c w
T

g w h e f h
Step 4: Calculate the Determinant of the Coefficient Matrix: This involves a computation of the
determinant of the original matrix.

a d e
c f b f b c
A=b c f =a −d +e
w h g h g w
g w h
Step 5: Divide the Adjoint Matrix by Determinant: This entails a division of the adjoint matrix
by the determinant of the original coefficient matrix to obtain the inverse of the matric. In other
words, we multiply the adjoint matrix by the reciprocal of the determinant of the coefficient
matrix to obtain the inverse of the matrix.

74 | P a g e
  ( + ) C11 (−)C12 (+)C13 
T

1  
A−1 =  ( − ) C21 (+)C22 (−)C23 
A 
 ( + ) C31 (−)C32 (+)C33 
1
= CT
A
3.5Solving Linear Equations with Matrix Inversion
Solving system of simultaneous equations in matrix specification necessitates finding the inverse
of the matrix as explained above.

Numerical Example 1: Solve the simultaneous equations

10 z + 20 y = 40
30 z + 50 y = 10
Solution to Numerical Example 1: Representing the simultaneous system in matrix format, we
have as follows:
10 20  z   40
30   =
 50   y  10 
10 20  w  40
A=   , z =  ,B =  
30 50  y 10 
Adj ( A)
A−1 =
A
10 20
where A=
30 50
= 10(50) − 20(30)
= 500 − 600
= −100
+ − + 
Sign Matrix  − + − 
 
 + − + 
50 − 30 
Cofactor MatrixC A = 
 −20 10 

75 | P a g e
 T
50 − 30 50 − 20
Adj A = CTA =  =
     −20 10   −30 10 
Adj ( A) 1 50 − 20 
A−1 = =
A −100  −30 10 

Adj ( A) 1 50 − 20

A−1 = =
A −100  −30 10 
 w  − 0.5 0.2   40
z=  = 
y  0.3 − 0.1  10 

 −18
= 
7 
z = −18,
y=7

Numerical Example 2: Solve the following sets of simultaneous equations using matrix
inversion.
4 y + 2 z + 14 x = 24
6 y + 4 z + 2 x = 16
2 y + 2 z + 8 x = 32
Solution to Numerical Example 2: Representing the simultaneous system in matrix format, we
have as follows:
4 2 14  y   24
6 4  

2   z  = 16 
 2 2 8   x  32 

4 2 14  y  24
 
A = 6 4 
2  Z =  z  , B = 16 
 2 2 8  x  32 
 

76 | P a g e
 Adj ( A)
A−1 =
A
4 2 6 2 6 4
where A =4 −2 + 14
2 8 2 8 2 2
= 4(32 − 4) − 2(48 − 4) + 14(12 − 8)
= 112 − 88 + 56
= 80
 4 2 6 2 6 4 
( + ) ( −) (+) 
 2 8 2 8 2 2 
 2 14 4 14 4 2 
Cofactors =  ( − ) (+) ( −) 
 2 8 2 8 2 2 
 
 (+) 2 14 4 14 4 2 
( −) (+)
 4 2 6 2 6 4 
 28 − 44 4
Cofactor MatrixC A = 12 4 − 4
 
 −52 76 4 
T
 28 − 44 4
Adj A = CTA = 12 4 − 4 
   
 −52 76 4 
 28 12 − 52
 
=  −44 4 76 
 4 −4 4 
 

 28 12 − 52
Adj ( A) 1  
−1
A = =  −44 4 76 
A 80  
 4 −4 4 

77 | P a g e
  y 0.35 0.15 − 0.65  24
Adj ( A)
z =  z  = −1
A =  
=  −0.55 0.05 0.95  16 
 
x 
A  0.05 − 0.05 0.05  32 
   

 −10 
= 18 
 
 2 
y = −10,
z = 18,
x=2
4.0 CONCLUSION
Matrix inversion plays a significant role in physical simulation exercises, multiple-input-output
technologies,as well as in computer graphics, especially in the areas of screen-to-world ray
casting, world-to-subspace-to-world object transformations.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed concept Meaning of Matrix Inversion, treated the concepts of
Cofactors of a Matrix, Minors of a Matrix, Matrix Inversion Technique, and solved some linear
equation problems with matrix inversion.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Solve algebraically the following system of equations
32w − 2d − 2 z = 0
−2w + 48d − 2 z = 0
84 − 2w − 2d = 0
(b) Using Matrix inversion

2. Solve algebraically the following system of equations

12w − 18 f + 24 z + 72 = 0
−24w + 6 f − 6 z + 42 = 0
−18w − 6 f + 6 z = 0
(b) Using Matrix inversion
3. Solve the following sets of simultaneous equations

78 | P a g e
 45z1 +9 z 2 = 108
27z1 + 18z 2 = 45

15z1 +18 z 2 = -10

6z1 + 24z 2 = 40

(a) Using Matrix inversion

4. Consider the system of two equations in two variables,

6 w + 12 y = 32
5w − 3 y = −6
The simultaneous system can be represented in matrix format as follows:
 6 12  w   32 
   =  
15 − 3  y   − 6 
 6 12   w  32 
A =   , z =   , B =  
15 − 3   y  − 6
Find the solution values for the z column vector.

5. Consider the system of three equations in three variables,

3w + 6 y + 9 x = 15
6 w + 12 y + 15x = 12
9 w + 15 y + 18x = 21

Now, the simultaneous system can be represented in matrix format as follows:

 3 6 9  w   15 
    
 6 12 15  y  = 12 
 9 15 18  x   21
    
3 6 9   w 15 
     
A =  6 12 15 z =  y  B = 12 
 9 15 18  x  21
 ,  ,  
Find the solution values for the z column vector.

6. Consider the data below on inflation (X1), money demand (X2) and National Income (Y).

Z 145 146 40 20 52 53 58

79 | P a g e
 D1 110 112 13 15 18 22 25
D2 114 22 20 36 48 56 87

(a) Formulate the basic model for national income in matrix format.
(b) Calculate the solution using matrix inversion.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

David Poole (2014). Linear Algebra: A Modern Introduction. Cengage Learning. p. 276.
Dowling, E.T. (2001) Schaum's Outline of Introduction to Mathematical Economics, (3rd ed.),
McGraw Hill.
Gerard Sierksma; & Yori Zwols (2015). Linear and Integer Optimization: Theory and Practice.
CRC Press.
Hedman, Bruce A. (1999). "An Earlier Date for "Cramer's Rule"" (PDF). Historia Mathematica,
26 (4): 365 - 368.
Hoy, M., Livernois, J., McKenna, C., Rees, R., & Stengos, T. (2001) Mathematics for
Economics, (2nd ed.), MIT Press.
Joe D. Hoffman; Steven Frankel (2001). Numerical Methods for Engineers and Scientists, (2nd
ed.), CRC Press.
McClave, J. T., Benson, P. G., & Sincich, T. (1998). A First Course in Business Statistics (7th
ed.) Prentice Hall.
Nicholas J. Higham (2002). Accuracy and Stability of Numerical Algorithms (2nd ed.), SIAM.
Renshaw, Geoff (2005). Maths for Economics. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 516 -
526.
Sydsaeter, K. & Hammond, P. J. (2008) Essential Mathematics for Economic Analysis, (3rd ed.),
FT Prentice Hall.
Thomas S. Shores (2007). Applied Linear Algebra and Matrix Analysis. Springer Science &
Business Media.
Williams H. P. (2013). Model Building in Mathematical Programming, (5th ed.)

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UNIT 4: MATRIX APPLICATION TO ECONOMICS: INPUT-OUTPUT ANALYSIS

CONTENTS
1.0. Introduction
2.0. Objectives
3.0. Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Input-Output Analysis
3.2 The Input-Output Matrix/Table
3.3 Leontief Model/Matrix
3.4 Usefulness of the Input-Output Table
3.5 Solving Numerical Problems of Input-Output Model

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0. Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0. References/Further Readings

1. 0. INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be discussing the meaning of input-output analysis, input-output
matrix/table, deriving Leontief matrix/model, explaining some of the usefulness of the input-
output table and solving numerical problems of input-output model.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After a successful study of this unit, students should be able to do the following:
• Discuss the meaning of input-output Analysis
• Explain the usefulness of input-output matrix/table
• Solving numerical problems of input-output model base on the Leontief matrix

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Input Output Analysis: An input-output (I-O) model is a numerical economic
model that exemplifies the interrelationships that drives diverse sectors of an economy or diverse
regional economies. This analysis was developed by Wassily Leontief (1906 -1999).An I-O
model is a quantifiable economic model that denotes the interdependencies between different
sectors of country or different regional economies. There is a closed I-O system in which the
output is observedfor purpose of making feedback to the system of production should the case
the output produced is not within specification. For the open model, factor inputs are not
changed to guarantee the level of output each of the industries in an economy produce for there
to be sufficiency to meet total demand for the product.

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3.2. The Input-Output Matrix/Table: The I-O table is an inter-industry matrix in which
column entries typically represent inputs to an industrial sector, while row entries represent
outputs from a given industrial sector. Considerably therefore, each sector is dependent on every
other sector, both as a customer of outputs from other sectors and as a supplier of inputs.

The basic assumptions entail consideration of the fact that we have an economy with:
1. n sectors,
2. Each sector produces z units of a single homogeneous good,
3. jth sector uses aij units from sector i to produce 1 unit,
4. Each sector sells some of its output to other sectors as intermediate output,
5. Each sector sells some of its output to consumers as final demand, di.

In line with the above axioms, we may consider dividing the overall economy into 3 sectors,
namely, services,manufacturing, and power. The analysis is that the three sectors each use inputs
from two sources: Locally made commodities from the three industries as well as other inputs,
such as imports, labour, and capital.

The outputs of the industries serve as intermediate inputs to production of the three industries
and also as final demand measured in terms of consumption, investment, government
expenditure, exports. These are so summarized in the I-O table below.

Table 1: Input-Output Table

Economic Output Final Demand Total Outputs
activities
2 3 . . z
1
2
3
Inputs .
.
z
Value
Added

Considering a Leontief closed economy with two industries, namely agriculture and services.
Each industry would directly needs the use of labour in its manufacturing process, and each
needs in its productive process inputs which are output of the other industry.

This is tabulated in Table 2 below where agriculture and services are the first two entries, and is
given to the primary factor, labour, of which the economy has surplus labor units of 6000

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(labourers). These 600 units of labour in the country are allocated as inputs to agriculture and
services industries in amounts 400 and 200 respectively.

Table 2: Input-Output Table

Industries Amount of Amount of Final Total Outputs
inputs inputs Demand
donated to donated to
Agriculture Power
Agriculture 180 300 720 1200
Power 158 88 314 560
Labour 400 200 0 600
man-hours
provided

As shown in table 2, agricultural output totals 1200 units per annum. Out of which, 720 units is
directly devoted to final consumption, that is demand by households, firms and government
agencies. The outstanding 480 units of agricultural output used as inputs to make readily
available both power supply and agricultural produce in the country. Thus, 300 units of
agricultural output is required as material inputs in order to make possible power supply as
shown in the table while 180 units is used by agriculture itself.

Similarly, row 2 shows the allocation of the total output of power sector, 560 units of megawatts
annually among final consumption/demand and intermediate inputs needed in the two industries,
namely; 158 units allocated to agriculture, 88 units allocated to power and 314 allocated to final
demand respectively.

The column designatesthat the 1200 units of agricultural output was produced with the use of
180 units of agricultural materials, 158 units of power supply, and 400 units of labour man-
hours.

Likewise, the second column details the input structure of the power industry in the sense that
the 560 megawatts of power supplied was generated with the use of 300 units agricultural inputs,
88 units of power factor and 200 man-hours of labour provided. The ‘final demand’ column
displays the commodity analysis of what is available for consumption and demand by
households, firms and government while labour services are not directly consumed.

The economic analysis thus signifies that the sales of the two agricultural and power industries to
themselves and to each other constitutes the non-Gross National Product items. The ‘final

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demand’ column constitutes the output item of GNP, and labour forms the factor-cost element of
the Gross National Product. What this further implies in effect is that the overall economy is
such that uses up labour and has 600 units of labour man-hours at the close of the year at its
disposal while simultaneously produces final consumption. With its 600 units of labour, the
country produces an annual flow of 720 units of agricultural commodities and 314 units of
power.

SELF ASSESSEMENT EXERCISE

i. What are the basic assumptions of the I-O Matrix?
ii. What do you understand about input output analysis?

3.3 Leontief Model/Matrix: The Leontief model is a mathematical model that can accordingly
be deduced as in equation (1):
Zi = ai1Z1 + ai 2 Z 2 + ai 3 Z3 + ... + ain Z n + Di (1)
Z = AZ + D
( Z − AZ ) = D
( I − A) Z = D ( Leontoef matrix)
Where, A be the matrix of technical coefficients,
(aij) technical coefficients of the ith firm in the jth industry
Z be the vector of total output,
D be the vector of final demand

According to equation (1), total output of the economy equals intermediate output plus final
output. Since the Leontief matrix is invertible, it becomes a linear system of equations with a
unique solution, and so given some final demand vector the required output can be calculated
mathematically.

The Usefulness of the Input-Output Table:

i. I-O models are useful for studying the economic impact of inter-regional trade, as
well as public investments programs
ii. I-O models aid in the calculation of national income/output.
iii. I-O models are useful tools for national and regional economic planning of
resource allocation.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1. What is Leontief Matrix?
2. What do you understand about input output analysis?
3. How would you describe the input-output table?

3.5 Solving Numerical Problems of Input-Output Model

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Numerical Example 1: Consider a developing economy that has 3 sectors namely, power,
transport and services as shown in the table below. Calculate the output vector of this economy if
final demand varies from 122 to 200 for the power sector, from 184 to 260 for the transport
sector and from 58 to 160 for the services sector.
Producing Using sectors Final Total Output
sector Demand
Power Transport Services
Power 90 20 48 122 280
Transport 40 36 40 184 300
Services 30 52 60 58 200

Solution to Numerical Example 1: Recall that,

( I − A) Z = D ( Leontoef matrix )
where Z = ( I − A) −1 D
Where, A be the matrix of technical coefficients,
(aij) technical coefficients of the ith firm in the jth industry
Z be the vector of total output,
D be the vector of final demand
(aij) technical coefficients of the ith firm in the jth industry are calculated as shown below:

90 / 280 20 / 300 48 / 200  0.32 0.07 0.24 

A =  40 / 280 36 / 300 40 / 200  = 0.14 0.12 0.20 
30 / 280 52 / 300 60 / 200  0.11 0.17 0.30 

1 0 0  0.32 0.07 0.24  0.68 − 0.07 − 0.24 

[ I − A] = 0 1 0  − 0.14 0.12 0.20  =  −0.14 0.88 − 0.20 
0 0 1 0.11 0.17 0.30   −0.11 − 0.17 0.70 

Adj[ I − A] C[ I − A]
T
−1
[ I − A] = =
I−A I−A

0.88 − 0.2 −0.14 − 0.2 −0.14 0.88

I − A = 0.68 − 0.07 − 0.24
−0.17 0.7 −0.11 0.7 −0.11 − 0.317
= 0.3957 + 0.0084 + 0.03339
= 0.437

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  0.88 − 0.2 −0.14 − 0.2 −0.14 0.88 
+ − + 
 −0.17 0.7 −0.11 0.7 −0.11 − 0.317 
 −0.07 − 0.24 0.68 − 0.24 0.68 − 0.07 
Cofactor matrix [ I − A] =  − + − 
 −0.17 0.70 −0.11 0.70 −0.11 − 0.17 
 
 + −0.07 − 0.24 −
0.68 − 0.24
+
0.68 − 0.07 
 0.88 − 0.20 −0.14 − 0.20 −0.14 0.88 

0.582 0.12 0.14 

Cofactor matrix [ I − A] = 0.089 0.4496 0.1233
0.225 0.1696 0.5886 

0.582 0.089 0.225 

1 
−1
[ I − A] = 0.12 0.4496 0.1696 
0.437 
0.14 0.1233 0.5886 
1.33 0.20 0.51 

= 0.27 1.029 0.39 
0.32 0.28 1.35

 200 
Given that D =  260 
160 
X = [ I − A]−1 D
1.33 0.20 0.51   200 
= 0.27 1.029 0.39   260 
0.32 0.28 1.35 160 
399.6 
= 384.2 
352.8 

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 = 266 + 52 + 81.6
= 399.6

= 54 + 267.8 + 62.4
= 384.2

= 64 + 72.8 + 216
= 352.8
The analysis is that output production of 399.6 units of power, 384.2 units of transportation and
352.8 units of services is required to meet the final demands of 200, 260 and 160 respectively.

Numerical Example 2: Let us suppose an advanced economy has 3 sectors namely, power,
transport and services such that the generation of one unit of power requires 0.6 units of transport
and 0.2 units of services. The production of one unit of transportation requires 0.5 units of power
and 0.5 units of service sector. Lastly, the production of one unit of services requires 0.8 units of
the power sector and 0.8 units of the transport sector.

(1) Formulate the input output matrix of the economy.

(2) If the economy supplies 80 units of power, 50 units of transport and 60 units of
services, determine how much of each sector is used up in the production process of the
economy.
(3) Calculate the amount of each sector that is not used up in the production process of
the economy
(4) Suppose the demand for power supply increases to 25 units, 3000 units for transport
and 60 for services, what would be the production output for each sector?

Solution to Numerical Example 2: I-O Table

Industry/sector consuming Output
Power Transport services
Power 0 0.5 0.8
Industry/sector Transport 0.6 0 0.8
supply Input Services 0.2 0.5 0

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 0 0.5 0.8 
A = 0.6 0 0.8
0.2 0.5 0 
80 
X = 50 
60 

0 0.5 0.8  80   73

A = 0.6 0 0.8 50  = 96 
0.2 0.5 0  60   41

Power supply The amount of power supply used up by the transport sector is 0.5  50 = 25
The amount of power supply used up by the services sector is 0.8  60 = 48
Thus, 73 units of power is used up in the production process of the economy
Transport The units of transport used up by the power sector is 0.6  80 = 48
supply The amount of transport used up by the services sector is 0.8  60 = 48
Thus, 96 units of transport is used up in the production process of the
economy

Services The amount of services used up by the power sector is 0.2  80 = 16

supply The amount of services used up by the transport sector is 0.5  50 = 25
Thus, 41 units of services sector is used up in the production process of the
economy

D = Z − AZ
80   73
= 50  − 96 
 60   41
7 
=  −46 
19 

The interpretation of the demand vector is that 80 units of power was supplied, 73 units was
consumed, that is used up in the nation’s production process while 7 units is not used up in the
production process of the economy. Similarly, 60 units of services were rendered, 41 units was
consumed in the nation’s production process while 19 units is not used up in the production

88 | P a g e
process of the economy. However, the 50 units of transport produced could not serve the
economy as 96 units of transportation was used up in the nation’s production.

Suppose the demand for power supply increases to 400 units, 300 units for transport and 220 for
services, the final demand vector would be given by:
 400 
D = 300 
 250 

4.0 CONCLUSION
Each column of the input-output matrix shows the monetary value of inputs to each sector and
each row represents the value of each sector's outputs.There has been research on disaggregation
to clustered inter-industry flows, and on the study of constellations of industries. A great deal of
empirical work has been done to identify coefficients, and data has been published for the
national economy as well as for regions. The I-O model can be extended to a model of Walrasian
equilibrium analysis; whereby monetary value of inputs are contained in column while sectorial
output are contained in the rows.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the meaning of input-output analysis, the input-output table,
usefulness of the input-output table and solved numerical problems of input-output model.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Consider that an economy has 3 sectors namely, power, transport and services such that the
generation of one unit of power requires 0.3 units of transport and 0.7 units of services. The
production of one unit of transportation requires 0.8 units of power and 0.8 units of service
sector. Lastly, the production of one unit of services requires 0.2 units of the power sector and
0.4 units of the transport sector.

(i) Formulate the input output matrix of the economy.

(ii) If the economy supplies 300 units of power, 400 units of transport and 500 units of services,
determine how much of each sector is used up in the production process of the economy.
(iii) Calculate the amount of each sector that is not used up in the production process of the
economy
(iv) Suppose the demand for power supply increases to 600 units, 400 units for transport and 900
for services, what would be the production output for each sector?

2. If an advanced economy has 3 sectors namely, power, transport and services such that one unit
of power requires 0.5 units of transport and 0.5 units of services. The production of one unit of

89 | P a g e
transportation requires 0.9 units of power and 0.9 units of service sector. Lastly, the production
of one unit of services requires 0.3 units of the power sector and 0.3 units of the transport sector.
(i) Formulate the input output matrix of the economy.
(ii) If the economy supplies 270 units of power, 350 units of transport and 360 units of services,
determine how much of each sector is used up in the production process of the economy.
(iii) Calculate the amount of each sector that is not used up in the production process of the
economy
(iv) Suppose the demand for power supply increases to 490 units, 350 units for transport and 250
for services, what would be the production output for each sector?

3. Consider that an economy has 3 sectors namely, power, transport and services such that the
generation of one unit of power requires 0.25 units of transport and 0.75 units of services. The
production of one unit of transportation requires 0.36 units of power and 0.85 units of service
sector. Lastly, the production of one unit of services requires 0.25 units of the power sector and
0.45 units of the transport sector.
(i) Formulate the input output matrix of the economy.
(ii) If the economy supplies 880 units of power, 850 units of transport and 860 units of services,
determine how much of each sector is used up in the production process of the economy.
(iii) Calculate the amount of each sector that is not used up in the production process of the
economy
(iv) Suppose the demand for power supply falls to 90 units, 100 units for transport and 150 for
services, what would be the production output for each sector?

4. Consider a developing country that has 3 sectors as shown in the table below. Calculate the
output vector of this economy if final demand increases to 190 for the services sector, to 400 for
the transport sector and to 250 for the power sector.
Producing Using sectors Final Total Output
sector Demand
Services Transport Power
Services 290 220 250 170 930
Transport 240 236 240 180 896
Power 230 252 260 200 942

3. Consider a developing economy that has 3 sectors as shown in the table below. Calculate the
output vector of this economy if final demand varies from 80 to 200 for the services sector,
from 40 to 220 for the transport sector and from 70 to 300 for the power sector.
Producing Using sectors Final Total Output
sector Demand
Services Transport Power
Services 100 120 140 80 440

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 Transport 140 130 190 40 500
Power 130 150 160 70 510

4. Consider a developing economy that has 3 sectors as shown in the table below. Calculate the
output vector of this economy if final demand changes to 700 for the service sector, 680 for
transport and 800 for the power sector.
Producing Using sectors Final Total Output
sector Demand
Services Transport Power
Services 500 250 380 665 1300
Transport 500 350 400 500 1750
Power 600 200 200 600 1600

7.0. REFRENCES/FURTHER READING

Belykh, A. A. (1989). "A Note on the Origins of Input-Output Analysis and the Contribution of
the Early Soviet Economists: Chayanov, Bogdanov and Kritsman". Soviet Studies. 41 (3):
426 - 429.
Clark, D. L. (1984). Planning and the Real Origins of Input-Output Analysis. Journal of
Contemporary Asia. 14 (4): 408 - 429.
Dietzenbacher, Erik & Michael L. Lahr, (2004). Wassilly Leontief and Input-Output Economics.
Cambridge University Press.
Lahr, Michael L. & Erik Dietzenbacher, (2001). Input-Output Analysis: Frontiers and
Extensions. Palgrave.
Leontief, Wassily W. (1986). Input-Output Economics. Oxford: New York University Press. (2nd
ed.).
Miller, Ronald E. & Peter D. Blair (2009). Input-Output Analysis: Foundations and Extensions,
(2nd ed.) Cambridge University Press.
Miller, Ronald E., Karen R. Polenske, & Adam Z. Rose (1989). Frontiers of Input-Output
Analysis. N.Y.: Oxford UP.
Raa, Thijs (2005). The Economics of Input-Output Analysis. Cambridge University Press
Thijs Ten Raa (2009). Input-Output Economics: Theory And Applications: Featuring Asian
Economies. World Scientific.

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MODULE THREE: DIFFRENTIATIONS, INTEGRATION AND OPTIMIZATION
TECHNIQUES

UNIT 1 Differential Calculus and Some Economic Applications

UNIT 2 Integral Calculus and Some Economic Applications
UNIT 3Optimization Techniques
UNIT 4Differential Equations

UNIT 1: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND SOME ECONOMIC APPLICATIONS

CONTENTS
1.0. Introduction
2.0. Objectives
3.0. Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Differential Calculus
3.2 Derivative of a Function
3.3 Rules of Differentiation
3.4 Solving Numerical Problems on Differential Calculus
3.5 Application of Differentiation to Economic Problems
3.5.1. Application I: Calculating Marginal Functions (Revenue, Costs and Profit)
3.5.2. Applications II: Calculating Price Elasticity of Demand

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0. Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1. 0. INTRODUCTION
This unit provides discussion on meaning of differential calculus, derivative of a function,
derivative of implicit functions, economic applications of derivatives and solving numerical
problems on differential calculus.

4.0 OBJECTIVES
After a successful study of this unit, students should be able to do the following:
• Find the derivative of explicit and an implicit functions
• Solving Numerical Problems on Differential Calculus
• Carry some applications of differential calculus

3.0. MAIN CONTENT

3.1. Meaning of Differential Calculus

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Differential calculus studies the rates at which quantities change. The entities involved in the
study of differential calculus are the derivative of a function, or differentiation, and the

associated applications.

3.2 Derivative of a Function: The derivative of a function defines the rate of change of the
function at given value. It is a sequence of differentiation. The geometrical explanation of
derivative hinges on the slope of the line tangential to the graph of the function at the point of
tangent.

Suppose that x and z are real numbers and that z is a function of x, that is, for every value of x,
there is a corresponding value of y (which - y or z?). This mathematical link can be written as:
z = f(x)= c+bx
Thus, the slope of the function is obtained by obtaining the derivative of the function w.r.t. z.
This is shown below:
change in z
b=
change in x
z
b=
x
Where the symbol Δ symbolizes "change in". It follows that Δz = bΔx. The geometry of the
derivative of f at the point z = b is the slope of the tangent line to the function f at the point b.
This is shown in the figure below and is denoted using either Langrange or Leibniz's notation as
shown below:

Source: Wikipedia

f ′(x) (Langrange notation)

dy
(Leibniz's notation)
dx x = d

93 | P a g e
3.3. Rules of Differentiation: These are rule for finding the derivative of a function. They
include the constant rule, power rule, product rule, quotient rule, exponential rule, logarithmic
dy y
rule, trigonometry rule etc. Nevertheless, the derivative is im if the limit exists
dx  → 0 x

i. Constant Rule of Differentiation: For any constant k, such that

f ( x) = k
d
f '( x) = 0  (k ) = 0
dx
ii. Power Rule of Differentiation: The derivative of f (x), from the first principles is as
follows:
dy
f ( x) = x n , f '( x)  = nx n −1
dx

f ( x) = x 4
dy
f '( x)  = nx n −1 = 4 x 3
dx

f ( x) = 3x 5
dy
f '( x)  = nx n −1 = 15 x 2
dx

f ( x) = 2 x 6
dy
f '( x)  = nx n −1 = 12 x 5
dx
For example, if f(x) = x6, then the derivative function f ′(x) would be given as:
y
f '( x) = = 6 x5
x
dy
f ' ( x)  = 6x5
dx

iii. The derivatives of exponential and logarithmic functions obeys the following rules

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 d ( ax )
e = ae ax
dx
d 1
log e x = , where k  0, k  1
dx x ln k
d 1
(ln x) = , where x  0
dx x
d 1
(ln x ) = , where x  0
dx x
d x
( x ) = x x (1 + ln x), where x  0
dx
d df dh
[ f ( x) h ( x ) ] = h( x) f ( x ) h ( x ) −1 + f ( x ) h ( x ) ln[ f ( x )] provided f ( x )  0
dx dx dx

iv. The derivatives of trigonometric functions obeys the following rules of engagement:
(sin x) ' = cos x
(cos x) ' = − sin x
(tan x) ' = sec 2 x  1 + tan 2 x
(sec x) ' = sec x tan x
(cot x) ' = −(1 + cot 2 x)

v. The derivatives of hyperbolic functions obeys the following rules of engagement:

e x + e− x
(sinh x) ' = cosh x 
2
e − e− x
x
(cosh x) ' = sinh x 
2
(tanh x) ' = sec h 2

(sec hx) ' = − tanh x sec hx

(coth x) ' = − csc h 2 x
vi. The derivative of implicit functions: The derivative of an implicit function is a derivative of
both sides of the function w.r.t. one of the variables while holding the other variables relatively
constant. Examples of implicit function is: g ( z, y ) = z 3 + y 7 + 2 , then the circle is the set of all
pairs (x, y) such that g(z, y) = 0. So,

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 g ( z, y) = 0
g z dz + g y dy = 0
g z dz = − g y dy
dy g
=− z
dz gy
vii. The product rule: Given that a function g (uv) where u and v are two separate functions
dv du
of the same variable z , the derivative of g (uv) is given as g ' (uv) = u +v
dz dz

viii. Given that u and v are two separate functions of the same variable z , the derivative of
u
the function g ( z ) =
v
du dv
v −u
g ' ( z ) = dz 2 dz
v

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Explain the meaning of an implicit function
How would you differentiate between Langrange notation and Leibniz’s notation?
Differentiate between an exponential and a logarithmic functions

3.4Solving Numerical Problems on Differential Calculus

Numerical Example 1: Find the derivative of the given function.
(i) g ( z) = 5z 3 − 4 z + 2
Solution to Numerical Example 1: Taking the derivative, we have that:
g
g '( z ) = = 15 z 2 − 4
z

Numerical Example 2: Find the derivative of the given function.

(i) g ( z ) = (5 z − 2)(9 z + z 2 )
Solution to Numerical Example 2: Taking the derivative, we have that:
g ( z ) = (5 z − 2)(9 z + z 2 )
let u = (5 z − 2), v = (9 z + z 2 )
Utilizing the product riule, we have,
dv du
uv = u +v
dz dz
g  d d 
g '( z ) = = (5 z − 2) (9 z + z 2 ) + (9 z + z 2 ) (5 z − 2) 
z  dv dv 

96 | P a g e
 = (5 z − 2)(9 + 2 z ) + (9 z + z 2 )5
= 45z − 18 + 10z 2 − 4 z + 45z + 5 z 2
= 15z 2 + 86 z − 18

Numerical Example 2
g ( z ) = ze5 z
dv du
g '( z ) = u +v
dz dz
let u = z , v = e 5z

Utilizing the product riule, we have,

dv du
uv = u +v
dz dz
g  d 5 z d 
g ( z) = =  z (e ) + (e5 z ) ( z ) 
z  dv dv 
= (5 ze5 z ) + (e5 z )(1)
= e5 z (5 z + 1)

Numerical Example 3: Find the derivative of the given functions.

5z 2
(i ) g ( z ) =
z+6
5 z 3 − 10 z + 2
(ii ) g ( z ) =
z
2z − z3 + z
6
(iii ) g ( z ) =
z3
Solution to Numerical Example 3:
5z 2
g ( z) =
z+6
let u = 5 z 2 , v = z + 6
Utilizing the quotient riule, we have,

97 | P a g e
 du dv
v −u
g
= dz 2 dz
z v
 d d 
( z + 6) (5 z 2 ) − (5 z 2 ) ( z + 6) 
g  dv dv
g ( z) = = 
z  ( z + 6) 2

 
( z + 6)10 z − (5 z )
2
=
( z + 6) 2
10 z 2 + 60 z − 5 z 2
=
( z + 6) 2
5 z 2 + 60 z
=
( z + 6) 2

5 z 3 − 10 z + 2
g ( z) =
z
let u = (5 z − 10 z + 2), v = z
3

Utilizing the quotient riule, we have,

du dv
v −u
g dz dz
=
z v2
 d d 
 z (5 z 3 − 10 z + 2) − (5 z 3 − 10 z + 2) ( z ) 
g dv dv
g ( z) = = 
z  z2 
 
z (15 z 2 − 10) − (5 z 3 − 10 z + 2)
=
z2
15 z 3 − 10 z − 5 z 3 + 10 z − 2
=
z2
10 z 3 − 2
=
z2
= 10 z − 2 z −2

98 | P a g e
 2z6 − z3 + z
g ( z) =
z3
let u = (2 z 6 − z 3 + z ), v = z 3
Utilizing the quotient riule, we have,
du dv
−u
v
g
= dz 2 dz
z v

 3 d d 
 z (2 z 6 − z 3 + z ) − (2 z 6 − z 3 + z ) ( z 3 ) 
g dv dv
g ( z) = = 
z  ( z 3 ).( z 3 ) 
 
z 3 (12 z 5 − 3z 2 + 1) − 3z 2 (2 z 6 − z 3 + z )
=
z6
12z 8 − 3z 5 + z 3 − 6 z 8 + 3z 5 − 3z 3
=
z6
6z 8 − 2z 3
=
z6
= 6 z 2 − 2 z −3
Alternatively, we can divide the numerator of g ( z ) by the denominator of each function
respectively and apply the power function rule as follows:

5 z 3 − 10z + 2
= 5 z 2 − 10 + 2 z −1
z
d
dz
(5 z 2 − 10 + 2 z −1 ) = 10z − 2 z − 2

2z 6 − 2z 3 + z
3
= 2 z 3 − 2 + z −2
z
d
dz
( )
2 z 3 − 2 + z − 2 = 6 z 2 − 2 z −3

Numerical Example 4: Consider the following function

32 z 2 − 8 y 3 + 29 = 0
Solution to Numerical Example 4: Carrying out an implicit differentiation of the function, we
have as follows:

99 | P a g e
 32 z 2 − 8 y 3 + 29 = 0
d d
(32 z 2 − 8 y 3 + 29) = (0)
dz dz
d d d
(32 z 2 ) − (8 y 3 ) + (29) = 0
dz dz dz
dy
64 z − 24 y 2 =0
dz
dy
64 z = 24 y 2
dz
dy 64 z
=−
dz 24 y 2
Alternatively,
f ( z, y) = 0
dy f
=− z
dz fy
dy 64 z
=−
dz 24 y 2
Numerical Example 5: Find the derivative of the following functions:
i. y = exp( x) e x

ii. y = x 7 ln x

iii. y = ln(4 x 2 − 5 x + 6)

Solutions: Given that y = exp( x) e x

where e = 2.71828...
dy
y' = = exp( x) e x
dx
Given that y = x ln x
7

100 | P a g e
 let u = x 7
v = ln x
Applying the product rule, we have as follows :
dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx
1
= x 7 + ln x.7 x 6
x
= x + 7 x 6 ln x
6

= x 6 (1 + 7 ln x)

Given that y = ln(4 x 2 − 5 x + 6)

let u = (4 x 2 − 5 x + 6)
y = ln u
Applying the chain rule, we have as follows :
dy dy du
= 
dx du dx
1
= 2 .(8 x − 5)
4 x − 5x + 6
8x − 5
= 2
4 x − 5x + 6

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe the relationship between an explicit and an implicit derivative. Give examples

3.5. Application of Differentiation to Economic Problems: Recall that the slope of the graph
of a function is called the derivative of the function such that:

y = f ( z) = z
dy y
f '( z ) = = lim
dz x →0 z

3.4.1 Application I: Calculating Marginal Functions (Revenue, Costs and Profit)

Given a total revenue function as: TR = PQ
d (TR)
MR =
dQ

101 | P a g e
So, if a firm faces thedemand curve P = 8 − 2Q , the TR and the corresponding MR functions of
the firm becomes:
P = 8 − 2Q
TR = PQ = (8 − 2Q )Q
= 8Q − 2Q 2

d (TR )
MR = = 8 − 4Q
dQ
The firm optimizing quantity and price levels are obtained as follows:
d (TR)
MR = = 8 − 4Q F .O.C
dQ
Setting MR = 0,
8 − 4Q = 0
Q = 8/ 4
=2

P = 8 − 2(2)
= N4

Evaluating S .O.C
2
d (TR )
= −4  0
dQ 2
The firm optimizing price and quantity levels are N4 and 2 respectively.

Given a total cost function as: TC = PQ

d (TC )
MC =
dQ
A firms total cost curve is given by
TC=2Q3- 8Q2+24Q
(i) Obtain the AC function
(ii) Obtain the MC function
(iii) When does the slope of AC = 0?
(iv) What does the relationship of graphs of MC and AC curves?

102 | P a g e
 TC = 2Q 3 − 8Q 2 + 24Q
TC 2Q 3 − 8Q 2 + 24Q
(i) AC =  2Q 2 − 8Q + 24
Q Q

dTC
(ii ) MC = = 6Q 2 − 16Q + 24
dQ

d ( AC )
(iii ) AC = 0 when =0
dQ
d ( AC )
= 4Q − 8 = 0
dQ
Q=2
The slope of AC = 0 when units of output = 2
(iv) The economic significance points to a minimum at the point whereby MC curve intersect
AC curve.

3.5.2. Applications II: Calculating Price Elasticity of Demand: Recall that by definition, price
elasticity of demand refers to the proportionate change in demand with respect to proportionate
change in price level. Mathematically,

Q P dQ P
ed =  
P Q dP Q

Thus, if ed <1, we have inelastic demand

if ed =1, we have unit elasticity of demand
if ed >1, we have elastic demand

Supposing the (inverse) Demand equation is P = 100 – 10ln(Q+1), calculate the price elasticity
of demandwhen Q = 42

103 | P a g e
 dQ P
ed = 
dP Q
dP 10
=-
dQ Q+1
Applying the inverse rule, we have that:
dQ Q+1
=-
dP 10
When Q = 42,
P = 100 - 10ln(43)
=62.4

dQ P 43 62.4
Thus, ed =  =- 
dP Q 10 42
ed = −6.387
Demand is elastic

4.0 CONCLUSION
The fundamental theorem of calculus guides the mathematical processes involved in
differentiation and integration. The driving principle in study of differential calculus is derivative
of a function whose procedure is referred to as differentiation. Differentiation has wide ranging
economic applications.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussedthe meaning of differential calculus, appraised derivative of a
function (both explicit and implicit functions). Also, we studied applications of derivatives to
economic problems haven solved some numerical problems on differential calculus.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Find the derivative of the given function.
(i ) g ( z ) = 52 z 5 + 9 z 2 + 4
(ii ) g ( z ) = (26 z 2 − 6)(18 z + z 3 )
2. Find the derivative of the given functions.
(5w + 1)3
(i) g ( w) = 2
w +9
13w3 + 2
(ii ) g ( w) = 6
7 w − 4 z 3 + 3z
6w6 − wz + 1
(iii ) g ( w) =
w

104 | P a g e
3. Consider the following functions
3 z 6 − zy 3 + 1 = 0
z 6 + y 3 = 23
10 z 2 − cos(3 z ) = y 3 + 34
3 z 6 − 5 zy 3 + 40 zy = 4 y

Find the implicit derivative of the function

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Akira Takayama, (1985). Mathematical Economics (2nd ed.). Cambridge
Debreu, Gérard (2008). "Mathematical Economics" (2nd ed). Econometrica, 54(6), pp. 1259-
1270.
Dowling, E.T. (2001) Schaum's Outline of Introduction to MathematicalEconomics, (3rd ed.),
McGraw Hill.
Sydsaeter, K. and Hammond, P. J. (2008) Essential Mathematics for Economic Analysis, (3rd
ed.), FT Prentice Hall.
Stephen Glaister (1984). Mathematical Methods for Economists (3rd ed.), Blackwell.
Takayama, Akira (1985). Mathematical Economics, (2nd ed.), Cambridge.
Thomas, George B.; Weir, Maurice D.; Hass, Joel (2010). Thomas' Calculus: Early
Transcendentals (12th ed.), Addison-Wesley.
Weintraub, E. Roy (2008). "Mathematics and economics", (2nd ed.).
Weintraub, E. Roy (2002). How Economics Became a Mathematical Science. Duke University
Press.
Weintraub, E. Roy (1982). Mathematics for Economists, Cambridge. Contents.
Wenyu Sun; & Ya-Xiang Yua (2010). Optimization Theory and Methods: Nonlinear
Programming. Springer.

105 | P a g e
UNIT 2: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND SOME ECONOMIC APPLICATIONS

CONTENTS
1.0. Introduction
2.0. Objectives
3.0. Main Content
3.1 The Meaning of Integral Calculus
3.2 Integration Techniques
3.2.1 Integration by Part
3.2.2 Integration by Substitution
3.3 Economic Applications of Integral Calculus
3.4 Solving Numerical Problems on Integral Calculus

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0. Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1. 0. INTRODUCTION
This unit provides a discussion on the meaning of integral calculus, integration techniques, such
as integration by part and integration by substitution as well as economic applications of integral
calculus together with some solved numerical examples on integral calculus.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After a successful study of this unit, students should be able to do the following:
• Find the integral of a function
• Find the integral of a function by using substitution method
• Find the integral of a function using integration by part technique
• Carry some economic applications of integral calculus

3.0. MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Integral Calculus: Integration is the process of reversing differentiation. It is
means of finding a primitive function from a derivative. Hence, it is also called anti-derivative.
An integral of a function describes area or, volume. Given a function f of a real variable x and an
interval [a, b] of the real line, the definite integral becomes:
t2
t1
f ( x)dx
As it is, integration defines the area of the region in the xy-plane that is bounded by the graph of
f, the x-axis and the vertical lines x = t1 and x = t2. in effect, the region above the x-axis increases

106 | P a g e
total area and the region below the x-axis decreases the total area. Integral may also refer to
antiderivative, a function F whose derivative is the given function f and the indefinite integral is
written thus:
t2
F ( x) = t
1
f ( x)dx
The definition of the definite integral begins with a function f( x), which is continuous on a
closed interval [ a, b]. The given interval is partitioned into “n” subintervals that can be taken to
be of equal lengths (Δ x). Similar to differentiation, a significant relationship exists between
continuity and integration such that if a function f(x) is continuous on a closed interval [ a, b],
then the definite integral of f(x) on [ a, b] exists and f is said to be integrable on [a, b]. In other
words, continuity guarantees that the definite integral exists, but the converse is not the case.

If f is a continuous real-valued function defined on a closed interval [t1, t2], then, once an anti-
derivative F of f is identified, the definite integral of f over that interval is given by:
t2
t1
f ( x)dx = [ F ( x)]tt 1
2

F (t2 ) − F (t1 )

Figure 3: Area of Integration

Source: mathnotes.org, en.wikipedia.org

3.3. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus: The fundamental theorem of calculus inaugurates the
link between indefinite and definite integrals such that if f(x) is continuous on the interval [ a, b],
and F( x) is any anti-derivative of f( x) on [ a, b], it thus implies:

107 | P a g e
 d
b f ( x)dx = F ( x) + k
= F (d ) − F (b)
 F ( x) b
d

where k is the cons tan t of int egration

 is the integral sign

This goes to show that the value of the definite integral of a function on [ a, b] is the difference
of any antiderivative of the function evaluated at the upper limit of integration minus the same
antiderivative evaluated at the lower limit of integration.

Basic rules of integration: These are rules solving definite integral problems. They include: the
power function rule, sum-difference rule, integration of exponential and logarithmic functions
etc.
Power Function Rule:

d b
b f ( x)dx = −  f ( x)dx
d
d
b kdx = k[d − b] where k is a cons tan t
d d
b kf ( x)dx = k  f ( x)dx
b

d b b
Sum Rule: b [ f ( x) + g ( x)]dx =  f ( x)dx +  g ( x)dx
d d

d b b
Difference Rule: b  [ f ( x) − g ( x)]dx =  f ( x)dx −  g ( x)dx
d d

3.2 Integration Techniques

3.2.1 Integration by Part: Integration by parts technique finds the integral of a product of
functions in terms of integral of product of their derivative and anti-derivative. The technique of
integration by part is the equivalence of product rule of differentiation.The theorem of
integration by parts states that if the following conditions hold:
u = u( z)
du = u '( z )dz
w = w( z )
dw = w '( z )dz

108 | P a g e
 d d
b u( x)w '( x)dx = [u ( x) w '( x)]bd −  u '( x)w( x)dx
b

 udw = uw −  wdu
3.2.2 Integration by Substitution: Integration by substitution as a method for solving integrals
is the u-substitution technique. Using the fundamental theorem of calculus, it necessitates finding
an antiderivative. Accordingly, integration by substitution is the equivalence of chain rule for
differentiation.

For substitution for a single variable, consider that I ⊆ R be an interval and  : [b,d] → I be a
continuous and differentiable function with integrable derivative, it thus follows that:
 (d )  (d )
 (b) f (u)du =  f ( ( x)) '( x)dx
 (b )
In Leibniz notation, the substitution u =  ( x) yields
u
=  '( x)
x
 '( x)x
The formula is used to transform one integral into another integral and by so doing, it simplifies
a given integral.

3.3 Solving Numerical Problems on Integral Calculus

Numerical Example 1: Find the integral of the following functions
9z
 (2 z 2 − 13)7 dz
 (5 z − 13) dz
2

192 z 3
 3z 4 + 2dz
Solution to Numerical Example 1:Using the substitution method

109 | P a g e
 9z
 (2 z 2
− 13) 7
dz

let u = (2 z 2 − 13)
du
= 4z
dz
4 zdz = du
1
dz = du
4z
Substitut inf for u & dz , we have,
9z 9z 1
 (2 z 2
− 13) 7
dz =  7
u 4z
du

9 1
=  7 du
4 u
9
=  u −7 du
4
9 u −6
=
4 −6
9
=−
24(2 z − 13) 6
u = 2 z 2 − 13

 (5 z − 13) dz
2

let u = (5 z − 13)
du
=5
dz
5dz = du
1
dz = du
5
Substitut inf for u dz , we have,
1
 (5z − 13) dz = 5  u du
2 2

1 3
= u +k
15
=
1
(2 z − 13)2 + c
15

110 | P a g e
 192 z 3
 3z 4 + 2dz

let u = (3 z 4 + 2)
du
= 12 z 3
dz
12 z 3 dz = du
1
dz = du
12 z 3
Substitut inf for u & dz , we have,
192 z 3 192 z 3  1 
 3z 4 + 2  u  12 z 3 du 
dz =

1
= 16  du
u
= 16  ln u + k
= 16 ln(3 z 4 + 2) + k

Numerical Example 2: Find the integral of the following functions

 z e dz
3 z

 z ln zdz
4

Solution to Numerical Example 2: Using the method of integration by parts


i. z 3e z dz

let u = z 3
w ' = dw = e z
u ' = du = 3 z 2
w = ez

 z e dz = z e −  3( z e )dz
3 z 3 z 2 z

where  3( z e )dz = 3[ z e −  2 ze ]
2 z 2 z z

where  2 ze = ze −  e .1dz
z z z

= ze z − e z + k
Thus,  z 3e z dz = z 3e z − 3z 2e z − 2( ze z − e z + k )

 z e dz = z e − 2 ze z + k
2 z 2 z

111 | P a g e
 z
4
ii. ln zdz

z
4
ln zdz
let u = ln z
w ' = dw = z 4
1
u ' = du =
z
z5
w=
5
z5 z5  1 
 z ln zdz = ln z −   dz
4

5 5 z
z5 z4
= ln z −  dz
5 5
5 5
z z
= ln z − + k
5 25

3.4. Application of Integration in Economics:

Integral calculus can be applied to solve economic problems, business and commerce related
problems. For example, integration helps us to find out the total cost function and total revenue
function from the marginal cost and also obtain consumer’s surplus and producer’s surplus from
the demand function and supply function respectively.

3.4.1. Cost and Revenue Functions: Here, total cost functions can be derived from marginal
cost functions while total revenue functions can be obtained from Marginal revenue functions
with the aid of integration.

Considering that C is the cost of producing an output of Q commodity, then marginal cost
function MC is derived as follows:
dC
MC =
dQ
Using integration, as the reverse process of differentiation, we obtain the total cost function as
follows:
TC =  (MC )dQ + k
Where k is the constant of integration which is to be evaluated,

Relatively, the Average cost function, AC is derivable as follows:

C
AC = , Q  0
Q

112 | P a g e
Example 1: Supposing the marginal cost function of producing Q eye shade is 12 + 20Q–12Q2 .
The cost of producing a duo of shades is N48. Find the total and average cost function.

MC = 12 + 20Q − 12Q 2
TC =  ( MC )dQ + k

TC =  (12 + 20Q − 12Q 2 )dQ + k

20Q 2 12Q 3
= 12Q + − +k
2 3
TC = 12Q + 10Q 2 − 4Q 3 + k
Since the cost of producing a duo of shades is N48, we have the TC as follows:

When Q = 4, k = 48

TC = 12Q + 10Q 2 − 4Q 3 + k
48 = 48 + 160 − 256 + k
k = 96
Thus,
TC = 12Q + 10Q 2 − 4Q 3 + 96

C
AC = ,
Q
12Q + 10Q 2 − 4Q 3 + 96
AC =
Q
96
AC = 12 + 10Q − 4Q 2 +
Q
Example 2: A Nigerian firm has a marginal cost function given by MC = 375 + 30Q − Q2/3. If
the fixed cost of production is N750, determine the cost of producing 45 units.
1
MC = 375 + 30Q − Q 2
3
TC =  ( MC )dQ + k
1
TC =  (375 + 30Q − Q 2 )dQ + k
3

113 | P a g e
 1
= 375Q + 15Q 2 − Q 3 + k
9
Fixed cos t of production, k = 750
1
TC = 375Q + 15Q 2 − Q 3 + 750
9
When Q = 45,
1
TC = 375(45) + 15(45) 2 − (45)3 + 750
9
= 37,875
Example 3: The saving cost of an electronic firm is given by the function, f (t ) = 30t .Supposing
the price of an electric fan is 280,000. Determine the number of days necessary to recover the
cost of the function.

S (t ) = 30t
t t

 S (t )dt   30tdt
0 0

 15t 2
Cost saving function = Re coupin entails 15t = 270, 000
2

t 2 = 18, 000
t = 18, 000
t  134
The price can be recovered after 134 days.

Example 4: The marginal cost function of an oil producing firm in Nigeria is MC = 18 + 45e x
(i) Calculate the value of TC supposing TC (0) = 900
(j) (ii) Generate the average cost function AC.

MC = 18 + 45e x
TC =  ( MC )dQ + k

TC =  (18 + 45eQ )dQ + k

TC = 18Q + 45eQ + k
Q = 0  TC = 60
60 = 18(0) + 45e0 + k
60 = 45 + k
k = 15
TC = 18Q + 45eQ + 15

114 | P a g e
 C
AC = , Q  0
Q
18Q + 45eQ + 15
AC =
Q
45eQ
AC = 18 + + 15Q −1
Q

Example 5: The rate of change of profits of an automobile advertisement is epitomized as,

f (t ) = 5200e−0.4t where t signifies the number of days after the advertisement.
i. Calculate the total cumulative sales after 10 days
ii. Calculate the total sales during the 12thdays
iii. Calculate the total sales owing to the advertisement.

i. Calculate the total cumulative profits after 10 days

Re call that the total profits after t − days would be given by :
t
d
F (t ) =  f (t )dt , where profit rate f (t ) = F (t )
0
dt
So,
10
F (10) =  (5200e −0.4t ) dt
0
10
 e −0.4t 
= 5200  
 (−0.4)  0
= −13000[e −4 − e0 ]
= −13000[0.0183 − 1]
= N12761.9

ii. Calculate the total profits during the 12thdays

12
=  (5200e −0.4t )dt
10
12
 e −0.4t 
= 5200  
 (−0.4) 10
= −13000[e −4.8 − e −4 ]
= −13000[−0.01]
= N131.1

115 | P a g e
 iii. Calculate the total profits owing to the advertisement

=  (5200e −0.4t ) dt
0

5200 −0.4t 
=  e 
−0.4  0

= −13000[e −4.8 − e −4 ]
= −13000[0 − 1]
= N13, 000
Example 6: The supply rate of a newly manufactured commodity is given by
f (Q) = 900 − 15700e−2Q where Q is the number of days the item is brought to the market.
Calculate total sale during the first 20 days of being made readily available in the market.

20
Total sales for first 20 days in the market , TS =  (900 − 15700e −2Q )dQ
0
20
TS = 900Q + 7,850e −2Q 
0

= [(18, 000 + 7850e −40 ) − (7850e −0 )]

= 18000 − 7850
TS = N10,150

3.4.2.Consumer and Producer Surpluses: Consumer surplus defines the difference between
market price at consumer’s willingness and the actual market price. . In the analysis of
consumers' surplus, sales are established on basis of supply such that price-quantity is situated on
supply curve.Producer surplus defines the difference between the acceptable lowest market price
and actual market price received by the producer for a commodity.Correspondingly, in analysis
of producers' surplus, price is fixed by demand while price-quantity is situated on demand curve.
Hence, with numerous individuals acting independently, price-quantity jointly becomes
equilibrium point and selling at that point maximizes total social gain. While a lower price
implies greater quantity sold, and greater consumer surplus, a higher price implies greater
quantity sold, and greater producer surplus.

Consumer’s Surplus is the difference between the amount a consumer is willing to pay and the
amount he actually pays for a basket of commodity. Considering the graph below, consumer’s
surplus is calculated as the area under the demand curve from the origin to the equilibrium price
minus price multiplied by quantity. Algebraically, we have
QE
 0
f (Q D ) − P E Q E .
Consumer’s surplus is the area shaded pink while producer’s surplus is the shaded light blue
area.

116 | P a g e
Producer’s (or Supplier’s) surplus is the difference between the amount a producer (or a supplier)
is willing to earn and the amount he actually earns from a basket of commodity. As shown in
figure 4, producer’s surplus is calculated as equilibrium price multiplied by equilibrium quantity
minus area under the supply curve from the origin to the equilibrium quantity.
Mathematically,
QE
P EQE −  f (Q S )
0

Producer’s surplus is the area shaded yellow ( ).

Thus, while the amount that the consumer is willing to pay has to be greater, the amount that the
producer receives should be greater (Mike May, S.J., & Anneke Bart; Suranovic Steve, 2004).

Largely, the lowest price producers are willing to accept is equal to their marginal cost of
production. So, while the demand curve in a competitive free market represents the price
consumers are willing to pay, supply curve represents the minimum price producers are willing
to accept for different quantities produced. The sum of the consumer and producer surpluses is
the total social gain or economic surplus. The consumer and producer surpluses are graphically
represented in the figure below:

Figure 4: Consumer and Producer’s surpluses

Sources:www.economicshelp.org,Economic-surpluses.svg

Numerical Example 3: Consider the following demand and supply functions

q D = 1530 − q
q S = 270 + q
Calculate the following at given market equilibrium,
a. Consumer surplus,
b. Producer surplus, and
c. Total collective gain.

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Solution to Numerical Example 3: Proceed as follows:
qe
Consumer surplus =  (q D )dq − D (q e )q e
0
qe
Producer surplus = S (q e )q e −  (q S )dq
0

(q D ) = 1530 − q
(q S ) = 270 + q
Equating q D = q S ,
1530 − q = 270 + q
1260 = 2q
q = 630
D(q e ) = 1530 − 630
= 900
qe
Consumer surplus =  D(q)dq − D(q e )q e
0
630
= (1530 − q )dq − 630(900)
0
630
 1 
= 1530q −   q 2  − 567000
  2  0
= [1530(630) − (315)2 ] − 567000
= [963900 − 198450] − 567000
= 198450
qe
Producer surplus = S (q e )q e −  S (q )dq
0
630
= 567000 −  (270 + q) dq
0
630
 q2 
= 567000 −  270q + 
 2 0
(630) 2
= 567000 − [270(630) + ]
2
= 567000 − [170100 + 198450]
= 198450
Total Collective Gains = Consumer surplus + Producer surplus
= 396900

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 Total Collective Gains = Consumer surplus + Producer surplus
= 947600
SELF-ASSESSEMENT EXERCISE
Describe the relationship between consumer surplus and producer surplus.

4.0 CONCLUSION
The rudimentary idea of integral calculus is calculating the area under a curve. This can be
calculated by dividing the area into boundless rectangles of considerably small width and sum
their areas. In effect, integral assigns numbers to functions in order to define shift, area, and
volume. Integration is one of the two main operations of calculus.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the meaning of integral calculus, integration techniques which
include, integration by part and integration by substitution as well as economic applications of
integral calculus while also solving numerical problems on integral calculus.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Consider these demand/supply equations in a free market equilibrium.
Q s = 120 + 0.5q
Q d = 175 − 0.2q
iv. Calculate consumer surplus,
v. Calculate producer surplus, and
vi. Calculate total collective gain.
2. Find the following integral, using integration by part

 108 z ( z + 18)dz
2 5

 (30 x e
2 10 x3 + 5
)dx

2. Find the following integral, using the technique of substitution

 160 z 
  z
2  dz
− 16 

 378 z 6 − 2 
  25 z 4 + 25 z  dz
3. Consider the following demand/supply equations in a free market equilibrium.
Q s = 180 + 4q
Q d = 245 − 5q
(a) Calculate consumer surplus,

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 (b) Calculate producer surplus, and
(c) Calculate total social gain
5. Consider these demand/supply equations in a free market equilibrium.
Q s = ln(2q + 20)
Q d = 200 − 2q
i. Calculate consumer surplus,
ii. Calculate producer surplus, and
iii. Calculate total collective gain.

Consider the following demand and supply functions

1
D (q ) = 64 − q
24
1
S ( q ) = q + 6q
48

1
D (q ) = 100 − p
50
S (q ) = 30 + 10q
i. Calculate the following at the given market equilibrium,
a. Consumer surplus,
b. Producer surplus, and
c. Total collective gain.
ii. If the producers can form a cartel and restrict the available quantity to 140, selling at
the supply price for 70, what are the consumer surplus, producer surplus, and total
social gain?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Anton, H. (1995). Calculus with Analytic Geometry (5th ed.), John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Bourbaki, Nicolas (2004). Integration I, Springer Verlag.
Burton, David M. (2005). The History of Mathematics: An Introduction (6th ed.), McGraw-Hill.
Cajori, Florian (1929). A History of Mathematical Notations Volume II, Open Court Publishing.
Ferzola, Anthony P. (1994), "Euler and differentials", The College Mathematics Journal 25 (2):
102 -111
Folland, Gerald B. (1984). Real Analysis: Modern Techniques and their Applications (1st ed.),
John Wiley & Sons
Fremlin, D.H. (2010). Measure Theory, Volume 2, Torres Fremlin, Hewitt.
Hoffmann, Laurence D.; & Bradley, Gerald L. (2004). Calculus for Business, Economics, and
the Social and Life Sciences (8th ed.).
Katz, Victor J. (2004). A History of Mathematics, Brief Version Addison-Wesley
Katz, V. (1982), "Change of variables in multiple integrals: Euler to Cartan", Mathematics
120 | P a g e
 Magazine 55 (1): 3 -11.
Larson, Ron; & Edwards, Bruce H. (2009). Calculus (9th ed.). Brooks/Cole.
Louis Brand (10 October 2013). Advanced Calculus: An Introduction to Classical Analysis.
Courier Corporation.
Mankiw, N. G. (2001). Principles of Economics, 2nd ed., Harcourt College Publishers.
McClave, J. T., Benson, P. G., & Sincich, T. (1998). A First Course in Business Statistics (7th
ed.) Prentice Hall.
Rudin, Walter (1987). Real and Complex Analysis, McGraw-Hill
Stoer, Josef; & Bulirsch, Roland (2002), "Topics in Integration", Introduction to Numerical
Analysis (3rd ed.), Springer
Stewart, James (2008). Calculus: Early Transcendentals (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole.
Samuelson, P. A., & Nordhaus, W. D. (1998). Economics (16th ed.), Irwin/McGraw-Hill.
Suranovic, Steve (2004). International Trade Theory and Policy.
Thomas, George B.; Weir, Maurice D.; & Hass, Joel (2010). Thomas' Calculus: Early
Transcendentals (12th ed.). Addison-Wesle
Willard, Stephen (1976). Calculus and its Applications. Boston: Prindle, Weber & Schmidt.

121 | P a g e
UNIT 3: OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES

CONTENTS
1.0. Introduction
2.0. Objectives
3.0. Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Optimization
3.2 Types of Optimization
3.1.1 Free Optimization
3.1.2 Constrained Optimization
3.3 Optimization Techniques
3.3.1 Substitution Method
3.3.2 Lagrange Multiplier
3.4 Conditions for Optimization
3.4.1 First Order Condition (F.O.C)/Necessary Condition
3.4.2 Second Order Condition (S.O.C)/Sufficient Condition
3.5 Solving Numerical Problems with Optimization Techniques 3
3.6 Economic Applications
3.6.1 Application 1: Consumer Problem/Utility Maximization:
3.6.2. Application 2: Output-Maximization in Relation to Cost and Cost Minimization in
Relation to Output
3.6.3. Application 3: Deadweight Loss of Taxation

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0. Tutor-Marked Assignment
10.0 References/Further Readings

1.0. INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be focusing on the meaning of optimization, types of optimization,
optimization techniques (substitution method and Lagrange multiplier) as well as the conditions
for optimization.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After a successful study of this unit, students should be able to do the following:
• Explain the meaning of optimization
• Solve free optimization problems
• Solve constrained optimization problems using both the substitution and the Lagrange
Multiplier methods and be able to solveapplication problems to utility maximization

122 | P a g e
 subject to budget constraint, output maximization in relation to cost constraint, cost
minimization in relation to a fixed output target deadweight loss of taxation.
• Explain the different conditions for Optimization

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Optimization
Optimization in economics can be defined as the mathematical process of evaluating the
maximum profits, revenue, output etc. or minimum losses, costs etc. Optimization in economic
thus describes the best behavior of an individual economic agents. For example, consumers seek
to maximize utility does that as by choosing consumption bundles which yield the highest level
of utility. Similarly firms seek to maximize profit given production functions, prices of output
and inputs by choosing input or factor levels which generate the highest level of profits.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1. What is optimization in economic analysis?

3.2 Types of Optimization

3.1.1Free Optimization: Free optimization is an unconstrained optimization whereby the
selectable variable assumes any value without restrictions. Example include, selecting optimal
output level in order to maximize profits without being subjected to price constraint or cost level.
Similarly, an economic agent, say the government, could be selecting quantities of ethanol and
gas without paying attention to neither available income nor market prices. In the above
circumstances, the selected output and quantities are optimal. Accordingly, the mathematical
unconstrained problem to be solved is to numerically optimize an objective function without
being subjected any constraints.

3.1.2 Constrained Optimization: Constrained optimization is optimization of an objective

function given relevant constraints on choice variables. Accordingly, choice variables cannot
take on any value without boundaries. The objective function could be a
profit/revenue/output/utility function, which is to be maximized or a price/cost function, which is
to be minimized. Constraints are mostly established conditions for the variables that are required
to be optimized.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What is the difference between free and constrained optimization?

3.3 Optimization Techniques

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3.3.1 Substitution Method: The substitution method entails substituting the constraint into the
objective function in order to create a composite function that integrates the effect of the
constraint.

3.3.2 Lagrange Multiplier: The Lagrange multiplier technique occasions a formulation of a

composite function that integrates both the objective function and the constraints. The
Lagrangian multiplier technique is mathematically demonstrated as follows:

L = g ( z , y ) + [d − h( z , y )]
Where g ( z , y ) is the objective function
d − h( z , y )
 (lamda), the Lagragian multiplier

Single Variable Functions: This is the optimization of a function with respect to one argument
of the function.
y = f ( z)
Where y is the dependent variable, z is the argument of the function. The domain of the function
is the set of all possible values of z while the range of the function is the set of all possible values
of y at z.Accordingly, economic optimization problems for single function entails finding
maximum and/or minimum values of the function y = f ( z ) at a point  for which
f '( ) = 0
In effect, the critical point could be a localminimum, maximum point of inflection. Nevertheless,
in the scenario whereby second derivative exists:
f ''( )  0,  is a local min imum
f ''( )  0,  is a local max imum
f ''( ) = 0,  is a saddle po int (inconclusion)

Multivariable Functions: This is the optimization of a function with respect to more than one
variable. Thus, economic optimization problems for multivariable functions entails finding
maximum and/or minimum values of functions of several variables, as in the equation below
over prescribed domains.
y = f ( z , x)
Where y is the dependent variable, z and x are the argument of the function.

3.4 Conditions for Optimization

3.4.1 First Order Condition (F.O.C)/Necessary Condition: The First Order Condition (F.O.C)
which is the necessary condition states that if g is a differentiable function on ℝ, the derivative of
g at z is zero. The points where g'(z) = 0 are called critical points or stationary points and the

124 | P a g e
value of g at z is called a critical value. The F.O.C necessary conditions for optimization are thus
obtained as follows:
L
Lz = = g z −  h( z ) = 0
z
L
Ly = = g z −  h( y ) = 0
y
L
L = = d − h( z , y ) = 0


3.4.2 Second Order Condition (S.O.C)/Sufficient Condition: If g is twice differentiable, then

conversely, a critical point z of g can be analyzed by considering the second derivative of g at z :
1. Suppose the 2nd derivative is positive, z is a local minimum;
2. Suppose the 2nd derivative is negative, z is a local maximum;
3. Suppose the 2nd derivative is zero, then z could be a local minimum, a local maximum, or
neither.
Overall, by the extreme value theorem, a continuous function on a closed interval must attain its
minimum or maximum values at least once at critical points.
The S.O.C sufficient conditions for optimization are thus obtained as follows:
L
Lz = = g z −  h( z ) = 0
z
(i ) Lzz  0 (relative maximum point )
(ii ) Lzz  0 (relative minimum point )
L
Ly = = g y −  h( y ) = 0
y
(i ) Lyy  0 (relative minimum point )
(ii ) Lyy  0(relative maximum point )
L
Lz = = g z −  h( z ) = 0
z
(i ) Lzz = 0 (inflection point )
L
Ly = = g z −  h( y ) = 0
y
(ii ) Lyy = 0 (inflection point )
Hessian matrix: Hessian matrix is a square matrix of second-order partial derivatives of a
scalar-valued objective function f(x,y) without constraints. It describes the local curvature of a
function of many variables in relation to free optimization. These conditions are epitomized with
the following table.

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 g zz g zy
H =
g yz g yy
= g zz g yy − ( g zy ) 2  0

Table 1: Hessian Conditions for Optimality

For a relatively maximum For a relatively minimum Saddle point
stationary value stationary value
H1  0 H1  0 If the Hessian has both
H2  0 H2  0 positive and negative
eigenvalues, then z is a
H3  0 H3  0 saddle point for f.
Hessian is negative definite Hessian is positive definite At a local minimum the
Hessian is positive definite,
and at a local maximum the
Hessian is negative-definite.
If the Hessian is negative- If the Hessian is positive- Test is inconclusive
definite at z, then f reaches an definite at z, then f reaches
quarantined local maximum at an quarantined local
z minimum at z.

Bordered Hessian:Bordered Hessian is a second-order derivative test whose matrix is a square

matrix of second-order partial derivatives of a scalar-valued objective function f(x,y) in a
constrained optimizationwith the constraint function given by g(x) = k. these conditions are
explained in the following table.

Table 2: Bordered Hessian Conditions for Optimality

For a relatively maximum For a relatively minimum Saddle point
stationary value stationary value
H 0 H 0 If the Bordered Hessian has
both positive and negative
eigenvalues, then z is a
saddle point for f.
Bordered Hessian is positive Bordered Hessian is negative At a local minimum the
Bordered Hessian is positive
definite, and at a local
maximum the Bordered
Hessian is negative-definite.

126 | P a g e
If the Hessian is negative- If the Hessian is positive- Test is inconclusive
definite at z, then f reaches an definite at z, then f reaches
quarantined local maximum at an quarantined local
z minimum at z.

3.5 Solving Numerical Problems on Optimization

Numerical Example 1: Using the substitution method, maximize the objective function subject to
the constraint.
Maximize q ( z , y ) = 2 zy
subject to : z + y = 32
Solution to Numerical Example 1: The solution is such that the constraints can be solved to
arrive at: y = 32 − z . By substitution, the objective function becomes as follows:
q ( z ) = 2 z (32 − z )
= 64 z − 2 z 2
q
F .O.C  = 64 − 4 z
z
q
Equating =0
z
64
z=
4
z = 16
Consequently, y = 32 − z  y = 32 − 16 = 16
Thus, ( z , y )  (16,16)
q 2
S .O.C  = −4
z 2
q 2
0
z 2
Given that the S. O. C <0, it thus implies that the values are for maximum and the maximum
value is 512.

Numerical Example 2: Find the critical points at which the following function may be optimized.
q = 6 z 2 − 2 zy + 4 y 2 − 8 z − 14 y + 24
Establish if at those points the function q is maximized, minimized, an inflection point, or a
saddle point.

Solution to Numerical Example 2: Find the first Order Condition as follows:

127 | P a g e
 q = 6 z 2 − 2 zy + 4 y 2 − 8 z − 14 y + 24
q
F .O.C = qz = = 12 z − 2 y − 8
z
q
= −2 z + 8 y − 14
y
q q
Setting = =0
z y
12 z − 2 y = 8
−12 z + 48 y = 84
46 y = 92
y=2
12 z − 2(2) = 8
12 z = 12
z =1
The critical points are ( z * , y* ) = (1, 2)
S.O.C
2q
= 12  0
z 2
2q
=80
y 2
2q
= −2
zy
2q
= −2
yz
2q  2q  2q  2q 
   
z 2  y 2  zy  yz 
12(8)  2(2)
96  4
Therefore, with the critical points ( z * , y* ) = (1, 2) , the function q is at a minimum having
successfully implemented the S.O.C for a minimum.

Numerical Example 3: Given the following function, optimize the following revenue function:
R = 2 z1 z2 + 4 z1
s.t. 6 z1 + 8 z2 = 80

i. Optimize the function using the Lagrangian function

128 | P a g e
ii. State the nature of the critical values using the S.O.C
Solution to Numerical Example 3: Find the first Order Condition as follows:
L = (2 z1 z2 + 4 z1 ) + [80 − 6 z1 − 8 z2 ]
L
Lz1 = = 2 z2 + 4 − 6 = 0
z1
L
Lz2 = = 2 z1 − 8 = 0
z2
L
L = = 80 − 6 z1 − 8 z2 = 0

Putting the equations in matrix format, we have as follows:
 0 2 − 6   z1   −4 
 2 0 − 8  z  = 0 
  2  
 6 8 0    80 
The solution set can be obtained as ( z1* , z2* , * )  (8,6,12)
Revise please and note that z1 = 8, z 2 = 4,  = 2
Lz1z 2 Lz1z2
For the S. O. C. shows that Lz2 z1 Lz1z2  0 , therefore the solution set is a maximum

i. How about examples in economics Utility maximization subject to budget constraint, cost
minimization subject to output constraint, output maximization subject to cost constraint …?

3.6. Economic Applications: Three different economic applications are carried out here. These
include, applications to utility maximization subject to budget constraint, output maximization in
relation to cost constraint, cost minimization in relation to a fixed output target deadweight loss
of taxation.

3.6.1. Application 1: Consumer Problem/Utility Maximization: Recall the consumer’s

choice of utility maximization is stated thus:

129 | P a g e
 Max U ( z , y )
s.t. Pz z + Py y  I
where Pz is the price of com mod ity z
Py is the price of com mod ity y
I is the consumer ' s income level (bu deg et )
U is the utiltity to be derived from the
consumsption of two com mod ities namely z & y
Lz = U ( z , y ) +  ( I − Pz z + Py y )
L
Lz = = U z −  Pz = 0 1
z
L
Ly = = U y −  Py = 0 2
y
L
L = = I − Pz z − Py y = 0 3


Re arranging ,
U z Pz Uz Uy
= 4 such that ,  = =
U y Py Pz Py
Equation 4 sympolizes the equality
between psychic trade − off and
monetary trade − off between both com mod ities
The value of  indicates that at the point of utility-maximization,
an additional naiar spent on each commodity bundle yields the same marginal utility.

In effect,  equals the “shadow price” of the budget constraint which defines the quantity of utils
that could be obtained with additional naira income of the budget.

Numerical Example: Consider that the function U ( z, y ) = 2 z 0.4 y 0.6

The price of z is N 32 and the price of y is N16
The individual agent has income of 160.
(a) Find the optimal consumption choice of this individual agent.
(b) Prove that at the optimum, the marginal rate of substitution equals the price ratio.
Solution:

130 | P a g e
 L( z , y ) = 2 z 0.4 y 0.6 + [160 − 32 z − 16 y ]
L
Lz = = 0.8 z −0.6 y 0.6 − 32 = 0 1
z
L
Ly = = 1.2 z 0.4 y −0.4 − 16 = 0 2
y
L
L = = 160 − 32 z − 16 y = 0 3

Dividing eqns ((1) by (2), we have that :
0.8 z −0.6 y 0.6
=2
1.2 z 0.4 y −0.4
0.8 y
=2
1.2 z
2.4 z = 0.8 y
y = 3z
Substituting for y in eqn (3), we have that :
160 − 32 z − 16(3 z ) = 0
160 − 32 z − 48 z = 0
z=2
y=6
( z  , y  ) = (2, 6)

checking for exterma values

2 L
0
z 2
2 L
0
y 2
Thus, (2, 6) are relative max imum values

MU z 0.8 z −0.6 y 0.6 0.8 y 0.8(6)

= MRS = = = =2
MU y 1.2 z 0.4 y −0.4 1.2 z 1.2(2)
Pz 32
= =2
Py 16

Consequently, at the optimum, the marginal rate of substitution equals the price ratio. This is so
because The MRS shows the maximum amount of z that could be traded for one unit of y,
without losingutility. Accordingly, if it is lower than the relative price of y, the consumer would

131 | P a g e
be better off consuming less of y and moreof z. on the other hand, supposing the price of z is
higher than the relative price of y, the rational consumer would be better off consuming more of
y and less of z. also, supposing MUz = MUy = 1 and the price of z is twice that of y, the
consumer could give up one unit of y and get two units of z. relatively, should the price of y be
twice the price of z, the consumer would be giving up one unit of y in order to get two units of z.

Numerical Example: A firm’s utility function is given by U ( z, y ) = 2 z + 4 ln y

Kezia’s budget is given by: I = Pz z + Py y
Where z is quantity of cakes, y is quantity of biscuits, Pz is the price of one unit of
cake, Py is the price of one unit of biscuit and I is Kezia’s total income/budget
(a) Derive Kezia’s demand equations for cake and biscuits
(b) Would Kezia rather decide to spend every additionalnaira income on cakes?

Solution to Numerical Example: Recall that:

MU z Pz U z Pz
= =
MU y Py U y Py
where,
U ( z1 , z2 ) = 2 z1 + 4 ln z2

MU z Pz U z Pz
= =
MU y Py U y Py
where,
U ( z , y ) = 12 z + 4 ln y
U ( z , y )
MU z  = 12
z
U ( z , y ) 4
MU y  =
y y
MU z Pz
Optimality is defined at =
MU y Py

132 | P a g e
 Thus,
12 Pz P
= 3y = z
4 Py Py
y
I = Pz z + Py y
Pz
Since 3 y =
Py
3Py
y=
Pz

I − Py y
z=
Pz
 3P 
I − Py  y 
=  Pz 
Pz
I 3
z= −
Pz Pz
I −3
z=
Pz

I −3 3Py
Kezia’s demand equations for cake and biscuits are z = , y= respectively.
Pz Pz
Kezia would of course rather spend everyadditional naira income on cakes provided her total
budget exceeds the price of cake in the market.

Numerical Example: Kezia’s utility function is given by U ( z , y ) = z + 2 ln y

Kezia’s budget is given by: 24 = 4 z + 2 y
Where z is quantity of cakes, y is quantity of biscuits, N4 is the price of one unit of
cake, N2 is the price of one unit of biscuit and N24 is Kezia’s total income/budget
(a) What is Kezia’s demand for cake and biscuits?
(b) Is it true that Kezia would spend every naira in additional income on cakes?

133 | P a g e
 MU z Pz U z Pz
= =
MU y Py U y Py
where,
U ( z , y ) = z + 2 ln y
U ( z , y )
MU z  =1
z
U ( z , y ) 2
MU y  =
y y
MU z Pz
Optimality is defined at =
MU y Py
Given the budget constra int, 24 = 4 z + 2 y

1 Pz y 4
= =
2 Py 2 2
y
2y = 8
y=4

I − Py y
z=
Pz
4
24 − 2  
= 2
4
z =5
( z  , y  ) = (5, 4)

S .O.C :
U 2 ( z , y )
MU zz  = 0 (inconclusive) saddle po int
z 2
 2U ( z , y ) 2
MU yy  = 2
y 2 y
2
At y = 4, MU yy = −  0, local max imum po int
16
Thus, Kezia would be demanding and consuming 5 units of cakes and 4 units of biscuit.
It is true that Kezia would spend every additional naira income on cakes because her total
income is greater than the price of cake (N4). In fact, she won’t buy any more biscuit which is
less expensive compare to the price of cake once her total income/budget increases.

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3.6.2. Application 2: Output-Maximization for a Given Cost and Cost Minimization for a
Given Output: The firm also maximizes its profits by maximizing its output, given its cost
outlay and the prices of the two factors. The firm can reach the optimal factor combination level
of maximum output by moving along the isocost line.

In the theory of production, the profit maximization firm is in equilibrium when, given the cost-
price function, it maximizes its profits on the basis of the least cost combination of factors. For
this, it will choose that combination which minimizes its cost of production for a given output.
This will be the optimal combination for it.

This analysis is based on the following assumptions: There are two factors, labour and capita; All
units of labour and capital are homogeneous; prices of units of labour (w) and that of capital (r)
are given and constant; cost outlay is given; firm produces a single product; price of the product
is given and constant; firm aims at profit maximization and there is perfect competition in the
factor market.

Given these assumptions, the position of least-cost combination of factors for a given level of
output is where the isoquant curve is tangent to an isocost line. At optimal equilibrium,

MPL r
=
MPK w

MPL MPK
=
w r
w r
=
MPL MPK
MPL
where MRTS L , K 
w

The economic interpretation holds that if the firm is to maximize output subject to a cost
constraint, the marginal product of money spent on each factor input should be equal, and the
firm should distribute its money on purchasing the factors inputs accordingly. In effect, the firm
hires one unit of labour provided it spends w amount more of money on labour and this in turn
generates more additional output of MPL.

Numerical Example: Consider that a firm has the following production function
Q = LK − 0.1K 2 − 0.2L2
The prices per unit of L and K are N40 and N50 respectively. If the firm decided to maximize
output in relation to a budget constraint of N1000.

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 i. Calculate the optimal values for K and L.
ii. Consider that the firm’s budget was increased by 20%, calculate the increase in
output given the new budget.

Solution to Numerical Example:

 = LK − 0.1K 2 − 0.2 L2 + [1000 − 40 L − 50 K ]

= K − 0.4 L − 40
L

= L − 0.2 K − 50
K

= 1000 − 40 L − 50 K

SettingF .O.C = 0, we have that :

=0 K − 0.4 L − 40 = 0 1
L

= 0 L − 0.2 K − 50 = 0 2
K

= 0 1000 − 40 L − 50 K = 0 3

Solving for  in (1) & (2), we have that :
 = 0.025K − 0.01L
 = 0.02 L − 0.004 K
Equating  to  ,
0.025 K − 0.01L = 0.02 L − 0.004 K
0.029 K = 0.03L
K = 1.034 L

Substitutingthe value of K int ooutputconstra int, we have as follows :

1000 − 40 L − 50[1.034 L] = 0
1000 = 91.7 L
L = 10.9
K = 11.3
Considering that the firm’s budget was increased by 20%, the increase in output given the new
budget would be calculated as follows:

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  = 0.025(11.3) − 0.01(10.9)
= 0.173
20% increasein budget of the firm is 200.
Therefore, the increase in the fim ' s output is 0.173(200) = 34.6

Consider the following short run production function:

Q = 108L2 − 7.2 L3
i. Calculate the value of L that maximizes output
ii. Calculate the value of L that maximizes average product
iii. Calculate the value of L that maximizes marginal product

Q = 108L2 − 7.2 L3
dQ
= 216 L − 21.6 L2
dL
dQ
Setting = 0,
dL
216 L − 21.6 L2 = 0
L(216 − 21.6 L) = 0
216
L=
21.6
= 10

Checking for reltave max imum po int

d 2Q
= 216 − 43.2 L  0
dL2
d 2Q
At L = 10, 2 = −216  0
dL
Therefore, L = 10 is a reletive max imum po int

The value of L that maximizes average product

Q
AP =
L
108 L2 − 7.2 L3
AP =
L
AP = 108 L − 7.2 L2

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 dAP
= 108 − 14.4 L
dL
dAP
Setting = 0,
dL
108 − 14.4 L = 0
108
L=
14.4
= 7.5
The value of L that maximizes marginal product

Q = 108 L2 − 7.2 L3
dQ
MP = = 216 L − 21.6 L2
dL
dMP d 2Q
Setting = 2 = 216 − 43.2 L
dL dL
dMP
Setting =0
dL
216 − 43.2 L = 0
216
L=
43.2
=5

Checking for reltave max imum po int

d 2 MP
= −43.2  0
dL2
Therefore, L = 5 is a reletive max imum po int

3.6.3. Application 3: Deadweight Loss of Taxation: The deadweight loss of taxation is the
damage caused to economic efficiency and production by a tax. In other words, the deadweight
loss of taxation is a measurement of how far taxes reduce the standard of living among the tax
payers in the society. It is indeed, an excess burden pass on to the consumer, as the socially
optimal quantity of a good or a service is not produced due to monopoly pricing in the case of
fake scarcity, a positive or negative externality, a tax or subsidy, or a binding price ceiling or
price floor such as a minimum wage.

Taxation has the opposite effect of a subsidy. Taxation dissuades consumers from a purchase
while a subsidy induces consumers to purchase a product that would otherwise be too expensive
for them in light of their marginal benefit. This excess burden of taxation therefore epitomizes
the lost utility for the consumer. A common example of this is the tax levied against goods

138 | P a g e
harmful to society and individuals. For example, taxes levied against tobacco. The indirect tax
(VAT), weighs on the consumer affects the utility of the rational consumer.

When a tax is levied on consumers, the demand curve shifts downward in relation to the tax size.
Similarly, when tax is levied on producer/sellers, the supply curve shifts upward by the tax size.
When the tax is imposed, the goods’ price rise and the consumer is made to pay more, and the
price received by seller falls. Consequently, consumers and sellers share the burden of the tax,
notwithstandingthe way and manner of imposition. Since price is the determining factor in the
market, the quantity sold is reduced below what it could have been supposing there was no
taxation. In effect, taxation drops the market size for that given commodity. Accordingly,the
general market size declines below the optimum equilibrium.

Figure 1: Deadweight Loss of Taxation

Source: Wikipedia

Shown in the figure above, is the deadweight loss of taxation whereby the tax increases the price
paid by consumers to Pc and decreases price received by sellers to Pp and the quantity sold
reduces from Qe to Qt.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Define the deadweight loss of taxation

The demand curve is Q ( D ) = 200 − 10 p and the supply curve is Q ( S ) = 10 p

a. A quantity tax of N4 per unit is retained on the good. Calculate the dead-weight loss of the tax.
b. A value (ad valorem) tax of 20% is retained on the good. Calculate the dead-weight loss of the
tax.

139 | P a g e
 At equilibrium, Q( D) = Q( S )
without taxation :
200 − 10 p = 10 p
p = 10
Q = 100
At equilibrium, Q ( D ) = Q ( S )
with taxation :
200 − 10 p = 10 p
Q( S )
pS = +4
10
10 P S = Q( S ) + 40
Q( S ) = 10 p − 40

At equilibrium, 200 − 10 p = 10 p − 40
p = 12
Q = 80
Deadweight loss = Quantity without taxes – Quantity with taxes
= 100 − 80
Deadweigh loss = 20

Deadweight loss to the consumer due to tax imposition of N 4 per unit of consumption = 20 .
The selling price was N10 without taxes but rose to N12 after the imposition of taxes.

Q( S )
pS =
10
80
=
10
=8

It can be observed that the price increase (N2) is not equal to the tax (N4).

4.0 CONCLUSION
In the theory of economic optimization, maximizing or minimizing some functions is relative to
some range of choices available in a certain circumstances. The function allows comparison of
the different selection available for the single-mindedness of determining which selection is the
best. The major economic applications is in cost/losses minimization and profit/revenue
maximization.

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5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed meaning of economic optimization, types of optimization, free
optimization, constrained optimization as well as optimization techniques. Also, we solved some
problems of unconstrained and constrained optimization including applications to utility
maximization subject to budget constraint, output maximization in relation to cost constraint,
cost minimization in relation to a fixed output target deadweight loss of taxation.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Kezia’s utility function is given by U ( z, y ) = 6 z + 4ln y 2
Kezia’s budget is given by: 48 = 8 z + 4 y
Where z is quantity of cakes, y is quantity of biscuits, N8 is the price of one unit of cake, N4 is
the price of one unit of biscuit and N48 is Kezia’s total income/budget
(a) What is Kezia’s demand for cake and biscuits?
(b) Is it true that Kezia would spend every naira in additional income on cakes?
(c) What happens to Keiza’s consumption or demand when Kezia’s income changes
(d) What happens to Kezia’s consumption demand when the prices of both goods
increase?

Considering the present economic hardship as induced by the corona virus pandemic, Miss
Winifred is confronted with hard times. Winifred’s income per day is N200, she spends N100 on
food stuffs and N100 on local transportation despite the lockdown. Though, she is been given a
social allowance in the form of 10 food tickets per day. The tickets can be exchanged for N10
worth of food, and she only has to pay N5 for such tickets. Show the budget line with and
without the food ticket. Assuming Winifred exhibits homothetic consumption preferences, how
much more food will she bargain for once she receives the food tickets?

A firm spends total of N3000 every year in the production of plastic tables and chairs. A unit of
plastic chair costs N75 and a plastic table costs N125.
(a) Write the equation for firm cost constraint and draw it in a diagram.
(b) Consider that the firm never produces plastic chair without the production of plastic
table and never produces a plastic table without the production of a plastic chair,
calculate the units of each products the firm produces. How much of each will she
consume?

Consider that the function U ( z, y ) = 4 z 0.2 y 0.8

The price of z is N 64 and the price of y is N16
The individual agent has income of 264.
(a) Find the optimal consumption choice of this individual agent.
(b) Verify that at the optimum, the marginal rate of substitution equals the price ratio.
Discuss briefly the economics of this equality.

141 | P a g e
 (c) Assume that the price of z falls to 8 , find the optimal consumption choice of this
individual agent.

A University student plans to supplement the monthly allowances of N1000 given to him by his
parent. The student then choose to take up a part time teaching job at the home of a certain rich
man. The part time teaching wage is N200 every month. His utility function is:

U (c, l ) = cl
where Q is units of consumption and l is leisure measured in hours.
The amount ofleisure time that he has left after allowing for necessary activities is 50 hours a
week.
i. Determine the monetary value of the student's endowment?
ii. Set up the maximization problem and decide optimal consumption and leisure.
iii.Derive the demand equation for consumption.
iv. Calculate the number of hours the student would be engaged in a work activity if the
student did not receive any study allowance?

The inverse demand curve (the demand curve but with p instead of q on the left hand side) is
given by Q(Q) = 1000 − 100 p The consumer consumes ten units of the good (Q).
(a) Determine the amount of money needed to compensate the consumer reducing her
consumption to zero?
(b) Suppose now that the consumer is buying the goods at a price of 300 per unit. Now, it
is expected of the consumer to reduce purchases to zero, how much does the consumer
needs to getcompensated?

Bridget has a demand function Q = 20 − 4 p

a. Calculate Bridget’s price elasticity of demand when the price is 6?
b. At what price is the elasticity of demand equal to -1?
c. Suppose Bridget’s demand function takes the general form Q =  −  P . Derive Bridget’s
algebraicexpression for elasticity of demand at an arbitrary price p.

Consider the demand function of a firm is Q( P) = (4 p + 4) − 8

a. Calculate the price elasticity of demand?
b. At what price is the price elasticity of demand equal to minus one?

Suppose we have the following demand and supply equations

D ( p ) = 460 − 2 p
S ( p ) = 300 + 2 p
i. Calculate the equilibrium price and quantity?
142 | P a g e
 ii. The government decides to restrict the industry to selling only 160 units by imposing a
maximumprice and rationing the good. What maximum price should the government
impose?
iii. The government choose that the firms in the industry need not receive more than the
minimum pricethat it would take to have them supply 180 units of the good. In line with
this, the government issued 180allocationslips. If the allocationslips were freely bought
and sold on the open market, what would be theequilibrium price of these slips?
iv Calculate the dead-weight loss from restricting the supply of the goods. Will the dead-
weightloss rise or fall if the government choose not allow the slips to be sold on the
openmarket?

Given the function,

R = 130w1 −15w12 + 25w1w2 − 30w22 + 60w2

s.t. 15w1 + 5w2 = 850

(a) Optimize the function
(b) State the nature of the critical values using the S.O.C
1
Consider an entrepreneur’s short-run total cost function is C = Q 3 − 5Q 2 + 8.5Q + 33 Determine
2
the output level at which the entrepreneur maximizes profit if p = 10. Determine output elasticity
of cost at maximum output level.
Consider that a firm has two production functions for two different goods, namely Q1 & Q2.
Supposing Q1 has a higher elasticity of substitution and a lower value for the parameter 𝜶 than
Q2. Decide the input price ratio at which the input use ratio would be the equal for both goods.
Decide the good would have the higher input ratio if the input price ratio were lower? Decide the
good that would have the higher use ratio if the price ratio were higher?

The long-run cost functions for every firm that supplies Q is C = (1/ Q3 ) − 2Q 2 + 4Q . Businesses
will move into the industry if profits are positive and move out of the industry if profits are
negative. Describe the industry’s long-run supply function. If the demand function is
Q = 1000 − 10 P . Determine equilibrium price, aggregate quantity, and number of firms.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Anton, H. (1995). Calculus with Analytic Geometry (5th ed.), John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Bertsekas, Dimitri P. (1982). Constrained Optimization and Lagrange Multiplier Methods. New
York: Academic Press.
Larson, Ron; Edwards, & Bruce H. (2009). Calculus (9th ed.), Brooks/Cole.

143 | P a g e
Prosser, Mike (1993). "Constrained Optimization by Substitution". Basic Mathematics for
Economists. New York: Routledge
Thomas, George B.; Weir, Maurice D.; & Hass, Joel (2010). Thomas' Calculus: Early
Transcendentals (12th ed.). Addison-Wesley.
Stewart, James (2008). Calculus: Early Transcendentals (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole.
Sydsaeter, K. & Hammond, P. J. (2008) Essential Mathematics for Economic Analysis, (3rd ed.),
FT Prentice Hall.
Wenyu Sun; Ya-Xiang Yua (2010). Optimization Theory and Methods: Nonlinear Programming.
Springer.

144 | P a g e
UNIT 4: DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

CONTENTS
1.0. Introduction
2.0. Objectives
3.0. Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Differential Equations
3.1.1. Ordinary Differential Equation
3.1.2. Partial Differential Equation
3.1.3. Homogenous Differential Equation
3.2 Order and Degree of Differential Equations
3.3 General and Particular Solutions
3.4 Solving Differential Equations
3.5. Application of Differential Equations to Economics:
3.5.1. Application I (Economic Equilibrium Analysis)
3.5.2. Application 2 (Time Path Analysis)
3.5.3. Application 3 (Modelling Economic Growth)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0. Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1. 0. INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we focused on the concept of differential equations, order and degree of differential
equations, general and particular solutions of differential equations, solving differential
equations.

2.0. OBJECTIVES
After a successful study of this unit, students would be able to do the following:
• Evaluate integral of differential equations
• Evaluate order and degree of differential equations
• Evaluate general and particular solutions of differential equations
• Solve differential equations
• Apply differential equations to economic problems

3 MAIN CONTENT

145 | P a g e
3.1 Definition of Differential Equation
A differential equation (DE) is an equation of functions and their derivatives. In other words,
such equations have derivatives contained in them. Examples of Differential Equations are these
two:
dy
= z9 − 6
dz
dy = ( z 9 − 6)dz

A standard first order linear difference equation is of the form.

yt +1 + byt = c

On the other hand a standard first order linear differential equation is of the form

dy
+ by = d .
dt

Only dy / dx can enter a 1st order differential equation and it takes various powers to enter
dy / dx, ( dy / dx ) , ( dy / dx ) , ( dy / dx ) , ( dy / dx ) etc . Examples of linear differential equations
2 3 4 5

are the following:

d3y  dy 
− 7  + 2y = 0
 dx 
3
dx
d5y 3d y 2  dy 
2
+ x  2  − x   = 2 xe
x

 
5
dx  dx  dx

A simple dynamic market model for the (discrete case) will appear as
QtD = b − dpt b, d  0
QtS = −c + fpt −1 c, f  0
The demand equation simply states that quantity demanded at the current time t is a function of
price at the current time t. The supply equation states indicates that quantity supplied at the
current time t is a function of the price in the previous time t-1. This is in contrast to the static

146 | P a g e
model where the issue of time is not taken into thought. Equating and rearranging will yield the
standard first order linear difference equation.

QtD = b − dp b, d  0
QtS = −c + fp c, f  0
A differential equation will consider the speed of adjustment to equilibrium in a situation of
excess demand
dp
=  (QtD − QtS ) where  is the speed of adjustment .
dt
Substituting the demand and supply functions into the differential equation yields
dp
=  b − dp − (−cfp ) 
dt
Opening the brackets on the right hand side gives
dp
=  (b − dp + c − fp )
dt
Re-arranging, it gives
dp
=  ( d + f ) p =  (b + c )
dt
This is a market first order linear differential equation.There are two common types of
differential equation, namely, ordinary and partial DE.

3.1.1. Ordinary Differential Equation: An ordinary differential equation relates functions of

one variable to the derivatives of the variable. Thus, OED is the type of DE that differential
equation involving total derivatives of dependent variables with respect to only one
independent variable. An example of a linear ordinary differential equation of order n is given
by:

dny d n −1 y d n−2 y dy
 0 ( x) n
+ 1 ( x ) n −1
+  2 ( x ) n−2
+ ... +  n −1 ( x) +  n ( x) y = f ( x)
dx dx dx dx

3.1.2. Partial Differential Equation:A partial differential equation relates functions of more
than one variable to the partial derivatives of the variables.Accordingly, it is the differential
equation involving total derivatives of dependent variables with respect to more than one
independent variables.

3.1.3. Homogenous Linear Differentil Equations: An homogenous differential equation is an

equation with constant coefficients such that  n are independent of x. this is given below:

147 | P a g e
 dny d n −1 y d n−2 y dy
0 n
+ 1 n −1
+  2 n−2
+ ... +  n −1 +  n y = 0
dx dx dx dx

3.2 Order and Degree of Differential Equations: The order of a differential equation is the
highest derivative in the equation. In other words, it is the order of the highest differential
coefficient that it holds. The degree of differential equations is the highest power of the highest
derivative in the differential equation.In effect, it is the highest power of the highest order
differential coefficient that the equation holds. So, there are first order, second order differential
equations. First order Differential Equations contains only first derivatives while the Second
order Differential Equations contains second derivatives and also first derivatives.

Consider the following examples:

6
d 3 y  dy 
+   + 4 z − 6 y = 90 (1)
z 3  z 
9
 dy 
5 z +   = 6cos( z ) − cos( y) (2)
 z 
( y ''')3 − 18( y ')2 + 10 y = 5 (3)

i. The first differential equation has order 3 (the highest derivative appearing is the second
derivative) and degree 1 (the power of the highest derivative is 1.)

ii. The second differential equation has order 1 (the highest derivative appearing is the first
derivative) and degree 9 (the power of the highest derivative is 9.).

iii. The third differential equation has order 3 (the highest derivative appearing is the third
derivative) and degree 3 (the power of the highest derivative is 3.)

3.3 General and Particular Solutions: When solving differential equations, we obtain the
general solution first, before proceeding to obtain the particular solution. The general solution
encompasses a constant, k while the particular solution is obtained by substituting known values
called the initial value conditions of the variables say, z and y into the general solution in order
to evaluate the value of the constant of integration.

In effect, the general solution is the sum of the complementary function and a particular integral
and this can be mathematically expressed as:
y( x) = yc + y p = Ae− ax + y(0)e− ax
Where,

148 | P a g e
 yc = Ae− ax (complementary function) (1)
− ax
y (0) = y (0)e ( particular solution) (2)
The complementary function (yc) is the solution of the homogenous ODE. By equivalence, what
this means is that whenever any particular value is substituted for A, the solution becomes a
particular solution and it is such that y(0) is the only value that can make the solution fulfill the
initial condition. In effect, the result of definitizing the arbitrary constant is christened the
particluar/definite solution.

3.4 Solving Differential Equations

It is worthy of note to mention that the solution to a differential equation is not numerical, it is a
function y(x) and this very solution is free to exhibits any derivative or differential notations.The
solution to a DE will always involve integration at some point.

Numerical Example 1: Consider the differential equation below:

dy − 12 zdz = 0
Obtain both general and particular solutions given that y (0) = 6 .
Solution to Numerical Example 1: General solution for the differential equation is obtained by
integration as follows:

dy − 12 zdz = 0
dy = 12 zdz

 dy =  12 zdz
12 z 2
y= +k
2
y = 6z2 + k
Particular solution for the differential equation is obtained by substituting y(0) = 6 to the general
solution. Thus, at z = 0, y = 6 such that:
y = 6z2 + k
6 = 6(0) 2 + k
k =6
Numerical Example 2: Find the particular solution of
y ' = 10
Given that when z = 0, y = 5.

Solution to Numerical Example 1:

149 | P a g e
 y ' = 10
dy = 10dz

 dy =  10dz
y = 10 z + k
At z = 0, y = 5
k =5

Numerical Example 3:Solve the initial value problem

2 x( y + 1)dx − 2 ydy = 0
where x = 0, y = −2
Solution to Example 3:
2 xydx + 4 xdx = ydy
dy 2 x( y + 1)
=
dx y
ydy = 2 x( y + 1)dx
  1 
 1 −  y + 1   dy = 2 xdx
x 2 = y − ln y + 1 + k
We now use the initial conditions y(0) = - 4.
(0) 2 = −4 − ln −3 + k
Thus,

x 2 = y − ln y + 1 + 5

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Describe the relationship between a difference equation and a differential equation.

3.5. Application of Differential Equations to Economics:The mathematical theory of

differential equations developed with the sciences where the equations had originated together
with the results founding application.In economics, differential equations are used to model
equilibria, the time path analysis, economic growth etc.

3.5.1. Application I (Economic Equilibria Analysis):Equilibrium is a state of a system which

does not change. If the dynamics of a system is described by a system of differential equations,
then equilibria can be estimated by setting all derivatives equl to zero. An equilibrium is
asymptotically stable if the system always returns to it after small disturbances. If the system
moves away from the equilibrium after small disturbances, then the equilibrium is unstable.

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In mathematical economics, stability theory addresses the stability of solutions of differential
equations and of trajectories of dynamical systems with respect to any slight perturbations of
initial conditions. The economic example is the price equilibrium points. For a given price
trajectory it can be ascertained if a small change in the initial condition will lead to comparable
behavior. Therefore, stability theory addresses the question of will a tracjectory converge to the
given trajectory. For example, will the general price level converge to the equilibrium price
level?

An equilibrium solution to an autonomous system of first order ordinary differential equations is

stable iff: for every (small)   0 , there exists an   0 such that every solution having initial
conditions within the distance f (t0 ) − f e   of the equilibrium stays within the distance
f (t ) − fe   t  t0 . It is asymptotically stable if it is stable and there exists  0  0 such that
whenever f (t0 ) − f (0)   0 , then f (t )  f e as t →  . In effect, stability requires that the
trajectories do not change significantly under slight perturbations.

Mathematically, let the autonomuous differential equation be given by the following equation,
dx
= f ( x)
dt

The stability theorem holds that if x(t ) = x* is an equilibrium such that f ( x* ) = 0 , then,

i. Then, the equilibrium x(t ) = x* is stable f ! ( x* )  0

ii. the equilibrium x(t ) = x* is unstable f ! ( x* )  0
Stable equilibria are described by a negative slope whereas unstable equilibria are described by
a positive slope.

3.5.2. Application 2 (Time Path Analysis): Consider the following dynamic model of demand
and supply,

QD =  −  P ( ,   0)
Q S = − +  P ( ,   0)
The equilibrium price if obtained by equating demand to supply such that:

 +
PE =
 +
We can determine the time path of the price level P (t ) if the initial conditions are such that

151 | P a g e
P E  P(0) . Given that the rate of change of price level is proportional to excess demand, we
have that:
dP
=  (Q D − Q S ) (  0)
dt
Where  is the adjustment coefficient of the market model. By substitution for both demand and
supply, we have:

dP
= [ ( −  P ) − (− +  P )]
dt
dP
=  ( +  ) −  ( +  ) P
dt
dP
+  ( +  ) P =  ( +  )
dt

  +   −  ( +  ) t  + 
P(t ) =  P(0) − +
 +  
e
  +
Thus, P(t ) = ( P(0) − P E ) e − kt + P E
where k =  ( +  )
Accordingly, while the complementary function is given by ( P(0) − P E )e− kt , the particular
solution is given by P E . Thus, P(t ) = ( P(0) − P E ) e− kt + P E (general Solution). The intertemporal
equilibrium price level is denoted by P E and the deviation from equilibrium is ( P(0) − P E )e− kt .

The dynamic stability of the equilibrium of the model can be deduced on the ground that if k > 0,
the time path of price level leads to equilibrium price level, that is, P(t) leads to P E and the
model becomes dynamically stable.

3.5.3. Application 3 (Modelling Economic Growth): Recall the rudimentary tenets of the
Solow growth model which says that the key to short-run growth is increased investments, while
technology and efficiency improve long-run growth. Accordingly, the Solow’s growth equation
is given by:

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 dk
= g (k ) = sAk  −  k
dt
dk
= sAk  −  k
dt
g '(k ) = sA k  −1 − 
Re call , y = Ak 1−
dy dk
= (1 −  ) Ak −
dt dt
Re writing the equation, we have that :
dk 1  k  dy
=  
dt 1 −   A  dt
substituting int o the Solow ' s growth model , we have :
1  k   dy
  = sAk  −  k
1 −   A  dt
Dividing both sides by k and multiplying by A yields :

1 dy  A
= [ sAk  −  k ]   
1 −  dt k 
1 dy
= sA2 −  k 1−
1 −  dt
dy
= (1 −  ) sA2 −  k 1−
dt
dy
= (1 −  ) sA2 −  y
dt

By separating variables, we have that:

dy
= (1 −  ) sA2 −  y
dt
dy
= (1 −  )dt
sA −  y
2

Integrating both sides of the equation with respect to t, we have that:

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 dy
 sA 2
−y 
= (1 −  )dt

1
− ln( sA2 −  y ) = (1 −  )t + K

ln( sA2 −  y ) = −  (1 −  )t + K
sA2 −  y = Ke −  (1− ) t
sA2
y= + Ke −  (1− ) t

whereK is an arbitrary constant of integration. Indeed, differential equations can be applied to
analyze the Solow’s economic growth model.

4.0 CONCLUSION
A differential equation contains differentials whose solution necessitates integration at some
point in time.The theory of differential equations and dynamical systems deal with asymptotic
properties of solutions and the trajectories.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the meaning of differential equations, order and degree of
differential equations, general and particular solutions of differential equations, and also gave
some numerical examples on how differential equations are solved.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Determine which of the following equations are ordinary differential equations and which are
partial differential equations:
 d 5 z   d 3z 
 5  + 9  3  + 2 z = sin t
 dt   dt 
 d2y 
2
 dy 
 2  + [ yz   ] = 0
 dz   dz 
 d2y   dy 
 2  + [28  ] + 4 y = 0
 dz   dz 
2. What are the orders of the following differential equations:
z '+ zy = z 4
( z ')6 = sin z
 6 y   5 y 
 6  + 2[ 5 ] + y = e
5z

 z  z
 2w   2w   2w 
 2  +  + [5  2 ] = cos zy
  z   zy   y
3. Differentiate between linear and non-linear ordinary differential equations.

154 | P a g e
4. What is homogeneity all about in the discussion of differential equation?
5. Give 6 examples of a non-linear differential equation.
6. Give 6 examples of a non-linear differential equation that can be approximated by a linear
differential equation.
7. Define a system of differential equations
7. Explain the dissimilarity between the complementary function and the particular integral of a
differential equation?
8. Why is the solution to a differential equation the complementary function plus the particular
integral?
9. Expalin the rationale behiod using a complementary function to evaluate the solution of
linear differential equations?
10. Solve the following differential equation, if the initial conditions are given use to definitize
the arbitrary constants:
4t 2 y = 20t , y (0) = 12
11. Consider the following market and supply functions,

Q D = 80 − 20 Pt
Q S = 4 + 18 Pt −1

Q D = 90 − 15 Pt
Q S = 60 + 3Pt −1
Determine equilibrium price and quantity for each market. Supposing there was an initial price
30% below the equilibrium price for each market, determine the number of periods necessary for
each price to adjust to within 3 percent of equilibrium.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Anton, H. (1995). Calculus with Analytic Geometry (5th ed.), John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Hoy, M., Livernois, J., McKenna, C., Rees, R., & Stengos, T. (2001) Mathematics for
Economics,
(2nded.), MIT Press.
Jain, T.R. (July 2006). Microeconomics and Basic Mathematics. New Delhi: VK Publications.
Katz, V. (1982). "Change of Variables in Multiple Integrals: Euler to Cartan", Mathematics
Magazine, 55 (1): 3 - 11.
Larson, Ron; & Edwards, Bruce H. (2009). Calculus (9th ed.). Brooks/Cole.
Leader, Jeffery J. (2004). Numerical Analysis and Scientific Computation. Addison Wesley.
McClave, J. T., Benson, P. G., & Sincich, T. (1998). A First Course in Business Statistics (7th
ed.) Prentice Hall.
Prosser, Mike (1993). "Constrained Optimization by Substitution". Basic Mathematics for
Economists. New York: Routledge. pp. 338 - 346

155 | P a g e
Renshaw, Geoff (2005). Maths for Economics. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 516 -
526.

Sydsaeter, K. & Hammond, P. J. (2008) Essential Mathematics for Economic Analysis, 3rd
edition, FT Prentice Hall.
Stewart, James (2008). Calculus: Early Transcendentals (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole.

MODULE 4: LINEAR/NON-LINEAR PROGRAMMING, AND GAME THEORY

UNIT 1 Linear Programming

UNIT 2Non-Linear Programming
UNIT 3Game Theory

UNIT 1: LINEAR PROGRAMMING

CONTENTS
1.0. Introduction
2.0. Objectives
3.0. Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Linear Programming
3.2 Mathematical Representation of Linear Programming Problems
3.3 Linear Programming Techniques
3.3.1 Simplex Algorithm of Linear Programming
3.3.2 Graphical Method of Linear Programming
3.4 Applications of Linear Programming
3.5 Solving Numerical Problems of Linear Programming

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary

156 | P a g e
6.0. Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0. References/Further Readings

1. 0. INTRODUCTION
Under this unit one, we shall be discussing the meaning of linear programming, carry out a
mathematical representation of linear programming problems, evaluate some linear programming
techniques and also solve specific numerical problems of linear programming.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After a successful study of this unit, students should be able to do the following:
• Provide mathematical expression of linear programming problems
• Solve linear programming problems via simplex algorithm/graphical method
• Discuss linear programming models/techniques

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Linear Programming
Linear programming (LP) is a mathematical programming technique for the optimization of a
linear objective function, subject to both linear equality and inequality constraints. The objective
function of an LP is a real-valued function such that a linear programming algorithm situates a
point on the graph of the function where the function has the minimum or maximum values.

3.2. Fundamental Theorem of Linear Programming

Given that a bounded LPP has optimal solutions, then at least one of the solutions must occurs at
a corner point of the feasible region. Also, if a feasible region is bounded, then there exits both a
maximum value and a minimum value for the objective function. Relatively, if the feasible
region is unbounded, only a minimum value exists for the objective function. In the absence of a
feasible region, there is neither a maximum nor a minimum for the objective function.
Consequently, while some corner points are established on either the x-axis or the y-axis, other
corner points are found at the point of intersection of binding constraints. The origin (0, 0) is not
a corner point for a minimization problem but a corner point for the maximization problem. To
find the exact coordinates of a corner point at the intersection of two or more binding constraints,
we ought to solve a system of linear equations.

For example, consider that an automobile company manufactures four different brands of cars,
Toyota (T), Nissan (N), and Mercedes (M) and the selling price per unit of car manufactured in
dollar are given as 10, 14, and 13, respectively. The company having employed 10 trained hands,
20 untrained hands and work 2 hours per day desires to maximize sales. The time to manufacture
one unit of each brand of car when utilizing both the trained and untrained workers is given
below

157 | P a g e
 Product Toyota Nissan Mercedes
(T) (N) (M)
Trained hours 2 4 6
Untrained hours 6 4 2

In standard form, the LP can be represented as follows:

Let the unit of Toyota (T) be Z1 while the selling price per Z1 is 50
Let the unit of Nissan (N) be Z2 while the selling price per Z2 is 20
Let the unit of Mercedes (M) be Z3 while the selling price per Z3 is 30

Therefore, the objective function is to maximize and it is written as:

Π =50Z1+ 20Z2 + 30Z3
The total hours for trained personnel is 10 x 2 = 20
The total hours for unskilled personnel is 20 x 2 = 40

The 20 hours and 40 hours are to be shared among the various brands of cars (T, N, & M) as
follows:
2 Z1 + 4 Z2 + 6 Z3≤ 20 (limit/constraint on trained hands)
6Z1 + 4Z2 +2 Z3 ≤ 40 (limit/constraint on untrained hands)
Canonically, we have it as:
Maximize : 50Z1 + 20Z2 + 30Z3
Subject to:
2Z1 + 4Z2 + 6Z3  20
6Z1 + 4Z2 + 2Z3  40
In matrix form this becomes, we have:
 Z1 
Maximize : [T N M]  Z 2 
 Z 3 
Subject to:
 Z1  T 
 2T1 + 4N2 + 6M3    
6T1 + 4N2 + 2M3  Z2    N 
    
 Z3   M 
In effect, Z1, Z2, &Z3 are the decision variables of the linear programming problem.

3.3 Linear Programming Techniques

3.3.1. Graphical Method of Linear Programming: The graphical method solves LP problems
by constructing a feasible solution at a vertex of the polygon and then walking along a path on

158 | P a g e
the edges of the polygon to vertices with non-decreasing values of the objective function until an
optimum is attained. In which case, the LPP must embraces two decision variables such as X1
and X2. The graphical method necessitates the determination of the solution space that defines
the feasible solution as well as the optimal solution from the feasible region as shown in the
figure below.

Solving a LLP requires the following steps:

1. Listing the objective function
2. Listing the problem constraints
3. Listing the non-negative constraints.
4. Graph the constraints as equations, by ignoring the inequality sign in order to
find the feasible region
5. Identify all the corner points of the feasible region
6. Substitute the corner points back into the objective function.

Geometrically, the linear constraints define the convex feasible region, of possible values for the
variables being described. The figure below presents the two-variable case feasible region.

Figure 1: Feasible Region of LPP

Source: Wikipedia

3.3.2. Simplex Algorithm of Linear Programming: The simplex algorithm necessitates

performing successive pivot operations which yields enhanced feasible solution. Consequently,
the choice of pivot entry at each step is basically ascertained on the basis of the fact that the pivot
advances the solution. In effect, there is the procedure of entering and leaving variable selection
respectively.

159 | P a g e
Given that entering variable increases from zero to a positive number, the value of the objective
function decreases because the derivative of the objective function with respect to this variable is
negative and also the pivot column is selected in such a manner that guarantee the equivalent
entry in the objective row of the tableau to be positive. Therefore, changing choice of entering
variable in such a way that selects a column where the entry in the objective row is negative, the
algorithm finds the maximum of the objective function

Conversely, with a pivot column selected, the choice of pivot row becomes ascertained on the
requirement that the resulting solution be feasible. Hence, only positive entries in the pivot
column are considered as it guarantees value of the entering variable to be nonnegative. Given
that the entering variable can assume nonnegative values in the absence of no positive entries in
the pivot column, the pivot row is then selected such that other basic variables remain positive.
This guarantees that the value of the entering variable is at a minimum.

3.3 . Applications of Linear Programming

1. Many practical problems in operations research can be expressed as linear programming
problems.
2. It is currently utilized in company management, such as planning, production,
transportation, technology and other issues.
3. Industries that use linear programming models include transportation, energy,
telecommunications, and manufacturing.
4. LP is worthwhile in modeling economic planning and assignment problems.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION
Linear programming is a widely used field of optimization for several reasons. Why?

Solving Numerical Problems of Linear Programming

Solving linear programming problems requires solving system of linear inequalities with two
variables along with linear optimization.

Numerical Example 1: A restaurant offers two types of dishes, namely, A & B. For sake of
making profits, the restaurant must sell a minimum of 80 dishes of type A and a minimum of 50
dishes of type B. Sales record available show that the restaurant makes a profit of N450 for each
dish A and N400 for each dish B. At best, the restaurant accommodates a total of 300 customers.
Determine the number of dish A & B that must be sold in order to maximize profits?

Solution 1: Let x = no of dish A, and y = no of dish B, minimum of 50 dish A implies 50 or more

dishes A should be sold such that is, y ≥ 50; minimum of 80 dish B implies 80 or more dishes B
should be sold. That is, x ≥ 80; the sum of dishes A & B should be 300 or fewer, that is, x + y ≤
300.

160 | P a g e
Thus, the objective function along with the three mathematical constraints is:
 (Pr ofit ) = 450x + 400 y
Constraints :, x  80
y  50
x + y  300
Plotting each of the inequalities as equations, we ignore the inequality sign in order to find the
corner solutions required to obtain the feasible region.
x = 80, y = 50
 (80,50)
when x = 80,
80 + y = 300
y = 220
 (80, 220)

when y = 50,
x + 50 = 300
x = 250
 (250,50)

Boundary Intercepts Test (0,0) Corners Revenue

x = 80 (80, 50) 0  96, false (0, 0)  (Pr ofit ) = 0
y = 50 (80, 220) 0  50, false (80, 50)  (Pr ofit ) : 450(80) + 400(50) = 56,000
x + y = 300 (250,50) (80, 220)  (Pr ofit ) : 450(80) + 400(220) = 124,000
The maximum profit is N132,00 and it occurs at (250,50)  (Pr ofit ) : 450(250) + 400(50) = 132,000
the corner where x =250 and y = 50
respectively.

161 | P a g e
The corner, (125, 25) maximizes profit. Therefore, we conclude that the airline should sell 125
coach tickets and 25 first-class tickets in order to maximize profits.

Numerical Example 2: A bakery firm decides to use 80mg of flower and 100mg yeast to produce
soft bread and hard bread. Flower cost N5 and yeast cost N4. The bakery decides to bake bread
that would have at least the recommended daily flower intake of about 2200mg, but would like
to maintain a double of the daily intake. In order to minimize cost, how many kg of flower and
yeast should be used in the production of soft bread and hard bread?

Solution 2: Let x = no of kg of flower and y = no of kg of yeast so that the cost for x flower
would be 5x and the cost for y yeast would be 3y.

Bread must contain at least 2200mg of flower and not more than 2200 × 2 = 4400mg of yeast
respectively.

Mathematically, we have 80x mg of potassium in x servings of apricots and 100y mg of

potassium in y servings of dates, that is,
80 x + 100 y  2200
The same sum should be less than or equal to 4400 mg of potassium, that is,
80 x + 100 y  4400 .
Thus, the objective function along with the mathematical constraints are given by:
C(cos t ) = 5x + 3 y
Constraints : 80 x + 100 y  2200
80 x + 100 y  4400
x0
y0

162 | P a g e
Graphing the constraints as equations, we ignore the inequality sign in order to solve for the
corner solutions from bottom-to-top and left-to-right that could be used to form the feasible
region:
x = 0, y = 0
when x = 0,
80 x + 100 y = 2200
100 y = 2200
y = 22
 (0, 22)
when y = 0,
80 x = 2200
x = 27.5
 (27.5, 0)

x = 0, y = 0
when x = 0,
80 x + 100 y = 4400
100 y = 4400
y = 44
 (0, 44)
when y = 0
80 x = 4400
x = 55
 (55, 0)

Boundary Intercepts Test (0,0) Corners Cost

80 x + 100 y = 2200 (0, 22) , 0  2200, false (0, 22) C(cos t ) : 5(0) + 3(22) = N 66
(27.5, 0)
80 x + 100 y = 4400 (0, 44) , 0  4400, true (27.5, 0) C(cos t ) : 5(27.5) + 3(0) = N137.5
(55, 0)
(0, 44) C(cos t ) : 5(0) + 3(44) = N132
The minimum cost is N66 and it occurs at the (55, 0) C(cos t ) : 5(55) + 3(0) = N 275
corner where x =0 and y = 22 respectively.

163 | P a g e
The point, (0, 22) minimizes cost. Therefore, we conclude that the company create bars that
contain no dried apricots and 22 servings of dried dates in order to minimize costs.

Numerical Example 5: ShaibuIyora limited produces three brands of cars, namely Toyota, Nissan
and Mercedes. The production generates profit of 20, 60, and 30 respectively. Each unit of car
uses 2, 4 and 6 hours of trained personnel and 6, 4 and 2 hours of untrained personnel
respectively. There are 20 hours of trained and 40 hours of untrained personnel that are available.
Find the production plan that maximizes Shaibu’s profits using the Simplex Algorithm.

Solution 5: Proceed in the following steps.

Step 1: Let unit of Toyota be Z1, unit of Nissan be Z2, unit of Mercedes be Z3, profit per Z1 is 50,
profit per Z2 is 20 & profit per Z3 is 30.
Step 2: Sate Shaibu’s objective function and constraints knowing fully well that 20hrs of
machine capacity and 40hrs of labour are to be shared among the products as follows:
Products Toyota Nissan Mercedes Constraints

Trained hours 2 4 6 20

Untrained hours 6 4 2 40

Maximize  = 50Z1 + 20Z 2 + 30Z3

subject to : 2Z1 + 4Z 2 + 6Z3  20

6Z1 + 4Z 2 + 2Z3  40

164 | P a g e
Step 3: Set up the initial table by arranging the objective function and equalized constraints from
Step 4 as follows: (How do the slacks come in and what do they stand for?)

Table 1: Simplex tableau

Solution Products Slack Solution

variable Variables
Z1 Z2 Z3 S1 S2
S1 2 4 6 1 0 20
S2 6 4 2 0 1 40
 20 60 30 0 0 0

Step 4: What is the highest profit amount? 60 and what product or column has the highest
amount? Z2. Divide the solution column by the values of the column with the highest amount.

20/4 5
40/4 10
Step 5: Select the row with the lowest value (S1 row) and obtain the entry which appear in both
the identified column (Z2) and row (S1) = 4. This is the pivot element

Step 6: Divide all entries in the identified row S1 by the value of the pivot element 4 and change
the solution variable to the heading of the identified column, Z2.

Solution Products Slack Variables Solution

Variable Z1 Z2 Z3 S1 S2
New Row 1 2/4 1 6/4 1/4 0 5
(Z2)
Old Row 2 6 4 2 0 1 40
(S2)
Old Row 3 20 60 30 0 0 0


Step7: We commence row by row operation using newly identified row 1 by making all entries
in the pivot element column to become zero.

Step 8: To change row 2, multiply the new row 1 (Z2) by 4 and subtract it from row 2 (S2) as
follows:

165 | P a g e
 Solution Products Slack Variables Solution
Variable
Z1 Z2 Z3 S1 S2

Old Row 2 6 4 2 0 1 40
(S2)

4 x New Row 2/4 x 4 = 1x4= 6/4 x 4 = 6 1/4 x 4 = 4 0x4= 5 x 4 = 20

1 (Z2)
2 4 0

New Row 2 = 4 0 -4 -1 1 20
S2- 4(Z2)

Step 9: To change row 3, multiply New Row 1(Z2) by 60 and subtract it from row 3

Solution Products Slack Variables Solution

Variable
Z1 Z2 Z3 S1 S2

Old Row 3 (Z) 20 60 30 0 0 0

60 x New Row 2/4 x 60 = 1x 60 = 6/4 x 60 = ¼ x 60 = 0 x 60 = 0 5 x 60 =

1 (Z2) 30 60 90 15 300

New Row 3 = -10 0 -60 -15 0 -300

 - 60(Z2)

Step10: Put together all new rows i.e. New Row 1, New Row 2 and New Row 3 to check for
optimality

Solution Products Slack Variables Solution

Variable
Z1 Z2 Z3 S1 S2

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 New Row 1 2/4 1 6/4 1/4 0 5
(Z2)

New Row 2 4 0 -4 -4 1 20
(S2)

New Row 3 -10 0 -60 -15 0 -300

Step 11: Check for optimality. To test for optimality in maximization case, all entries in the
profit row must either be zero or negative. In this case, the profit is at optimum.

i. How is the table interpreted? What is the profit? What are the optimal values of the
variables? What determines when not to continue with the process? Is there any excess
capacity etc?
ii. How is the case of minimization treated?

4.0 CONCLUSION
The signficance of linear programming techniques derived from it optimization principle as well
as it foundation of microeconomics.Revise please

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the meaning of linear programming, provided a mathematical
representation of linear programming problems, graphical solution to a LLP as well as the
simplex algorithm of linear programming and solved some numerical questions on linear
programming.

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Consider the following LPP,

Maximize 100Z1 + 40Z 2 + 60Z 3

subject to : 4Z1 + 8Z 2 + 12Z 3  40
12Z1 + 8Z 2 + 4Z 3  80
Z1 , Z 2 , Z 3  0

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 Minimize 25Z1 + 10 Z 2 + 15Z 3
subject to : Z1 + 2Z 2 + 3Z 3  10
3Z1 + 2 Z 2 + Z 3  20
Z1 , Z 2 , Z 3  0
Maximize − 12 Z1 − 18Z 2 − 24 Z 3
subject to : 18Z1 + 12 Z 2 + 6 Z 3  60
12 Z1 + 30 Z 2 + 18Z 3  90
Z1 , Z 2 , Z 3  0
(a) Solve the LPP using the simplex algorithm
(b) Solve the LPP using the graphical method

2. An automobile manufactures two types of vehicles, Toyota (T) and Benz (B). At the end of
every month a minimum of 6 of each brand of car are manufactured. It takes 9 hours to
manufacture Toyota brand and 8 hours to manufacture Benz in a 1000 working hours of the
month. A minimum of 4 workers are required to manufacture Toyota while 2 workers are
required to manufacture Benz. The profit on Toyota is N2000 and on Benz is N2900
(a) Represent the above information as a system of inequalities.
(b) Prepare the relevant graph of the system and indicate the feasible region.
(c) Determine the number of each type that must be produced each week to make a
maximum profit. Determine the maximum profit.

3. A farmer cultivates Maize and Yam. To cultivate maize requires 5 hours of cutting and 6
hours of stitching. To cultivate yam requires 4 hours of cutting and 3 hours of stitching. The
profit on a maize is N300 and on a tuber of yam is N200. The farmer works for a maximum of 10
hours a day. How many maize and yams should be cultivated in order to maximize profit and
what is the maximum profit.

4. A gardener has 20 hectares of his smallholding available for planting type A and type B of a
flower. He must farm at least 2 hectares of type A maize, 5 hectares of type B in order to satisfy
final demands. The gardener wishes to cultivate more of type A than type B but the labour
available only allows the cultivation of a maximum of 7 times the quantity of type A compared
to type B.
(a) Present the information as a system of inequalities.
(b) Outline the graph of these inequalities.
(c) If the profit on type A of the flower is N5000 and on type B is N6000, determine the
combination of the two types of flower that can guarantee a maximum profit. Calculate
the profit at this level.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Alexander Schrijver (2003). Combinatorial Optimization: Polyhedra and Efficiency. Springer.
Adler, Ilan; Christos, Papadimitriou; & Rubinstein, Aviad (2014), "On Simplex Pivoting Rules
and Complexity Theory", International Conference on Integer Programming and
Combinatorial Optimization, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 17: 13 - 24.
Cornelis Roos, Tamás Terlaky, & Jean-Philippe Vial (2006). Interior Point Methods for Linear
Optimization, Second Edition, Springer-Verlag.
Dantzig, George (May 1987). Origins of the Simplex Method. A History of Scientific
Computing.
Disser, Yann; & Skutella, Martin (2018). "The Simplex Algorithm Is NP-Mighty". ACM Trans.
Algorithms 15 (1): 5:1 - 5:19.
Dmitris Alevras & Manfred W. Padberg (2001). Linear Optimization and Extensions: Problems
and Solutions, Universitext, Springer-Verlag.
Evar D. Nering & Albert W. Tucker (1993). Linear Programs and Related Problems, Academic
Press.
Fearnly, John; & Savani, Rahul (2015), "The Complexity of the Simplex Method", Proceedings
of the Forty-seventh Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing: 201- 208.
Gärtner, Bernd; & Matoušek, Jiří (2006). Understanding and Using Linear Programming.
Berlin: Springer.
George B. Dantzig & Mukund N. Thapa. (2003). Linear Programming 2: Theory and
Extensions. Springer-Verlag.
Gerard Sierksma; & Yori Zwols (2015). Linear and Integer Optimization: Theory and Practice.
CRC Press.
Hansen, Thomas; & Zwick, Uri (2015). "An Improved Version of the Random-Facet Pivoting
Rule for the Simplex Algorithm". Proceedings of the Forty-seventh Annual ACM
Symposium on Theory of Computing: 209 - 218.
Karl-Heinz Borgwardt (1987). The Simplex Algorithm: A Probabilistic Analysis, Algorithms and
Combinatorics, Volume 1, Springer-Verlag, 1987.
Maros, István (2003). Computational Techniques of the Simplex Method. International Series in
Operations Research & Management Science. 61. Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic
Publishers.
Maros, István; & Mitra, Gautam (1996). "Simplex algorithms". In J. E. Beasley (ed.). Advances
In Linear and Integer Programming. Oxford Science. pp. 1- 46.
Mark de Berg, Marc van Kreveld, Mark Overmars, & Otfried Schwarzkopf (2000).
Computational Geometry (2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag.
Michael J. Todd (February 2002). "The Many Facets of Linear Programming". Mathematical
Programming 91 (3): 417- 436.
Murty, Katta G. (2000). Linear Programming. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

169 | P a g e
Richard W. Cottle, (2003). The Basic George B. Dantzig. Stanford Business Books, Stanford
University Press, Stanford, California.
Robert J. Vanderbei (2008). Linear Programming: Foundations and Extensions (3rd ed.),
International Series in Operations Research & Management Science, Vol. 114, Springer
Verlag.
Vanderbei, Robert J. (2001). Linear Programming: Foundations and Extensions. Springer
Verlag.

UNIT 2: NON-LINEAR PROGRAMMING

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CONTENTS
1.0. Introduction
2.0. Objectives
3.0. Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Nonlinear Programming
3.2 Two-dimensional Nonlinear Programming
3.3 Three-dimensional Nonlinear Programming
3.4 Solving Numerical Problems of Nonlinear Programming
3.4.1 Substitution Method of Solution

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0. Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0. References/Further Readings

1. 0. INTRODUCTION
Unit 2 of module 4 discusses the meaning of nonlinear programming, two-dimensional nonlinear
programming, three-dimensional nonlinear programming, solving numerical problems of
nonlinear programming using the substitution method of solution.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After a successful study of this unit, students should be able to do the following:
• Discuss the meaning of nonlinear programming
• Mathematically define both the two-dimensional and three-dimensional nonlinear
programming
• Solving numerical problems of nonlinear programming using thesubstitution method of
solution

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1. Meaning of Nonlinear Programming
Nonlinear programming (NLP) is a mathematical optimization problem in which either the
objective function or the constraints are nonlinear.

3.2. Two-dimensional Nonlinear Programming: The Two-dimensional nonlinear

programming problem can be defined as follows:
Maximize f ( z ) = z1 + z2
where z = ( z1 , z2 )

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 z12 + z 22  3
z12 + z 22  5
where ( z1  0, z2  0)

3.3 Three-dimensional Nonlinear Programming: The three-dimensional nonlinear

programming problem can be defined as follows:
Maximize f ( z ) = z1 z2 + z2 z3
where z = ( z1 , z2 , z3 )
7 z12 + 6 z 22 − z32  4
z12 − 6 z 22 + z32  2
where ( z1  0, z2 , 0 z3  0)

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
How will you differentiate between a two dimensional and a three dimensional non-linear
programming problems?

3.4. Solving Numerical Problems of Nonlinear Programming

In this section, we used the substitution and the Langrangian multiplier methods to solve some
numerical nonlinear programming problems.

Numerical Example 1: Consider that a manufacturing firm incurs an annual fixed cost of N96,
000 and variable cost per unit of output N50. The profit function and the demand constraint of
the firm are given by:
Maximize  = qp − 96, 000 − 50q
Subject to : q = 1600 − 49 p
Solution to Numerical Example 1: Calculate the optimal price level of the firm using the method
of substitution.

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 Substituting the constra int int o the profit function,
 = (1600 − 49 p) p − 96, 000 − 50(1600 − 49 p)
 = 1600 p − 49 p 2 − 96, 000 − 80, 000 + 2450 p
 = 4050 p − 176, 000 − 49 p 2

= 4050 − 98 p
p

Setting = 0,
p
98 p = 4050
p = 41.3

Numerical Example 2: Consider the following nonlinear programming problem

Maximize R = 8 z1 − 0.3z12 + 4 z2 − 0.2 z22
Subject to : 2 z1 + 4 z2 = 60
Determine the optimum solution to the nonlinear programming problem using the
(a) Method of substitution.
(b) Langrangian multiplier method

Solution to Numerical Example 2: Using the substitution method, we solve as follows,

Maximize R = 8 z1 − 0.3 z12 + 4 z2 − 0.2 z22

Subject to : 2 z1 + 4 z2 = 60
From the constraint
60 − 4 z2
z1 =
2
z1 = 30 − 2 z2
Substituting the value of z1 into the objective function, we have as follows:
R = 8(30 − 2 z2 ) − 0.3(30 − 2 z2 ) 2 + 4 z2 − 0.2 z22
R = 240 − 16 z2 − 0.3(900 − 120 z2 + 4 z22 ) + 4 z2 − 0.2 z22
R = 240 − 16 z2 − 270 + 36 z2 − 1.2 z22 + 4 z2 − 0.2 z22
R = −30 + 24 z2 − 1.4 z22

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 R = −30 + 24 z2 − 1.4 z22
R
= 24 − 2.8 z2
z2
R
Setting = 0,
z2
2.8 z2 = 24
24
z2 =
2.8
z2 = 8.6

Substituting the value of z2 into the constraint equation, we have that:

2 z1 + 4 z2 = 60
2 z1 + 4(8.6) = 60
60 − 34.4
z1 =
2
z1 = 12.8
Therefore, Total Revenue becomes:
R = 8 z1 − 0.3z12 + 4 z2 − 0.2 z22
= 8(12.8) − 0.3(12.8) 2 + 4(8.6) − 0.2(8.6)2
= N 85.9
Numerical Example 3: A shopping mall developed the following nonlinear programming model
for the purpose of ascertaining the optimal number of shirts (z1) and trousers (z2) that are sold
every day of sales
Maximize S = 5 z1 − 0.2 z12 + 10 z2 − 0.3z22
Subject to : 6 z1 + 25 z2 = 200
Calculate the optimal number of shirts (z1) and trousers (z2) in order to maximize sale (S) using
the
(a) Method of substitution.
(b) Langrangian multiplier method

Solution to Numerical Example 3:Using the substitution method, we solve as follows:

Maximize S = 9 z1 − 0.2 z12 + 10 z2 − 0.3z22

Subject to : 6 z1 + 24 z2 = 300
From the constraint
300 − 24 z2
z1 =
6
174 | P a g e z1 = 50 − 4 z2
Substituting the value of z1 into the objective function, we have as follows:
S = 9(50 − 4 z2 ) − 0.2(50 − 4 z2 ) 2 + 10 z2 − 0.3z22
S = 450 − 36 z2 − 0.2(2500 − 400 z2 + 16 z22 + 10 z2 − 0.3 z22
S = 450 − 36 z2 − 500 + 80 z2 − 3.2 z22 + 10 z2 − 0.3 z22
S = −50 + 54 z2 − 3.5 z22

S = −50 + 54 z2 − 3.5 z22

S
= 54 − 7 z2
z2
S
Setting = 0,
z2
7 z2 = 54
54
z2 =
7
z2 = 7.7

Substituting the value of z2 into the constraint equation, we have that:

z1 = 50 − 4 z2
z1 = 50 − 4(7.7)
z1 = 19.2
Therefore, Total Revenue becomes:
S = 9 z1 − 0.2 z12 + 10 z2 − 0.3z22
= 9(19.2) − 0.2(19.2) 2 + 10(7.7) − 0.3(7.7) 2
= N158.3
Using the Langrangian multiplier method, we solve as follows,

L = 9 z1 − 0.2 z12 + 10 z2 − 0.3 z22 +  (300 − 6 z1 − 24 z2 )

L
= 9 − 0.4 z1 − 6
z1
L
= 10 − 0.6 z2 − 24
z2
L
= 300 − 6 z1 − 24 z2

L L L
Setting = 0, = 0, =0
z1 z2 

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 9 − 0.4 z1 − 6 = 0
10 − 0.6 z2 − 24 = 0
300 − 6 z1 − 24 z2 = 0
We eliminate in order to solve simultaneously as follows
9 − 0.4 z1 − 6 = 0  (−4)
−36 + 1.6 z1 + 24 = 0
L
Combining with equation we have as follows:
z2
−36 + 1.6 z1 + 24 = 0
10 − 0.6 z2 − 24 = 0
 − 26 + 1.6 z1 − 0.6 z2 = 0
L
Combining with equation, we have as follows:

−26 + 1.6 z1 − 0.6 z2 = 0
300 − 6 z1 − 24 z2 = 0
−26 + 1.6 z1 − 0.6 z2 = 0 (−40)
1040 − 64 z1 + 24 z2 = 0
300 − 6 z1 − 24 z2 = 0
1340 − 70 z1 = 0
1340
z1 =
70
z1 = 19

300 − 6 z1 − 24 z2 = 0
300 − 6(19) − 24 z2 = 0
186
z2 =
24
z2 = 7.7
Therefore, total sales becomes:
S = 9 z1 − 0.2 z12 + 10 z2 − 0.3z22
= 9(19.2) − 0.2(19.2) 2 + 10(7.7) − 0.3(7.7) 2
= N158.3

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe the relationship between a linear and a non-linear programming problem

176 | P a g e
4.0 CONCLUSION
Nonlinear programming problems are similar to linear programming problems except that the
NLP… incomplete sentence

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the meaning of nonlinear programming, two-dimensional
nonlinear programming, two-dimensional nonlinear programming, estimation of non-linear least
squares and solved numerical problems of nonlinear programming using the substitution method
of solution and verified with the langragean method.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Consider that a manufacturing firm incurs an annual fixed cost of N36,000 and variable cost per
unit of output N45. The profit function and the demand constraint of the firm are given by:
Maximize  = 3qp − 36, 000 − 51q
Subject to : q = 2400 − 45 p
Find the optimal solution of the firm using the method of substitution.

Suppose the initial investment for machineriesand related technologies of a growing business
wasN100,000 while labour and materials costed N60. Given the following demand function of
the business,
q = 12, 000 − 140 p
i. Formulate the non-linear profit function of the business
ii. Find the optimal price of the growing business
iii. Find the optimal price of the growing business
iv. Find the optimal profit of the growing business

A motorbike company has the following non-linear programming model

Maximize R = 20 z1 − 0.05 z12 + 13z2 − 0.05 z22
Subject to : 1.4 z1 + 3.5 z2 = 50
where z1 is no. of yamaha bikes, z2 is no. of suzuki bikes
Calculate the optimal combination of bikes (z1) and (z2) to be manufactured by the company
using the:
(a) Method of substitution.
(b) Langrangian multiplier method

A Poultry farm is characterized by the following model of nonlinear programming model for the
purpose of ascertain the optimal number of shirt (z1) and trousers (z2) that are sold very day of
sales

177 | P a g e
 Maximize S = 40 z1 − 0.1z12 + 26 z2 − 0.4 z22
Subject to : 4 z1 + 7 z2 = 80
where z1 is no. of old layers, z2 is no. of boilers
Calculate the optimal number of old layers (z1) and boilers (z2) to be farmed to maximize sale (S)
using the:
(c) Method of substitution.
(d) Langrangian multiplier method

7.0. REFRENCES/FURTHER READING

Avriel, Mordecai (2003). Nonlinear Programming: Analysis and Methods. Dover Publishing.
Bazaraa, Mokhtar S. & Shetty, C. M. (1979). Nonlinear programming. Theory and Algorithms.
John Wiley & Sons.
Bonnans, J. Frédéric; Gilbert, J. Charles; Lemaréchal, Claude; & Claudia A. (2006). Numerical
Optimization: Theoretical and Practical Aspects (2nd ed.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Hoy, M., Livernois, J., McKenna, C., Rees, R., & Stengos, T. (2001) Mathematics for
Economics,
(2nd ed.), MIT Press.
Jain, T.R. (July 2006). Microeconomics and Basic Mathematics. New Delhi: VK Publications.
Jan Brinkhuis & Vladimir Tikhomirov (2005), Optimization: Insights and Applications,
Princeton University Press
Leader, Jeffery J. (2004). Numerical Analysis and Scientific Computation. Addison Wesley.
Luenberger, David G.; & Ye, Yinyu (2008). Linear and nonlinear programming. International
Series in Operations Research & Management Science. 116 (3rd ed.). New York:
Springer.
Prosser, Mike (1993). "Constrained Optimization by Substitution". Basic Mathematics for
Economists. New York: Routledge. pp. 338 - 346
Sydsaeter, K. & Hammond, P. J. (2008). Essential Mathematics for Economic Analysis, (3rd ed.),
FT Prentice Hall.
UNIT 3: GAME THEORY

CONTENTS
1.0. Introduction
2.0. Objectives
3.0. Main Content
3.1 Concept of Game vs. Game Theory
3.2 Types of Games
3. 2.1 Cooperative vs. Non-cooperative Games
3. 2.2 Symmetric vs. Asymmetric Games
3. 2.3 Zero-sum vs. Non-zero-sum Games
3. 2.4 Simultaneous vs. Sequential Games

178 | P a g e
 3. 2.5 Perfect Information vs. Imperfect Information Games
3.3 Representation of Games
3.3.1 Extensive form of Game Representation
3.3.2 Strategic form of Game Representation
3.4 Applications of Game Theory
3.5 Solving Numerical Problems of Game Theory

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0. Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0. References/Further Readings

1. 0. INTRODUCTION
Under this unit, we shall be discussing the concept of game vs. game theory, types of games and
various forms of game representation. Also, we shall be solving numerical problem on game
theory.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After a successful study of this unit, students would be able to do the following:
• Discuss the meaning of game vs. game theory
• Explain the different types of games
• Carry out and extensive form of game representation
• Carry out a strategic form of game representation
• Solving numerical problems on game theory

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Game vs. Game Theory
A game is a process of making decisions in circumstances where both conflict and cooperation
exits. It thus implies a competitive circumstance where individuals, firms, institutions,
governments, nations etc., as the case may be, pursue their own interest and no one party can
command the outcome of another.

3.2 Types of Games

3. 2.1 Cooperative vs. Non-Cooperative Games: A game is cooperative if the players enters
into some binding obligations externally enforced through contract law. A game is non-
cooperative if players cannot form agreements.

Table 1: Difference between Cooperative vs. Non-Cooperative Game

Cooperative Game Non-cooperative Game
All agreements need to be executed on basis All agreements need to be self-enforcing by

179 | P a g e
of binding commitment by all players individual players
Describes the strategies, and payoffs of Determines impact of bargaining on payoffs
alliances within each alliance
Can be analyzed through the approach of non- Cannot be analyzed through the approach of
cooperative game theory non-cooperative game theory
Allows analysis of the game without having Do not allow analysis of the game without
to make any assumption about strategic having to make any assumption about
bargaining powers. strategic bargaining powers

3. 2.2 Symmetric vs. Asymmetric Games: A symmetric game is a game where the payoffs
depends on strategies and not on players. That is, the identities of the players can be changed
without changing the payoff to the strategies. Examples of symmetric games include chicken, the
prisoner's dilemma etc.

3. 2.3 Zero-sum vs. Non-Zero-Sum Games: Zero-sum games are games whereby the total
benefit to all players in the game, for every combination of strategies, always adds to zero. In
other words, a player benefits only at the equal expense of others.

Zero-sum Game
Player C Player D
Player C -2, 2 3,-3
Player D 0,0 -1, 1
Suppose that player C takes evens and player D takes odds. Then, each player simultaneously
shows either ODD number or EVEN number. If the number shown is even, player C wins the
game while if the number shown is odd, player D wins the game. Each player has two possible
strategies: show an even or an odd number.
3. 2.4 Simultaneous vs. Sequential Games: Simultaneous games are games where both
players decide on the move to make at the same time or one player is uninformed of actions of
the other. Sequential games are dynamic games where one player is partly informed about the
other player’s actions/move to take.

Table 2: Difference between Simultaneous and Sequential Games

Simultaneous Games Sequential Games
Games are represented with normal form of Games are represented with extensive form of
representation is used to represent representation
Games are strategy types of game Games are mainly extensive-form game
Games are symbolized by Payoff matrices Games are symbolized by Decision trees
Games do not provide for time. Games provide for timing
Players of simultaneous games do not have Players of sequential games take into

180 | P a g e
prior knowledge of opponent's move cognizance prior knowledge of opponent's
move

3. 2.5 Perfect Information vs. Imperfect InformationGames: In perfect information game,

all players are fully informed of actions earlier taken by all other players. Conversely, the
imperfect information game is game in which players do not have complete information set
about the moves previously made by some other players.

3.3 Representation of Games

3.3.1 Extensive form of Game Representation: The extensive form can be used to formalize
games with a time sequencing of moves whereby the node denotes a player’s choice. The player
is specified by a number listed by vertex with promising move of a player symbolized by line out
of the vertex.

3.3.2 Strategic form of Game Representation: The strategic form is the matrix form of game
representation which shows players, strategies, and payoffs as shown in matrix below. As shown
in table 2, 16 is the payoff received by the row player (player C) while 12 is the payoff for the
column player (Player D).

Table 2: Payoff Matrix of 2-Player, 2-Strategy Game

Player D Player D
Player C 16, 12 -3,-3
Player C 0,0 -12, -16

SELF ASSESSEMENT EXERCISE

Discuss the different types of games, discuss their similarities and dissimilarities

3.4 Applications of Game Theory:

i. Game theory is a major method used in mathematical economics and business for
modeling competing behaviors of interacting agents.
ii. Game theoretic analysis aid bargaining, oligopolies and mergers & acquisitions
pricing, fair division, duopolies,
iii. Game theoretic analysis aid information economics and industrial organization,
and political economy.

SELF ASSESSEMENT EXERCISE

Discuss the various areas of applications of game theory

3.4. Solving Numerical Problems of Game Theory

Numerical Example 1: Consider a market whose inverse demand function is given by:

181 | P a g e
 p = 60 − 2Q 60 − 2Q
There are two firms in the market facing the Cournot type of competition. The cost functions of
the firms are given by:
C1 = 30q1
C2 = 2q22
(a) Find the firm whose marginal cost is relatively constant and the firm whose marginal cost is
relatively rising
(b) Derive the reaction functions of both firms.
(c) What are the Cournot equilibrium quantities and price?

Solution to Numerical Example 1: Obtain the marginal cost function of both firms as follows:
Firm 1 marginal cost is relatively constant because,
dC1
= 30
dq1
Firm 2 marginal cost is relatively rising in q2 because,

dC1
= 4q2
dq2

The reaction functions are derived as follows:

 1 = P (Q )q1 − c(q1 )
= (60 − 2Q ) q1 − 30q1
= [60 − 2( q1 + q2 )]q1 − 30q1
= 60 − 2q12 − 2q1q2 − 30
 1
= 60 − 4q1 − 2q2 − 30
q1
 1
Setting =0
q1
60 − 4q1 − 2q2 − 30 = 0
4q1 = 30 − 2q2
30 − 2q2
q1 =
4

182 | P a g e
  2 = P (Q )q2 − c(q2 )
= (60 − 2Q) q2 − 2q22
= [60 − 2( q1 + q2 )]q2 − 2q22
= 60 − 2q1q2 − q22 − 2q22
 2
= 60 − 2q1 − 2q2 − 4q2
q2
 2
Setting =0
q2
60 − 2q1 − 2q2 − 4q2 = 0
60 − 2q1 − 6q2 = 0
60 − 2q1
q2 =
6
30 − 2q2 60 − 2q1
the reaction functions of both firms are thus given by: q1 = & q2 = respectively.
4 6

Substituting the RF q1 into RF q2, we have:

30 − 4q1 − 2q2 = 0
60 − 2q1 − 6q2 = 0 (by elimination)
30 − 4q1 − 2q2 = 0
−120 + 4q1 + 12q2 = 0
−90 + 10q2 = 0
q2 = 9

30 − 2(9)
q1 =
4
q1 = 3
Q* = (q1* + q*2 ) = 12
P = 60 − 2Q*
= 60 − 2(12)
P = 36
The Cournot equilibrium quantities and price are, q1 = 3 , q2 = 9 & P = 36

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe the relationship between an explicit and an implicit function.

183 | P a g e
4.0 CONCLUSION
Game theory is a theory of tactical relations among rational decision-makers. The application of
game theory is all encompassing in social sciences. When a game is presented in normal form, it
is presumed that each player acts simultaneously, that is, without knowing the move/actions of
the other player. On the other hand, extensive form representation shows players have prior
knowledge about each other’s strategy.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the game vs. game theory, explain the different types of games,
provided extensive form of game representation, strategic form of game representation.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Consider the following pay-off matrix:
Player I Player II
A B C
A 12 20 32
B 12 4 56
C 4 12 -3
Determine the strategy that each of the two players should play.

2. Consider the following pay-off matrix of a new contract for academic staff whereby university
management and ASU entered into negotiation that resulted in ASU making 3 different
proposals and management making 3 different proposals.

ASU Management Proposals

Proposals G Q W
V 19 24 14
S 14 15.6 12.5
U 12 17 18

(a) Determine if there is an agreement between ASU and Management. Hint, find the point
of equilibrium if there is
(b) Calculate the mixed strategies for management and ASU
(c) What is the optimum strategy for ASU?
(d) What is the optimum strategy for management?

3. Consider a game between propsective university students namely, Yinka (Y) and her father
Momodu (M) such that Yinka A has to choose whether to seek admission into a univefrsity that
cost N2,000 per semester or not. Momodu has to decide whether to pay get Yinka educated with
a fee of N20,000 or both Yinka and her father share the family income equally. Yinka’s

184 | P a g e
education and family income sharing has some impact on family’s productivity. With no
education and sharing of family’s income, the productivity of the family would be N30,000,
while if either education or family income is shared the family’s productivity would rise and
become N40,000. If both education and family income is shared, the producitity of the family
would be N48,000.

(a) Construct the pay-off matrix for the game

(b) Is there any equilibrium in dominant strategies?
(c) Can you find the solution of the game with Iterated Elimination of Dominated
Strategies?
(d) Is there any Nash equilibrium?

7.0. REFRENCES/FURTHER READING

Aumann, Robert; & Hart, Sergiu (1992). "Handbook of Game Theory with Economic
Applications". 1: 1 - 33.
Aumann, Robert J.; & Heifetz, Aviad (2002). Handbook of Game Theory with Economic
Applications. pp. 1665 - 1686.
Bicchieri, Cristina (1989), "Self-Refuting Theories of Strategic Interaction: A Paradox of
Common Knowledge", Erkenntnis 30 (1-2): 69 - 85.
Camerer, Colin (2003). "Introduction", Behavioral Game Theory: Experiments in Strategic
Interaction, Russell Sage Foundation, pp. 1 - 25.
Carl Shapiro (1989). "The Theory of Business Strategy," RAND Journal of Economics, 20(1),
pp. 125 - 137.
Chastain, E. (2014). "Algorithms, Games, and Evolution". Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences, 111 (29): 10620 - 10623
Colin F. Camerer (1997). "Progress in Behavioral Game Theory," Journal of Economic
Perspectives, 11(4), pp. 167 - 188.
Colin F. Camerer (2003). Behavioral Game Theory, Princeton.
Colin F. Camerer George Loewenstein, & Matthew Rabin, ed. (2003). Advances in Behavioral
Economics, Princeton.
Drew Fudenberg (2006). "Advancing Beyond Advances in Behavioral Economics," Journal of
Economic Literature, 44(3), pp. 694 - 711.
Dutta, Prajit K. (1999). Strategies and games: theory and practice. MIT Press.
Eric Rasmusen (2007). Games and Information, (4th ed.), Description.
Fernandez, L F.; Bierman, H S. (1998), Game Theory with Economic Applications. Addison-
Wesley.
Gibbons, Robert (2001). A Primer in Game Theory. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Gintis, Herbert (2000). Game Theory Evolving: A Problem-Centered Introduction to Modelling
Strategic Behavior, Princeton University Press.

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Joseph Y. Halpern (2008). "Computer Science and Game Theory," The New Palgrave Dictionary
of Economics, (2nd ed.).
Jörg Bewersdorff (2005). Luck, logic, and White lies: The Mathematics Of Games, A K Peters,
Ltd., pp. ix–xii.
Kim, Sungwook, (2014). Game Theory Applications in Network Design. IGI Global.
Kyle Bagwell & Asher Wolinsky (2002). "Game theory and Industrial Organization," Handbook
of Game Theory with Economic Applications, pp. 1851-1895.
Leonard, Robert (2010). Von Neumann, Morgenstern, and the Creation of Game Theory, New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Mirowski, Philip (1992). "What Were von Neumann and Morgenstern Trying to Accomplish?"
in Weintraub, E. Roy (ed.). Toward a History of Game Theory. Durham: Duke University
Press. pp. 113 - 147.
Miller, James H. (2003).Game Theory at Work: How to Use Game Theory to Outthink and
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