SIR AMBAYON  There are many well known figures in the history of

Ethics, Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle,

INTRODUCTION ETHICS
modern influences include such as Immanuel Kant,
Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, D.W. Ross, C.L.
What is Ethics?
Stevenson, Alasdair MacIntyre and John Rawls.
 (from the Greek word ethos which means customs,
MEANING OF ETHICS
usage or character.
 Ethics refers to the evaluation of moral values,
 A set of rules of human behavior which has been
principles and standards of human conduct and its
influenced by the standards set 115by the society or
application in daily life to determine acceptable
by himself in relation to his society (Reyes, 1989)
human behavior.
 It is also known as moral philosophy
EVOLUTION OF ETHICS
 It seeks to examine the meaning of moral terms and  The evolution of Ethics constructs a conceptual
the criteria by which we make moral judgements. bridge between biology and human behavior.
 Ethics is the rational reflection on what is right, what is  Ethics merge with science in cybernetic ethics. This
wrong, what is just, what is unjust, what is good and presents a persuasive theory describing how ethics
what is bad in terms of human behavior. can be linked to science and mathematics.
 Some Ethical principles are:  Evolutionary Ethics belongs to a branch of
1. Truthfulness evolutionary science and not philosophy.
2. Honesty Evolutionary Ethics has no logical connection to the
3. Loyalty formal ethics of philosophy.
4. Respect
5. Fairness
6. Integrity
 The word Ethics is derived from the Latin word
“Ethicus” and the Greek word “Ethikos”.
 Ethics are an arrangement of decent principles and a
branch of attitude which defines what is good for
individuals and society.
THE MODEL OF ETHICS TYPES OF ETHICS
A 1. Meta-Ethics
2. Normative Ethics
w +
3. Applied Ethics
a
r Facade Walk their Talk 4. Descriptive Ethics

e META-ETHICS
n Opportunist Salt of the Earth 1. Meta-Ethics is the branch of Ethics that
e seeks to understand the nature of Ethical
s _ properties, statements, attitudes and
S judgments.
- Practice + 2. A Meta-ethical question is abstract and
relates to wide range of more specific
practical questions.
1. FAÇADE NORMATIVE ETHICS
 A Facade is an exterior side of a building  Normative Ethics is the study of ethical
 The word comes from the French action.
language.  Normative ethics is distinct from meta-ethics
2. WALK THEIR TALK and descriptive ethics.
 Walk their Talk considers the consumer’s APPLIED ETHICS
ethical intention and the ethically minded  Applied Ethics is the most practical of the
consumers rarely purchase ethical products. three divisions of the philosophy of ethics.
3. OPPORTUNIST  Applied ethics is the actual application of
 Opportunists are people who see a chance ethical theory for the purpose of choosing an
to gain some advantage from a situation, ethical action in a given issue.
often at the expense of ethics or morals. DESCRIPTIVE ETHICS
4. SALT OF THE EARTH  Descriptive ethics is the study of people’s
 Salt of the Earth is the most worthy of beliefs about morality.
people; a very good or worthy person.
CODE OF ETHICS  Quality of goodness that is possessed by all the
Ethics as Science (Timbreza, 1993) things that we designated good
 It is based on reason which studies human acts and Different meaning of Ethics according to Triumvirate
provides norms for their goodness and badness. Both Plato and Aristotle define it as: “what constitutes the
 It is a systematic study about the grounds and good life”, associated it with happiness in turn comes from
norms of human life. living in accordance with virtues such as temperance
Ethics studies Human Acts and Acts of Man courage, piety, and justice. The reason for then is the best
1. Human Acts (Actus Humanus) – those acts are guide to behavior.
done by human being which is based on knowledge Socrates: the virtue is knowledge, the context of love and
and the full consent of the will. wisdom to do what is good and what is not.
 An act which proceeds from the deliberate : a virtuous man who believes that “if one knows
freewill of man (Glenn 1965) what the good is, one will do what is good.
 Doing a human act if he knows what he is Plato: believed that “the good” was an abstract form,
doing and he is doing it freely and willingly beyond the everyday world
irrespective of whether the action is good or Aristotle: saw a virtue as natural to human beings
bad. 1. Practical Science – deals with systematized body
 E.g gluttony or bad. of knowledge that can be applicable to human
2. Acts of Man (actus hominis) – actions are done in action
the absence of either knowledge or will - application of the human knowledge
 Comprises all spontaneous biological and and its practicality to human
sensual processes like nutrition, breathing, experience
sensual impressions - considered to be part of life
 All acts performed unconsciously like people - a part of man’s existence
sleeping 2. Normative Science – sets a basis or a norm for the
direction and regulation of human actions
 E.g. thinking natures call (pee), virtuous act,
- sets its rules and guidelines to
yawning, eating, sleeping
maintain a sense of direction to
The Context of Good
human actions
Good as an adjective
Ethics deal with voluntary human conduct
 “good person”/good deed, good film
  includes all actions as well as non-actions  It is the highest of the abstract immaterial forms
 includes involuntary activities that are unlikely according to Plato
performed yet involve a degree of personal  It is the highest goods for humans as the exercise
approval of the virtues by means of which they can achieve
 thus, it provides norms for the goodness and the good life or well being.
badness of a certain act.  In terms of the fulfillment of God’s purpose, love,
Morality happiness, pleasure, living in harmony with others
 denotes a system of belief as to what is good and and with nature.
bad
 conformity to conventional standards of moral
ARTUZ
conduct
 deliberate flouting of those standards is termed CHAPTER 1
“immorality” LESSON 2: Moral vs. Non-moral Standards
 shared values (set of values)
 community holds responsibilities in their actions INTRODUCTION
“Choose what is right, do what is good, decide for what is
humane” What is a standard?
-RPC • Used or accepted as normal or average.
2 ways to determined the concept of Good in • An idea or thing used to measure, norm or model in
Philosophical Discourse comparative evaluation.
Good as noun: Why do we need to distinguish moral standards from non-
1. Intrinsic goods of goods in themselves moral one?
e.g. Aristotle an example: Health-something that is • Some values do have moral implications while
pursued for its own sake others don’t.
2. Extrinsic Good – pursued for its own How do we address cultural conundrum?
consequences  People have to understand the difference between
e.g. money moral standards and non-moral ones, to identify
What is the greatest good? fundamental ethical values that may guide our
actions.
 wrongness of an action do not only
MORAL VS NON-MORAL depend on the consequence of an
MORAL NON-MORAL action.

Force others to act We have no right to impose o What makes standard Moral?
accordingly. on others  For Theist- God is the ultimate source of
Affect other people Do not affect other people what is moral revealed to human person.
 For Non-Theist – God is not the source of
Morality.
Moral Standard - Moral standards are based on the
 Based on natural Law, the consequence of one’s wisdom of philosophers like
action and sense of duty. Confucius or Immanuel Kant.
 Normally promote “the good”.
o Origin of Moral Standards
o Consistency of Moral Standards
 Theist- theistic line of thought states that
 May differ from society to society and culture moral standards are of divine origin.
to culture.  Non-Theist – (20th Century Thinkers) it
simply evolve.
o Classification of Theories of Moral Standards
Garner and Rosen (1967) classified the o Characteristics of Moral Standards
various moral standards formulated by moral  Welfare of beings
philosophers as follows:  Relies on sound reasoning
o Consequence Standard (Teological) -  Overriding hegemony
rightness or wrongness of the rule  Impartial, fair and just
depends on the consequence or the  Emotions and vocabulary
good that is produced by following the
rule.
o Not-only Consequence Standard
(Deontological)- rightness or
AUTOR • Standards of etiquette by which we judge manners
as good or bad.
• Standards we call the law by which we judge legal
Non-Moral Standards
right and wrong.
• Refers to standards by which we judge what is good
• Standards of aesthetics--- good and bad art.
or bad in a non-moral way.
• The athletic standards--- how well a game is being
• Not linked to moral considerations.
played.
• Manage and govern individual life, aspirations and
desires that may decide a person’s place in a
group. BARTAL
• Set of rules on how an individual should behave in
CHAPTER 1 LESSON 3: Moral Dilemmas
society.
• Any violations that does not pose a serious threat to
What is Moral Dilemma?
human well-being.
A moral dilemma is also called an ethical
• Include independence, prestige, fame, popularity
dilemma and refers to a situation where an individual
and wealth.
needs to make a choice but faces a conflicting situation
between one or more alternatives.
Example of Non-moral Standards
Example:
• Standards of etiquette
1) Protect and preserve virgin forest VS. Allow miners
• The law
and logger for economic development.
• Standards of aesthetic
2) Miya is a deeply religious person, and she
Non-moral Characteristic
considers killing humans wrong. Sadly, she found
• Welfare of non-beings
out that she's having an ectopic pregnancy.
• Relies on authority or law
Ectopic pregnancy is a type of that occurs outside
• Religion, tradition
the uterus, most commonly in fallopian tube. In other
• Limits Hegemony
words, the fetus does not develop in the uterus. Now if
• Self Interest
this happens the development of the fetus will
• X emotions and vocabulary
endanger the mother and if Miya continues her
Examples of Non-moral Standards
pregnancy there is a huge possibility that she will die.
 According to experts the best way to save Miya's
life is to abort the fetus. Which necessarily implies  The other debate stems from Thomas Aquinas who
killing the fetus. If we do not abort the fetus, then Miya came up with the moral philosophy that is known as
as well as the fetus will die. natural law ethics, and argued that it is necessary
In this example of a moral dilemma, Miya is faced that everyday reasoning be led by obvious
with two conflicting options. 1st resort to abortion, principles, such as ensuring that evil acts are not to
which will save her life but at the same time jeopardize be committed.
her moral integrity or does not resort to abortion but
endangers her life as well as the fetus. In other words,  Characteristics of a moral dilemma
Miya is faced through the huge moral dilemma. • A person is expected to do two or more actions. It is
possible for a person to do these actions, but not at
Meaning of False Dilemma the same time.
Is a situation where the decision-maker or the agent • At times there is an appropriate and an
has a moral duty to do one thing , but is tempted to do inappropriate choice. The problem is knowing which
something else. A false dilemma is a choice between a is the best choice.
right and a wrong. • In some cases, someone can get hurt, making the
For example, a lawyer or an accountant can face an choice even harder to make.
opportunity to prioritize self-interest over the client’s • At times, what is at stake is a legal issue, e.g.,
interest. witnessing an acquaintance stealing and the choice
to ignore the theft or report it.
Historically, there have been moral dilemma
debates with different philosophical approaches.
Contributions from Gratian of Bologna and Thomas
Aquinas and their schools of thought take center stage in
the moral dilemma discussion.

 Gratian talks about an all-knowing being, referring

to God, who ensures that any choice situation has
at least one right act presented to a person.
BASA
Example of Structural Dilemnas;
LESSON 4: THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMA
1.) Differentiation vs. Integration
-The tension between allocating work and
INDIVIDUAL DILEMMA
coordinating sundry efforts create a classic dilemma.
 A person, or an individual, has two or more moral
2.) Gap vs. Overlap
values to consider, he or she can choose one only,
-If responsibility are not clearly assigned, important
and choosing one or the other will not solve the
task fall through the cracks. Roles and activities can
problem in a moral way.
overlap, creating wasted effort and unintended
 Judgement is based on the self- chosen principles,
redundancy.
and moral reasoning is based on individual rights
3.) Lack of Clarity vs. Lack of Creativity
and Justice.
-If employees are unclear about of what they are
 A moral dilemma experienced by a person which
supposed to be doing, they often shape their role around
challenges his values and priorities.
personal preferences instead of organizational goals,
frequently leading to problems.
ORGANIZATIONAL DILEMMA
4.) Excessive Autonomy vs. Excessive
 Can take many forms and these are the moral Interdependence
problems in the workplace. -If the efforts of Individual or Group are too
 Organization dilemma is a challenge for every autonomous, people often feel isolated and unsupported.
organization nowadays. It is how to match 5.) Excessive Autonomy vs. Excessive
discrepancy between individual needs and interdependence
aspiration on the one hand, and the organization -If the efforts of Individual or Group are too
goals on the other. autonomous, people often feel isolated and unsupported.
6.) Centralized vs. Decentralized Decision Making
STRUCTURAL DILEMMA -In decentralized decision making, organizations
 Refer to moral predicaments in public can respond to change more rapidly and effectively
administration. because the decision makers are the people cosest in the
 Finding satisfactory system of roles and relationship situation. However, top managers my lose some control.
is an ongoing universal struggle.
This is the dilemma of tight over centralization or diffusing There is such a thing as a dilemma because there is such
authority which is loose. a thing as freedom.
If there is no ability or power of choice, then any incident
BERMUDEZ simply happens without any interference. There would also
be no obligation to do any act in expectation of the
ETHICS LESSON 5
responsibility following the act.
Freedom and Moral Choice
Freedom as the Foundation of Moral Acts
Without freedom it is impossible to make a moral choice" If
Intended Learning outcome:
we are to have free will we must have the ability to make a
Explain why only Human Beings can be Ethical
decision that is unhindered.
Introduction
Kant believed that we must have free will if we are to be
Do the lower forms of animals have ethics?
held morally responsible for our actions
Is ethics only for human persons? If so, why?
If God did not give us free will then our decisions cannot
Ethics Applies Only to Human Persons
be considered immoral or moral as we would have had to
The song. My Way/Born This Way implies choice or
act in the way we did. Thus we cannot be held
freedom "I did my way. Unlike the lower forms of animals,
responsible.
human persons have a choice or freedom, hence morality
Making moral choice is a necessary consequence for
applies only to human persons
being free, a consequence of being a human person.
Why are animals considered to be non moral?
A human person has freedom, he'she has a choice and so
Animals cannot act morally, because they will not sacrifice
is responsible for the consequences of his her choice. The
their own good for the sake of others, but will rather pursue
lower forms of animals have no choice since they are
their good even at the expense of others.
bound by instinct and so cannot be held responsible for
Ethics, therefore, applies only to human person. We
their behavior
cannot say a cat is "unethical" when it eats the food at
To be Ethical: Own Not Merely Abide by Moral Standards
table intended for you or when a dog urinates on your
Having free will freedom to choose among alternatives,
favorite bag lying on the floor
which implies prior analysis and study, is coming to terms
with what you finally affirm or deny.
Dilemmas presuppose freedom.
When you arrive at a personal conviction and self-
Freedom-loving societies have customary ways of training
affirmation, you begin to own the moral standards.
the young to exercise their freedom.
The moral standards begins to be integrated, internalized. To be truly ethical or moral, we must internalize or possess
You follow the norm not because it is imposed by others, not just adhere to moral standards. "I did it My Way"
not because others says so or automatically impose it on because I am convinced, have to do it "My Way" and not
you. because others tell me so.
Merely abiding by most standard means applying them as
basis to resolve a mural problem without necessarily
having internalized them.
Merely abiding by them means once the enforcer is not
BOLIC
around, the moral standard is not followed.
Or if you do not own or internalized the standard, you will CULTURE: HOW IT DEFINES MORAL BEHAVIOR
tend to use it for convenience, to evade responsibility, to
put the blame on standard itself when things do not end
will. What is Culture
You simply become legalistic and adopt the maxims, “low Culture encompasses religion, food, what we wear, how
the rule or law, even if the sky falls down”, “the law says so we wear it, our language, marriage, music, what we
the law is hard, but it is the law (dura lex sed lex). You believe is right or wrong, how we sit at the table, how we
follow the law because other authorities, regulators say so, greet visitors, how we behave with loved ones and a
not because you say. million other things.
Owning moral standards means internalizing them, making
them part of your conviction. Internalized or embodied Culture is passed on to the next generation by learning not
moral standards are being followed with or without anyone through the genes or heredity. Culture includes all human
telling you. phenomena which are not purel results of human genetics.
You internalize a rule after using reason to understand. Enculturation, Inculturation and Acculturation
When you are persuaded of its wisdom, it becomes your
basis of resolving an ethical problem. Culture change or evolve. there are various ways by which
cultures change.
You decide to do something not because the law says so
Enculturation
but because you yourself say so.
• Means the process of acquiring the rules, norms,
Lower forms of animals have no choice.
values, customs and guidelines of a culture in order
to be a part of society.
 • refers to that learning process in which an individual considering the act as getting a share. In such societies,
comes to know about the rules, customs, skills and the act would not be consider stealing. In most societies it
values of the society. is consider as stealing. In Islamic culture having several
wives is allowed. In other cultures, it’s concubinage or
Inculturation adultery.
• The term that Catholic leaders and theologians Culture has a very long lasting hold on an
have used in recent decades to denote a process of individual. A person may have become highly educated,
engagement between the Christian Gospel and a may have even obtained a doctorate degree educated with
particular culture. Christian values of forgiveness, but if he comes from a
society with a culture of vengeance having the sense of
• Inculturation is the adaptation of Christian teachings
obligation to make an act of revenge when a member of
and practices to cultures.
his tribe has been killed or harmed by another, he
• Is making the gospel take roots in a culture and becomes ultimately vindictive and joins his tribe seeking
introducing that transformed culture to christianity. revenge.

Acculturation
• The process by which people learn and adapt a BUSTILLOS
new culture.
CHAPTER 1
• Acculturation implies the process of transforming LESSON 7: CULTURAL RELATIVISM
the cultural beliefs and customs of one's own
culture, by adopting traits of a different culture.
• Refers to the modification of culture of an individual What is cultural relativism?
or group, due to the interaction with other culture.  Cultural relativism is the belief that all cultures are
equal in that no culture is greater than another in
How Culture Shapes The Moral Agent terms of issues like politics, law, and so on. This
Culture definitely affects the way we evaluate and theory argues that all cultural values are evenly
judge things. Consider the african women not as privileged legitimate. This is is based on the idea that there is
as the african men. Some societies consider it alright no ultimate standard of good or evil.
gathering vegetables at the backyard of their neighbor
  In the the context of cultural relativism, the manner  Cultural relativism can turn perceptions into truths.
by which the African women is treated in
comparison to that of African man should not be
judged against other culture’s standard.
CARANCIO
Cultural Relativism vs. Cultural Perspective
 Cultural relativism is where one suspends one’s The Filipino Character: Strength and Weaknesses
cultural roots and understand by seeing another Senator Leticia Shahani submitted to the Senate this
culture according to the standards of that culture report titled “A Moral Recovery Program: Building a
while culltural perception is the lens through which People, Building a Nation” on April 27, 1988.
humans view other people and the world around The Filipino Character: Weakness
them. 1. Extreme Family Centeredness
Excessive concern for family means using
Advantage of cultural relativism one’s office and power to promote family
 Increased tolerance towards people with different interests and thus functionalism patronage,
cultures and customs. political dynasties and the protection of erring
 Allows differences to be recognized and respected. family members. It results in lack of concern
 It is a system which promotes cooperation. for the common good, and acts as a block to
national consciousness.
 It creates a society where equality is possible.
2. Extreme Personalism
 It preserves human cultures.
“Takes things personally,” cannot separate
 It stops cultural conditioning.
objective task from emotional involvement.
 Cultural relativism creates a society without
Because of this the Filipino is uncomfortable
judgment.
with bureaucracy, with rules, and regulations
and with standard procedures.
Disadvantage of cultural relativism
3. Lack of Discipline
 It would create chaos. A casual attitude towards time and space,
 It could limit humanity’s progress. manifested in lack of precision and
 Cultural relativism only works if humanity is perfect compulsiveness, in poor time management
 and procrastination. Aversion to following This lack of analysis and emphasis on form
procedures strictly results in short cuts… is reinforced by an educational system that is
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative more form than substance.
Waiting to be hold what to do, reliance on The Filipino Character: Strength
others (leaders and government), 1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao
complacence, and lack of a sense of 2. Family Orientation
urgency. There is a high tolerance for 3. Joy and Humor
inefficiency, poor service, and even violations 4. Flexibility, Adaptibility and Creativity
of one’s basic rights. 5. Hard Work and Industry
5. Colonial Mentality 6. Faith and Religiousity
Lack of patriotism, or of an active awareness, 7. Ability to Survive
appreciation and love of the Philippines and
an actual preference for things foreign. Key Take aways:
6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome, Talangka Mentality  The Filipino has a number of strengths. His/her
Done by tsimis, intriga, and unconstructive strengths when they become extreme, however,
criticism. It is evident in the personal also become his/her weaknesses.
ambition that is completely insensitive to the  His/her strengths help him/her become ethical and
common good. E.g., the lack of a sense of moral but his/her weaknesses obstruct his/her
service among people in the government moral and ethical growth.
bureaucracy.  Culture has a significant impact on morality.
7. Lack of self-analysis and self-reflection  The Filipino group-centeredness and “kami” –
The tendency to be superficial and mentality make it difficult for the Filipino to stand up
somewhat flighty. In the face of serious against the group when that is the moral thing to do.
personal and social problems, there is lack of  There is much need for home, school and society
analysis or reflection and instead satisfaction as a whole to help every Filipino to grow into the
with superficial explanation and solutions. strong moral person everyone is called to become.
8. Emphasis on Porma Rather than Substance  For the Filipino to become the moral and ethical
person, he/she should capitalize on his/her
strengths and eliminate his/her weaknesses.
 Why there are Universal Values ?
 it could be that something has universal value when
everybody finds it valuable (Isaiah Berlin).
 It is something could have universal value when all
COLLANTES people have reason to believe it has value
(Amartya Sen).
Lesson 9: Universal Values Importance of Universal Values
 It is a fundamental beliefs that guide or motivate
WHAT TO EXPECT: attitudes and actions of all people.
1. Explain why universal values necessary for survival  It help us to determine what is important to us.
2. Identify the three universal values shared by all cultures  It describe the qualities we chose to embody.
Value  It require us to recognize the human characteristics
 The word value is derived from French word valoir and to show the same respect for human dignity
which means worth, merit, usefulness or importance and sensitivity in people of other communities that
of a thing. we expect them to show for ours.
 A value is a belief that something is good and  The function of universal values is to help us
desirable.(Haralambos,2000) manage differences with mutual respect and without
 Values are individual beliefs that motivate people to resorting to destruction.
act one way or another. The Three Universal Values Shared By All Cultures
 Values represent an individual highest priorities 1. Caring for the young
Universal values are values that apply to all types of 2. Murder is wrong
people, regardless of their social, ethnic or cultural origin. 3. Tell the truth
Example of Universal Values
 Freedom
 Equality
 Respect
 Responsibility
 Do not harm someone
 Do not Lie
 The moral agent will be a result of a creative process. It
has to create his end, purpose or directions. He has to
invent his destiny.
DICHOSO - Teilhard de Chardin and Alfred North
Whitehead
Chapter 2 - Lesson 1 Moral agent as being-with-others, who is inseparably
Man as a Moral Agent related to his fellow man.
-Martin Heidegger, Gabriel Marcel and Martin
MORAL AGENT Buber.
MORAL comes from latin word “mores” referreng to The moral agent directs his life to improve, refine,
society’s patterns, standards, rules of doing things. develops this world in order to bring out the world to come.
AGENT comes from latin word “agere” to do, act. - Brabander
A moral agent is one who performs an act in Moral Agent should direct his life to the spiritualization of
accordance with moral standards. this material world.
Moral agent has the capacity to conform moral -R. Franceur
standards, to act for the sake of moral considerations for
the sake of moral law.
Moral Agent is purpose-driven or end-driven.
As a moral agent his duty is to know, to love, and serve DISCAYA
God, his ultimate end.
CHAPTER 2
FUNDAMENTAL OPTION Lesson 2: The Development of Moral Character of the
It is a human person’s basic choice or inner orientation Moral Agent
either for a good life or for a bad life.
Meaning of Defining Moment
 significant life-changing event or moment that
reverberates throughout your career and personal
The moral agent ot the human person becomes what he
life and so changes everything.
makes of himself by choice. He is nothing until he starts
Example:
his existence by making choices.
-Jean Paul Satre  Defining moment of a cancer patient
 Defining moments of the Saints
 ... Just as the pattern of intellectual growth can be simply
Relationship Between Moral acts and Character described as passing through stages of animal behavior,
 Moral character is necessary for moral behavior. pre-logical thinking, thought governed by empirical logic
Moral character facilitates doing the moral action. and finally by formal logic, so morality can be described as
passing through stages of behavior controlled first, by
“The person who has moral character does moral actions taboo; then second, by law; third by conscience (i.e.
more readily – more easily and more willingly than one irrational, intrajected values); fourth, by reciprocity; fifth, by
who does not…” (Knovel, 2019) social consensus and finally by personal moral principles,
though not necessarily in that order.
Stated differently, the five stages may be reduced to three
as follows:
The amoral stage - egocentric, hedonist and
DUHAPA
prudential considerations.
Lesson 3 The pre-moral stage - authoritarian, ego-
THE STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT idealist, social and reciprocal considerations.
The moral stage - personal, autonomous,
Intended Learning Outcomes: altruistic, rational,
• Describe each stage of moral development Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
• Evaluate one’s personal growth against the stages Kohlberg (2013) describes the stages of moral
of personal development development in 3 stages, namely: Level 1 – Pre-
Defining conventional morality, Level 2 - Conventional morality, and
Moral Development Level 3 - Post-Conventional morality. Each level has two
Moral Development refers to the “process stages each so that there are six stages of moral
through which a human person gains his/her development. They are described in the following.
beliefs, skills and dispositions that make him/her a Level 1
morally mature person.” PRE-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
William A. Kay (1970) has the following to say regarding This is the lowest level of moral development in
the nature of moral development. Kohlberg’s theory. At the pre-conventional level, children
don’t have a personal code or morality instead, their moral
code is controlled by the standards of adults and the The individual values caring and loyalty to others as a
consequences of following or breaking adults’ rules. basis for moral judgments.
Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. Stage 4. Law and Order Orientation
The child/individual does good in order to avoid being The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of
punished. If he/she is punished, he/ she must have done society, so judgments concern obeying the rules in order
wrong. Children obey because adults tell them to obey. to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.
Moral decisions are based on fear of punishment. Level 3
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation. POST-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Right behavior is defined by whatever the individual This is the level of full internalization. Morality is
believes to be in his/her best interest. "What's in it for me?" completely internalized and not based on external
In this stage there is limited interest in the needs of others, standards. Individual judgment is based on self-chosen
only to the point where it might further the individual's own principles and moral reasoning is based on self-chosen
interests. principles and moral reasoning is based on individual
Level 2 rights and justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral
CONVENTIONAL reasoning is as far as most people get.
Throughout the conventional level, a child’s Stage 5. Social contract orientation
sense of morality tied to personal and societal The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws
relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are
authority figures, but this is now due to their belief that this times when they will work against the interest of particular
is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal individuals. In this level, individuals reason out that values,
order. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rights and principles transcend the law. Laws are regarded
rigid during these stages and a rule’s appropriateness or as social contracts rather than rigid orders.
fairness ins seldom question. Stage 6. Universal, ethical, principle orientation
Stage 3: “Good Boy, Nice Girl” Orientation Individuals at this stage have developed their own set of
In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. They
ways to avoid disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good have developed moral judgments that are based on
behavior and people being "nice" to others. The individual universal human rights. The principles apply to everyone.
is good in order to be seen as being a good person by Development of Conscience-based
others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others. Moral Decision
Moral development includes development of conscience- Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to steal the
based moral decision. This is in the post-conventional level drug for his wife? Why or why not?
of Kohlberg's stages of moral development. Panizo defines
conscience as "an act of the practical judgment of reason
deciding upon an individual action as good and to be
FABRID
performed and as evil and to be avoided." It is
metaphorically referred to as the "inner or little voice of Chapter III
God." Panizo (1964) quotes St. Thomas regarding the
HUMAN ACT
obligatory force of conscience: "Every conscience, whether
right or erroneous, whether with regard to acts which are
evil in themselves or acts which are indifferent, is
LESSON 1. THE MEANING OF HUMAN ACT
obligatory, so that he who acts in opposition to his
conscience, does wrong."
THE HEINZ DILEMMA
INTRODUCTION
A woman was on her deathbed. There was one drug that
the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of Not all acts of the human person as a moral agent are
radium that a druggist in the same town had recently considered human act.
discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the
druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to
produce. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 ACT OF MAN VERSUS HUMAN ACT
for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband,
Fr. Coppens, (2017) “human acts are those of which a
Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but
man is master, which he has the power of doing or not
he could only get together about $1,000 which is half of
doing as he pleases.”
what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying
and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But
the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going
Panizo, (1964) “human acts are those acts which proceed
to make money from it."So Heinz got desperate and broke
from man as rational being.
into the man's laboratory to steal the drug for his wife.
Example: Observing prescribed diet.
THE OBJECT OF AN ACT IS THE THING DONE.
In other words, human acts are the acts of moral agent. We cannot act without doing something, and that thing that
is done is the object of the act.
“ actions committed by unconscious and insane persons,
infants, or those who are physically forced to do something The act or object may be viewed as containing a further
are not considered as human acts but acts of man.” specification.

THE DETERMINANTS OF THE MORALITY OF HUMAN Example: Going to church. Eating meat.
ACT

THE END, OR PURPOSE.

Rev. Coppens, S.J.
The end here spoken of is not the end of the workman or
morally good - three things are considered. Determinants agent.
of Morality:
No matter how good the object of an act may be, if the end
intended is bad, that act is thereby vitiated, spoiled or
impaired.
1. the object of the act
“ The end does not justify the means ”
2. the end, or purpose, and
3. its circumtances
Example : Robin Hood

Axiom: “Bonum ex integra causa, malum ex

quocumque defectu” THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF TIME, PLACE AND
PERSONS HAVE THEIR PART IN DETERMINING THE
“ a thing to be good must be wholly so; it is not
MORALITY OF AN INDIVIDUAL ACT.
vitiated by any defect.”
The moral character of an act may be so affected by 1. Human (Moral) acts
attendant circumtances, that an act good in itself may be
- comes from a Latin word “Actus Humani” this refers to
evil when accompanied by certain circumtances.
“actions that process from the insight into the nature and
(Coppens,2017) purpose of one’s doing and from consent and free will”
- are the free and conscious acts of a human person which
They either increase or diminish the moral goodness or are proper to humans alone. These actions are what
evil of human acts. makes a human being “truly human”, an earthly creature
different and distinct from all others.
BASES OF MORAL ACCOUNTABILITY
Morally Good
Fr. Coppens (2017), When I perform a free act—
act requires the goodness of the object, of the end, and of one which able to do or not to do, as I choose –the act is
the circumtances together. evidently imputable to me: if the thing is blameworthy, the
blame belongs to me: if it is praiseworthy, I am entitled to
praise. Every human act therefore, since it is a free act, is
imputable to him who performs it.

FRIAS THREE BASES OF MORAL ACCOUNTABILITY

LESSON 2 1. KNOWLEDGE
- The act must be deliberate.
ACCOUNTABILITY OF MORAL ACT - It must be performed by a
conscious agent who is very
much aware of what he/she is
Learning objectives doing and of its consequences –
1.Define Moral Acts and Moral Accountability good or evil.
2. FREEDOM
2. Discuss the three (3) bases of Moral Accountability
- The act must be performed in
3. Give examples of these three bases of moral freedom.
accountability being used in real-word situation
 -
It must be done by an agent who According to recent research, feelings or emotion have
is acting freely, with his/her own positive effects on decision-making. Some identified as
volition and powers. follows:
3. VOLUNTARINESS  A totally emotional decision is very fast in
- The act must be done comparison to a rational decision. This reactive and
voluntarily. can be useful when faced with immediate danger, of
- - It must be performed by an in decision of minimal significance.
agent who decides willfully to  Emotions can provide a way for coding and
perform the act. compacting experience, enabling fast response
selection. This may point to why experts “gut” level
decisions have high accuracy rates.
GISMA  Decisions that start with logic may need emotions to
Lesson 3: Feeling as a Modifier of Moral Decision- enable the final selection, particularly when
Making confronted with near equal options.
 Emotions often drive us in directions conflicting with
Feeling in Decision-Making self-interest.
Feeling in general, is an emotional state or reaction, Emotional Decision-making can also come with a number
experience of physical sensation, like a feeling of joy, of negatives.
feeling of warmth, love, affection tenderness, etc.  We make quick decisions without knowing why and
 How do they affect moral decision-making? then create rational reasons to justify a poor
“Several studies conclude that up to 90 percent of emotional decision.
the decisions were made based on emotion. We use logic  Intensity of emotions can override rational decision-
to justify our actions to ourselves and to others.” making in cases where it is clearly needed.
 Researches also show that “actual emotional states  Immediate and unrelated emotions can create
can influence the process of moral reasoning and mistakes by distorting and creating bias in
determine moral judgement.” judgements. In some cases this can lead to
Are there advantages of emotional decision making? unexpected and reckless action.
  Projected emotions can lead to errors because
people are subject inaccuracy about how they will Managing Feelings
feel in the future. “Anyone can get angry that is easy but to do this to the
right person, to the right extent``, at the right time with the
right motive, and in the right way is not for everyone, nor is
Moral statements as expression of feelings it easy, (Bool II, Nicomachean Ethics). In other words, your
Are moral statements or values mere expressions anger should not be displaced. The moral person
of feelings of emotions as claimed by the linguistic manages his/her feelings well.
philosophers?
According to some philosophers, called (emotivists)
the statement “stealing is wrong” is not a statement of fact,
it is an expression of desire of emotion.
HETI-AYON
The rule of Maxim “Stealing is wrong” means “I desire that
you do not steal.” ETHICS: CHAPTER III - LESSON 4: Reasons and
An emotion statement is not verifiable like factual Impartiality as Minimum
statement. “Pedro stole my cat” is verifiable, can be
established by evidence. But “Pedro’s act of stealing my INTRODUCTION
cat is morally wrong” which is equivalent to “I desire that The minimum requirements of morality are reason and
Pedro should not steal” is not verifiable. impartiality. Moral judgement must be backed up by good
The following explains this ethical theory: reason and impartiality.
Emotivism is the view that moral WHAT IS REASON AND IMPARTIALITY
judgements do not function as statements of fact but rather Refer to a mental activity following the basic principle
as expressions of the speakers or writers feelings. consistency, the lack of contradiction between one idea
According to the emotivist when we say “ You acted and another. Deriving necessary conclusion from
wrongly in stealing that money” we are not expressing and premises, avoiding all forms of deception or fallacy or
fact beyond that stated by “ You stole that money.” it is reasoning.
however, as if we had stated this fact with a special tone of Reason: is the basis or motive for an action, decision or
abhorrence, for in saying that something is wrong, we are conviction.
expressing our feelings of disapproval toward it.
Impartiality: requires that we give equal or adequate 3. Determine what virtues/principles have a bearing on the
considerations to the interests of all concerned parties. case
Fallacy of Reasoning 4. List the alternatives or develop a list of options
A fallacy is the use of invalid or otherwise faulty reasoning, 5. Compare the alternatives with the virtues/principles
or "wrong moves," in the construction of an argument. 6. Consider the consequences or test the options
1. Ad Hominem - a fallacy attacking the characteristics or 7. Make a Decision
personality of a person instead of the argument. Values Clarification Method
2. Ad Misericordiam - ad misericordiam or appeal to pity Values clarification method as a part of the moral
is a fallacy in which someone tries to win support for an reasoning model consists of a series of questions which
argument or idea by exploiting one's opponent's feeling of one may ask himself or others in order to arrive at one’s
pity or guilt. true values. The following consists of the steps of the
3. Ad Verecundiam - ad verecundiam or appeal to values clarification model: (Raths, L. et al, 1978)
authority is a form of fallacy in which the opinion of an 1. Choosing Freely
authority on a topic is used as evidence to support an - Did you choose this value freely?
argument. - Where do you suppose you first got the idea?
Establish truth and meaningful moral judgments 2. Choosing from alternatives
A logical, impartial objective reason avoids ambiguities like - What reasons do you have for your choice?
equivocation, circular reasonings, amphibology, etc. That’s - How long did you think about this problem before
why coherent reasoning is needed. you decided?
3. Choosing after thoughtful consideration
- What would happen if this choice were
implemented?
SCOTT RAE’S 7 STEPS OF MORAL REASONING - What is good about this choice?
The following is another sample method of arriving at an 4. Prizing and being happy with the choice
ethical or moral decision - Are you happy about feeling this way?
1. Gather the facts/information - Why is this important to you?
2. Determine the ethical issues, similar to “Statement of
the Problem” 5. Prizing and willing to affirm the choice publicly
- Would you be willing to tell the class how you feel?
 - Should someone who feels like you stand up in public • Distinguish between reason and will.
and tell people how she or he feels?
• Differentiate knowing and actually executing a good
6. Acting on the Choice
moral decision; and
- What will you do about your choice?
- What will you do next? • Judge their own moral behavior in terms of planning
7. Acting repeatedly in some pattern of life and execution in important moral experiences.
- Have you done anything about it? Driftwood at Sea
- Will you do it again?
As a result of the process, one may discover an ideal a. To which direction is the driftwood going?
priority of values. One may need to recollect and re-orient b. When can you or any person be like the driftwood?
oneself to genuine moral values
c. In what sense is an indecisive person considered a
Critique: Creative Responsibility
driftwood ?
One significant guide to the moral reasoning process is
what ethicists like Fr. Gorospe (1974) termed “Creative
Responsibility” WILL
- It is responding silently or verbally to a call and
addressing an ethical problem creatively by considering all The moral person is endowed with an intellect and
possible points of view thinking outside the box, and using will. The “will” is what “disposes” what the “the intellect
relevant frameworks. proposes”.
REASON
Reason conducts the study, research, investigation, fact-
finding. It uses logic, the principle of
INOCENCIO
consistency, avoid fallacious reasoning to come up with
Lesson 5: The Difference Between Reason and Will a truthful and accurate proposition.
In a research study, the product or work of reason is the
body of facts gathered, organized, synthesized and
What to Expect?
evaluated. The job of the will is to make a decisive
At the end of the lesson, conclusion.
WILL
The will is the faculty of the mind that is associated SUMMARY
with decision making. It’s the one that says yes or no. This
The concept of reason and will, It is clear to see the
author says this, that author says that, all others are
importance of both as components in any ‘good’ legal
saying the same thing. Now, decide with your will what you
theory. Both the concepts of reason and will are crucial for
yourself should say or think.
a successful legal system. They are dependent on one
• Decision making which an activity of the will can be another. This indirectly means that the concepts of reason
developed. and will are opposites.
• A culture of spoon-feeding does not developed the
will.
• Decision making which is an activity of the will can
JOSE
be developed. Early in life, like children, one should
already be given the opportunity to exercise his LARUAN
will, like being trained to make choices from
alternative. LAURENCIO

• Will needs courage, it implies affirming, accepting LOPEZ

oneself in spite of ones’ defects, lack , or MALINAO
imperfections.
MAULANA

All in all, reason has from the very beginning of the

traditions of natural law been a central element. Reason
has made it possible for humans to understand the
underlying morals that the natural laws consisted of.
For Plato, reason was important since it made it
possible for the human mind to understand the Ideas of
good and evil and to recognize concrete subjects existing
in actual reality.