CONTENTS

© by IAAF
29:1; 1, 2014

} Editorial 3

Special Topic Warm-up

} Overview 7
by Jimson Lee

} Final Preparations for Peak Competitions: 13

Observations from the 2009 IAAF World Champion-
ships in Athletics
by Wolfgang Killing, Eckhard Hutt, Jan May, Jörg Peter,
Rainer Pottel, Maria Ritschel, Jürgen Schult and Adi Zaar

} Blow up During Warm-up: Introduction of a Novel 37

Method to Improve Athletic Performance
by Dick H.J. Thijssen, Tom G. Bailey, Timothy Cable,
Maria Hopman, Greg Atkinson and Helen Jones

Applied Research
} Monitoring Skin Thermal Response to Training 57
with Infrared Thermography
by Ismael Fernández de la Cuevas, Manuel Sillero de la Quintana,
Miguel Angel Garcia de la Concepcion, Juan Ribot de la Serrano,
Pedro Gomez de la Carmona and Joao CB Marins

Coaching
} Shot Put With Lighter Implements 75
by Basil Grammaticos

Development
} Competition of Sports 85
by Helmut Digel

Documentation
} Selected and Annotated Bibliography 91

} Preview 127

1 Volume Twenty-nine, issue number 1; March 2014

New Studies in Athletics, printed by Druckerei H. Heenemann GmbH & Co. KG Berlin, Germany
New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014
14 1
 1.2014
New Studies
NEW STUDIES IN ATHLETICS
in Athletics

The IAAF technical quarterly

The International Association of Athletics
Federations’ technical quarterly for:
Applied Research
Coaching
Development
Documentation

APPLIED RESEARCH
COACHING
DEVELOPMENT
DOCUMENTATION

Warm-Up

International Scientific Advisory Board Cover & Graphic Design

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2 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 EDITORIAL

Innovations at the © by IAAF

29:1; 3, 2014

World Championships

ur Special Topic section in this issue It therefore gives me great pleasure to an-
O looks for the first time at exploring
the warm-up. This crucial aspect of
nounce that this year we will be again the
opening up of a new area with a Coaches’
preparation affects all athletes’ performances, conference focused on the coaches of junior
but has been far less studied from the prac- athletes, which will take place on the University
tical point of view than, for example, training of Oregon campus in Eugene, Oregon, USA,
methodology, rest and regeneration, biome- on 28 July, right after the IAAF World Junior
chanics or nutrition. Among the articles pro- Championship in Athletics.
vided in this issue is a report on an unusual
project that looked at the last days of training The topics to be addressed will include
and the warm-up routines of the elite athletes the physiological, psychological and training
taking part in the 2009 IAAF World Champion- issues relevant to junior athletes, especially
ships in Athletics in Berlin. It is a starting point prodigious performers at an elite level, and
to provide some of the needed answers to the the speakers will include Dr Randall L Wilber
age-old question of how to structure the final (USA), Helmar Hommel (GER), Dr Keith Barr
preparations for a peak performance. I am (USA), Professor Dr Ulrich Hartmann (GER)
thankful to our German colleagues for initiating and Dr Craig Poole (USA).
this project and for sharing their results, which
provide added value from the championships If you are able to make it to Eugene for the
to athletes of all performance levels. championships and the conference, we look
forward to welcoming you there. But if you
The project was not the only innovation in cannot join us, we invite you to share the com-
the field of coaching that was realised at the prehensive reports on our IAAF website and,
championships in Berlin. That year also saw of course, in NSA.s!
the staging of the very first IAAF World Coach-
es Conference, an event that was repeated at
last year’s championships in Moscow. Both Abdel Malek El Hebil
conferences provided quite unique opportu-
Editor in Chief
nities for the top-level coaches assembled at
malek@iaaf.org
the championships to exchange views and
experiences with their peers, and both confer-
ences were well received. These conferences
demonstrated the IAAF’s commitment to fur-
ther advancing the art and applied science of
coaching even beyond the work we have been
doing over many years in our Coaches Educa-
tion and Certification System (CECS).

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 3

4 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014
Warm-up
contents g Overview
by Jimson Lee

x
g Final Preparations for Peak Competi-
tions: Observations from
the 2009 IAAF World Championships
in Athletics
by Wolfgang Killing, Eckhard Hutt, Jan May,
Jörg Peter, Rainer Pottel, Maria Ritschel,
Jürgen Schult and Adi Zaar

x
g Blow up During Warm-up: Introduction
of a Novel Method to Improve Athletic
Performance
by Dick H.J. Thijssen, Tom G. Bailey,
Timothy Cable, Maria Hopman,
Greg Atkinson and Helen Jones

x
x
x
 x

x
 OVERVIEW

Warm-up Essentials VIEWPOINT

© by IAAF
29:1; 7-11, 2014

by Jimson Lee

as both a general guide and a starting point for

AUTHOR
further discussion.

History and Trends

Jimson Lee is the founder of SpeedEndur-
ance.com, a coaching blog covering Track Sport science has paved the way to new
& Field with a focus on sprints, jumps, and methods of warming up. Below are some impor-
hurdles. He is an Athletics coach and Mas- tant thoughts developed over the past 130 years:
ters sprinter based in London, UK.
Loosening up: The idea of limbering or loos-
ening up to prepare for a race goes back to the
beginnings of the sport. Throughout the histo-
Introduction ry of modern athletics, one could see athletes
getting ready for competition by shaking their
n essence, the warm-up is a very sim- links, slapping the surface of their legs with

I ple concept. In athletics, the athlete

does whatever is needed to be 100%
their hands, and doing mobility exercises such
as jumping jacks or making arm movements
physically and mentally prepared for a training imitating large imaginary circles.
session or competition. Individuals have different
needs requiring different routines, which is ac- Jogging to raise core temperature: One
ceptable, but if the warm-up is well planned and of the earliest references to a warm-up routine
executed it will result in improved performance. can be attributed to Archie Hahn (USA), who
won the 60m, 100m, and 200m titles at the
A lot has changed since the earliest days 1904 Olympic Games in St Louis. In his coach-
of athletics, when the concept of warming up ing book, How to Sprint - The Theory of Sprint
was being developed, and even the more re- Racing, Hahn recommended a one-lap jog of
cent times of the classic warm-up, consisting 400m, followed by a 50-yard sprint at 50%
of a few laps of jogging followed by plenty of speed for a warm-up, and then three to four
practice starts.
static stretching. Currently, coaches and sport
scientists put a lot of thought into the warm-
up process in an effort to help athletes achieve Staying warm: The concept of maintaining
maximum performance and an edge over oth- body temperature between the warm-up and
er competitors. a competition stems from the days of Percy
Williams (CAN), who won both the 100m and
In this article the development of the thought 200m at the 1928 Olympic Games in Amster-
behind warming up will be covered as well as dam. Williams was well known for wearing sev-
why a warm-up is important. Sample warm- eral sweat suits as he approached the starting
ups for sprinters and throwers will be provided line. Prior to this, his coach massaged cocoa

New Studies in Athletics · no. 3.2012 7

Warm-up Essentials

butter on his legs and kept him under several plicate the warm-up and just stick with what is
blankets in the dressing in an effort to keep him essential once the training is in place?
warm and loose.
Shorter warm-ups: Research in cycling has
Static stretching: The advent of static shown a shorter warm-up can reduce fatigue
stretching in sports followed a military study and increase power output.
in the 1920’s, in which a direct correlation
between musculoskeletal injuries and muscle Why is the Warm-up Important?
and joint range of motion was found. Since
tighter or shorter muscles were more suscep- Each aspect of a warm-up has different
tible to injuries, it was believed static stretching benefits:
would reduce the frequency of these injuries.
Muscle tone or pliability: In a way, the term
Dynamic stretching: Research in recent “stretching” should be renamed to “checking”.
years has indicated that static stretching can If one can normally touch his/her toes before a
actually inhibit performance. The thought now race, but is a few centimetres short of the toes
is leaning towards the use of dynamic stretch- an hour before the race, basically he/she is
ing and flexibility, or range of motion exercises “checking” if the muscle length is optimal. Psy-
designed to get the muscle length and range chologically, athletes feel they need to stretch
to its optimal state. Range of motion exercises or lengthen the muscles because they do not
are not to be confused with drills, as the latter have the correct muscle tone.
are simply repetitive cues to correct or adjust a
biomechanical movement and positioning. Activation and mobilisation: Along with
raising the core temperature of the body, there
Post-activation potentiation: The generation is the need to activate the muscles and mo-
of force and power comes from the muscles and tor neurons specific to the event and mobilise
tendons, and the motor units of these tissues are specific joints to a range of motion. Like muscle
dependent on the excitation of the motor neurons tone, the body requires the optimal full range
by the CNS (central nervous system). Research of motion to perform at maximal effort. Activa-
has shown that greater recruitment is possible tion and mobilisation work together. The athlete
when the relevant nerve pathways are stimulat- cannot perform a specific movement by con-
ed, or activated, as this strengthens subsequent tracting and relaxing muscles if the joints do
impulses along the same pathways. An example not have the range.
of efforts to create a post-activation potentiation
(PAP) effect is the tuck jumps or vertical jump- Potentiation: Sprinting fast or making the fast
ups many sprinters perform before getting into movements in a jumping or throwing event is all
their starting blocks. The ergogenic stimulus of about muscle contraction and relaxation of the
PAP has been found to last between two and 30 agonist and antagonist muscles. Therefore, any
minutes. However, further research is required to means to increase potentiation, the strengthen-
determine if PAP is beneficial for both maximal ing of nerve impulses leading to muscle contrac-
and supra-maximal efforts. tion, immediately prior to training or competition
is a logical goal for a warm-up.
Back to basics? Eyewitnesses at the 2012
Olympic Games in London, where David Rudi- Improved oxygen delivery: Increasing oxy-
sha (KEN) ran 1:40.91 for an 800m World Re- gen delivery is accomplished by increasing
cord, saw him perform a 45-minute jog and blood flow to active muscles. This is helpful
nothing else. No drills, no mobility exercise, no for the delays between the end of the warm-
stretching. If raising the core temperature and up and the start of the competition. A warmer
achieving the correct muscle tension is all that body takes longer to “cool down” or return to
is required to perform at optimal levels, then homeostasis than a cooler body.
perhaps we should not be trying to over com-

8 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 Warm-up Essentials

Injury prevention: The athlete is simply try- quired. This is assuming that less intense activity
ing to prevent a muscle pull or cramp prior to generally means longer duration. For a sprinter
performing a maximal effort. A warmer, looser performing a maximal effort of 10 or 20 seconds,
muscle ready for contraction is believed to be an hour warm-up is reasonable. A four-hour mar-
less likely to cramp than a colder, tighter muscle. athoner has different requirements than a 2:08
marathoner because the intensity and speeds
Mental preparation: The athlete’s mind are much different. Jumpers and especially
needs to be ready, not just his/her body. In the throwers have even different requirements.
case of training, the warm-up is a time for the
athlete to focus prior to the session. In the case Ambient temperature and humidity: This
of competition, the warm-up is a great time to is common sense, as a warmer body requires
prepare for the performance, though athletes less time to get warm and ready. The 1972
should be mentally preparing before getting on Olympic 100m gold medallist Valery Borzov
the bus to the stadium! (URS) would start his warm-up 60 minutes be-
fore his race in warm weather, and 70 minutes
in colder weather.
Principles and Considerations
Timing and prior events: Borzov would only
Standard coaching textbooks tell us that the do a 40 minute warm-up if he had run a race
ideal warm-up starts slowly and gradually and in the two hours prior to a competition, as is
involves all muscles and body parts in exer- often seen in championships between semi-
cise that prepares the athlete for the training or finals and finals.
competition to follow. All exercises should be
ones that the athlete can do well. The warm- Timing of checking in: Athlete should be
up is not the time for the coach to be teaching sure to know the schedule when they need to
skills, although feedback may be provided to check in and get to the Call Room or marshal-
remind the athlete of the correct movement. ling area. Once inside, they can sit, or get up
and do light drills and mobility exercises. They
Coaching texts also tells us that in principle, may not be able to do sprints!
an effective warm-up should progress from:
• slow to fast Preparation for the unexpected: Of course,
• active to dynamic there are things that cannot be controlled,
and two good examples are multiple false
• general to specific
starts in sprint races and delays from a pro-
• simple to more complex
test. One has to simply look back at the cases
of Linford Christie (GBR) at the 1996 Olympic
Other generally accepted considerations
Games 100m final, or Jon Drummond (USA)
about warming up include the following points:
at the 1993 World Championships in Athletics
100m quarter finals. In both cases, the race
The warm-up is PART OF the workout: was delayed because of the athlete’s refusal
Some younger athletes may feel the warm-up to leave the starting area after being charged
is a waste of time. So it is important for the with a false start and subsequent disqualifica-
coach to reinforce that the warm-up is the first tion. Their actions were at the expense of the
unit of the actual workout. Moreover, what the other seven sprinters waiting for the race to
athlete does on the day of competition should commence, but the subsequent performances
closely match what is done in training, so showed that a well-tuned body with a good
learning and refining the warm-up routine in cardiovascular and circulatory system should
training is important. stay warm with the optimal muscle tone for a
long period of time before eventually cooling
Event type: The longer the activity, and the less off. For the athlete, the better the general fit-
intense the activity, the shorter the warm-up re- ness, cardiovascular and circulatory systems,

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 9

Warm-up Essentials

the longer they can stay physically warm and Sample Warm-up for Throwers
ready. This is why low intensity tempo runs (i.e.
10 x 100m at 70% speed) on recovery days are
The warm-up for throwers is similar to a
beneficial for sprinters. Of course, being men-
sprinter's, with the key difference being the
tally ready is critical in such situations, but that
emphasis on the muscle groups specific to
aspect is beyond the scope of this article.
their events (i.e., more upper body without
ignoring the lower body). Similar to a sprinter,
Sample Warm-up for Sprinters maximising power and speed are very im-
portant for enabling the thrower to accelerate
• Start with general movements of low in- the implement. Therefore, the key role for the
tensity to raise core temperature warm-up is the increase in the rate and force of
• Perform dynamic flexibility and drills like muscle contraction.
the Gerard Mach Drills
• Repeat with increasing intensity Typically, a thrower’s warm-up begins with a
five to 10 minute jog at speeds much slower than
Once warmed up, try movements specific to a sprinter’s, in order to increase the core tem-
the event - these can be ballistic movements of perature. The jog, resembling a shuffle at times,
jumping or short sprints of increasing intensity is followed by dynamic stretches of the muscles
and distances. of the: upper body (shoulders, chest and arms),
the abdominals (core region) as well as the legs.
General activities include jogging, skipping Given the nature of their event, throwers will also
perform range of motion exercises.
and shuffling, progressing to more specific
activities, like drills, lunges and hurdle mobility
Part of the warm-up for throwers consists
exercises. This a great time to test the neural
of accelerations and drills. Throwers need to
response and bio-motor capabilities, like Ge-
move their legs quickly. Four to eight accelera-
rard Mach’s A-skip, B-skip, C’s (also known as
tions of 10 to 20m with a full slow walk back
butt kicks) and Power-speed drills. for recovery is sufficient. The drills can be of
any type with emphasis on explosive move-
Athletes can then do up to six runs or ment and agility. Lunges (full and half), hops,
“strides” of increasing distances. For example, bounds, plyometrics, quick foot turnover drills,
the first run of 50m starts with acceleration at and sideways running with twisting are some
20% speed and ends at 50% top speed. There drills that can be used.
is then a slow walk back. The next run is 60m
at 30% speed ending at 60% speed. The last
run is 100m ending in near top speed. Finally, the thrower should perform specific
throwing movements mimicking the motion of
One last addition to the warm-up for sprint- the throws such as the use of a lighter imple-
ers could be an activity to stimulate a PAP ef- ment or weighted tennis balls. Given the nature
fect, assuming, of course, that the coach and of the forces generated, this is a vital stage in
athlete accept the current thinking on PAP. the warm–up allowing the athlete to determine
This would normally involve performing a near- if they are ready or not.
max effort about 20 minutes before the race,
or before the mandatory check-in and enter-
ing the control room. For a 400m sprinter, this
could be a 150m sprint on the warm-up track. Please send all correspondence to:
Jimson Lee
jimson@speedendurance.com

10 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 Warm-up Essentials

REFERENCES GAMBETTA, V. (2007). Athletic Development – The Art and

Science of Functional Sports Conditioning. Champaign IL:
Human Kinetics.
HAHN, A. (1929). How to Sprint - The Theory of Sprint Rac-
ing. New York: American Sports Publishing Co. (Available TOMARAS, E. & MACINTOSH, B. (2011). Less is more:
through http://worldebooklibrary.com). standard warm-up causes fatigue and less warm-up per-
mits greater cycling power output. Journal of Applied
DUNCANSON, N. (2011). The Fastest Men on Earth. Lon-
Physiology, 111:228-235.
don: Andre Deutsch.
THOMPSON, P.J. L. (2009). Introduction to Coaching – The
FRENCH, D.N.; KRAEMER, W.J. & COOKE, C.B. (2003).
Official IAAF Guide to Coaching Athletics. Monaco: Interna-
Changes in dynamic exercise performance following a
tional Association of Athletics Federations.
sequence of preconditioning isometric muscle actions.
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 17(4):
678-685.

CHIU, L.Z.; FRY, A.C.; WEISS, L.W.; SCHILLING, B.K.;

BROWN, L.E. & SMITH, S.L. (2003). Postactivation poten-
tiation response in athletic and recreationally trained indi-
viduals. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
17(4): 671-677.

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 11

12 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014
 COACHING PRACTICE

Final Preparations for © by IAAF

29:1; 13-35, 2014

Peak Competitions:
Observations from the 2009 IAAF
World Championships in Athletics
by Wolfgang Killing, Eckhard Hutt, Jan May, Jörg Peter, Rainer Pottel,
Maria Ritschel, Jürgen Schult and Adi Zaar

ABSTRACT AUTHORS
Classic training methodology tells us that Wolfgang Killing is scientific director of
there is little athletes can do in the four to the German Athletics Federation (DLV)
ten days before a competition to improve Academy.
their performance level. But what are the  
effects, positive or negative, of activities Eckhard Hutt is a former German national
in the period after the last hard training Head Coach for triple jump.
session? From the practical point of view,  
what is the ideal structure for the final Jan May is the German national Head
preparations, and even for the warm-up Coach for men’s hurdles events.
on the day of the competition itself? This  
article, adapted from a more extensive re- Jörg Peter is the German national Youth
port of a project conducted under the aus- Coach for the long sprint events.
pices of the German Athletics Federation  
(Deutscher Leichtathletik-Verband – DLV) Rainer Pottel is the German national Head
addresses these questions with an informal Coach for decathlon.
compilation of observations of world-class  
athletes going about their preparations for Maria Ritschel is the German national Head
the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Coach for women’s javelin.
Athletics. After outlining the methodol-  
ogy used, the authors present observations Jürgen Schult is the German national Head
of interest to athletes, coaches and team Coach for all throwing events.
managers preparing for a peak competi-  
tion. These are supplemented by brief case Adi Zaar is the German naitonal Youth
studies of well-known athletes in each of Coach for women’s middle distance events.
the main event groups.

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 13

Final Preparations for Peak Competitions: Observations from the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics

Introduction at smaller competitions. Major events usu-

ally mean trips abroad and extended absences
n a peak competition, athletes are ex- from home, long periods of simply waiting for
I pected to be in their best possible
form and to deliver a top performance,
the competition, different sleeping, eating,
leisure and training possibilities, longer lead-
ideally in the shape of a personal best and or up times and distances to be covered at the
the highest possible placing. The preparation competition venue, tense Call Room stays and
for a season’s peak competition is a year-round tightly controlled conditions in the stadium. Last
process and, in extreme cases, it can even in- but not least, the competition conditions (tem-
volve several years of work. perature, humidity rain, wind), at major events
are not uniform: they are sometimes good and
Classic training methodology tells us that sometimes bad. All these factors are additional
the time period between the last intensive train- stressors that can affect performance, and
ing session and a peak performance should be they tend to affect younger and less experi-
seven to ten days while recent findings show enced athletes more than experienced athletes
that for women this time period might be four with a very high performance level. Experience,
to seven days. After that, it would seem there therefore, is a valuable component of dealing
is little the athlete can do to increase his/her with the stress at a major event.
performance level. At that point it is no longer a
question of developing one’s form or even fine- Our aim in this article is share information
tuning, because trying to do so would lead to that will supplement the experience of the
fatigue, which would then have a negative im- coach-athlete team in the hope that it can
pact on the performance. assist with the realisation of improved per-
formances. In the following, readers will find
But exactly what are the effects, positive or an informal compilation of observations of
negative, of the athlete’s activities in the period world-class athletes going about their final
after the last hard training session? This ques- training and warming up for the 2009 IAAF
tion has long been of interest to coaches of World Championships in Athletics in Berlin. Of
athletes of all levels. From the practical point of course, at such an event it is not possible to fol-
view, coaches and athletes are looking for an low the activities of all athletes at all times and,
ideal structure for the activities of the final prep- therefore, we cannot claim to have produced a
arations, and even for the warm-up on the day comprehensive study. What we tried to do was
of the competition itself, or at least a confirma- collect what relevant information we could on
tion that the approach they use for peak com- the activities in semi-public and public spaces
petitions is a good one. Studying the behaviour - the official training, warm-up and competition
of elite athletes during their final preparations areas for the championships – of athletes we
and warm-up is interesting in itself as it enables could identify.
a critical reflection for future preparation.
After outlining the methodology used, we
It is the nature of a peak competition that it present a set of general observations on top-
represents the athlete’s most challenging com- ics that will be of interest to coaches and team
petition of the season. For elite athletes, this managers. This is followed by sections con-
usually means a major event such as the Olym- taining specific observations on the training
pic Games, or a championships at the world in the days leading up to the competition and
or area level. Therefore, the peak competition the warm-up and final preparations before the
must first of all be seen as a stress factor that start of the competition. These sections in-
can either enhance or reduce performance. In clude a small number of brief case studies of
addition, the procedures necessary at major well-known athletes in each of the main event
events are different and more complex than groups.

14 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 Final Preparations for Peak Competitions: Observations from the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics

This article is adapted from a more exten- • Warm-up timeframe

sive report on a project conducted under the - How many minutes prior to the start does
auspices of the host federation of the cham- the athlete arrive at the warm-up area?
pionships, the German Athletics Federation - When does the athlete start his/her
(Deutscher Leichtathletik-Verband – DLV), as a preparation?
complement to the biomechanical studies con- - When does the athlete start his/her
ducted at the event. special warm-up?
- Schedule from the first call until the start
Methodology of the competition

General • Warm-up activities

Our methodology is presented here to a) - General warm-up (jogging, stretching,
provide context for the observations given be- running ABC, accelerations)
low and b) as the starting point for the planning - Special warm-up (starts, sprints, jumps,
of future surveys with aims similar to ours. throws, strengthening, tempo runs)
- Behaviour in the Call Room (stretching,
Techniques running ABC, etc.)
The techniques we used for our observa-
tions included the following: • Immediate competition preparation in the
• Notes on form sheets and sketches stadium
• Dictaphone - General behaviour on the track or field
• Video recordings (jogging, stretching, running ABC,
• Unsystematic observation accelerations, etc.)
• Conversations with athletes and coaches - Test starts (plus acceleration over the
first or second hurdles)
Aspects observed - Warm-up jumps, warm-up throws,
The aspects we observed, recorded and imitations
considered for our final report included the fol- - Consultation with the coach, type of
lowing: corrections
• Training programme
- In the days before the competition • During the competition
- After the early rounds of the competition - General behaviour (jogging, stretching,
(training between competitions) imitations, accelerations, sprints)
- Relay training - Communication with the coach

• Training contents • Competition results

- Which exercises? Intensity, volume? - Individual results
- Rest intervals - Biomechanical evaluations
- Instructions on how to carry out the exer-
cises • After the competitions and between com-
- New exercises petitions
- Duration of the warm-down jog, the
• Physical and physiotherapeutic measures complete warm-down, the follow-up
before the warm-up treatment
- Cooling - Jogging, stretching
- Passive warm-up - Passive measures, massage
- Massage - Doing nothing
- Adjustment of joints
- Taping and bandages

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 15

Final Preparations for Peak Competitions: Observations from the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics

General Observations Instead, in our observations, the coaches of

these athletes normally did their best to sup-
Orientation port and reinforce their athletes’ movements
The majority of the athletes we observed during technique sessions in the last days
visited the competition stadium and training before the competition. Only sometimes was
facilities in Berlin during the days before the there an attempt to correct movements (see
competition. As would be expected, the rea- Chinese throwers below).
sons for these visits were to train, get to know
the procedures for the warm-up area and Call Preliminary stimulus
Room, do practice starts with the official start- The setting of a preliminary stimulus means
ers or measure their approach runs. Some training done on the day before the competition
throwers performed preliminary swings or glid- to activate the functional systems, especially
ing movements to make themselves familiar the central nervous system and the muscles
with the throwing circles. Other athletes only (build-up of tension). In the power events, the
watched the procedures on the warm-up field. traditional way to do this is by strength, jumping
or throwing exercises; in the jumping events a
Self-assurance short intense series of jumps and squats with
In the days before or immediately prior to medium weights, small bending angles and
the competition, athletes often want to reas- high speed is used. Although for organisational
sure themselves of their performance poten- reasons not all athletes could be observed, it
tial, either in training or the during the warm- seems that the importance of this preparation
up. In Berlin, this was especially the case with technique has abated somewhat. Only a few
the throwers and some of the jumpers. How- athletes could be observed executing appro-
ever, in addition to the risk of not reaching the priate programmes. More frequently, so-called
desired performance and being put off by this preliminary sessions could be observed that
fact, we found that success in the competition either included only jogging and gymnastic ex-
was certainly not guaranteed by a good warm- ercises or consisted of running and jumping-
up. For example, discus thrower Gerd Kanter, ABC exercises and several acceleration runs.
who went on to take the bronze medal, and Sometimes, even starts plus accelerations,
some high jumpers did not replicate observed run-up checks or jumps and throws could be
warm-up performances in the actual compe- observed during these preliminary sessions.
tition (Gregorz Sposob for example cleared
2.25m in the warm-up vs. 2.20m in the com- Warm-up for elite sprinters
petition). Sometimes it is problematic when Among our most interesting observations
good warm-up performances are achieved by was that instead of the classic warm-up start-
fouling. This was especially the case for the ing with easy jogging, many, but not all, of the
rotational shot putters. For example, we saw sprinters from the great sprint nations of the
that defending champion Reese Hoffa, who Caribbean and North America had a different
took fourth in Berlin, and others achieve over approach. Used in both their training and pre-
21.50m in their warm-ups, performances they competition warm-ups, it started with six to eight
could not repeat in the competition itself. acceleration runs over 80 to 100m on the grass,
interspersed with walking breaks. After this, they
Technique corrections did gymnastic exercises and passive mobilisa-
Although they do not normally enter new tion activities as described below. Against the
technical ground, it is known that some coach- background of the many single starts of some
es try to address old, firmly established faults sprinters (eight in the case of Usain Bolt (this be-
during the final training sessions and even dur- haviour should not be underestimated. In such a
ing competitions. However, this was not the situation, relieved or assisted warm-up work is
case among the stronger athletes in Berlin. probably quite economical.

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 Final Preparations for Peak Competitions: Observations from the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics

Passive mobilisation Warm-down

Many of the athletes we observed spent a lot We noted that after both training and compe-
of their time working on flexibility and mobility, ei- tition, many, but not all, of the top sprinters gave
ther immediately before they competed and or in the warm-down much more emphasis than just
the days before their competitions. We noted that the standard short jog. The elements and the
some used the traditional means, i.e., gymnas- order seen most regularly among North Ameri-
tic and stretching exercises, while others used can and Caribbean athletes were as follows:
rubber bands to assist their exercises. However, • Five minutes of warm-down walking with
athletes from the great sprint nations and China limbering movements.
tended to use exercises assisted by the coach • Immediately after this, the flexor-extensor
or physiotherapist, sometimes on the massage chain as well as the hip flexors and extensors
table, sometimes in a standing or sitting posi- are lightly moved and stretched; slight loos-
tion, often with stretching their legs up to or even ening and massage by a physiotherapist.
beyond the split position (Chinese hurdlers and • Ice baths.
shot putters). Most of these athletes did flexibility • Jogging on the grass.
exercises for their back, hips, knees, upper- and
lower- ankle joints. When doing so, they demon- For the jumpers there was a variation in ap-
strated a great (passive) flexibility. proach. At the end of their training sessions,
some did warm-down jogging others did not.
Behaviour during the competition As with the sprinters, in some cases one could
We observed that between their attempts, observe jumpers being treated with ice.
the throwers and high jumpers generally moved
about only a little: getting up, walking around Weather conditions
(especially the throwers), short jogging, light mo- When evaluating the warm-up behaviour and
bilisation exercises, imitations and only rarely run- unexpected approaches, such as the replace-
ning or jumping-ABC exercises. Only in the hori- ment of the warm-up jog by acceleration runs,
zontal jumps and pole vaults, events with long, the weather conditions should not be disregard-
fast approach runs, did the athletes do warm-ups ed. Due to the very high temperatures in the early
that also included acceleration runs after longer days of the championships, the starting tempera-
breaks (i.e. qualifications in all horizontal jumps, ture of the athletes was already raised even be-
where there were a lot of participants). fore beginning their sports activity. Since many
of the athletes from the Caribbean and Central
Training between rounds America region have such a heat all year, they
Some athletes trained between the qualifica- can do without the non-specific and, in some
tion rounds and the finals. Most athletes that we cases counterproductive, jogging warm-up.
observed performed warm-up exercises with
subsequent tension exercises (short starts plus Organisation
acceleration, jumps, strength). It was pleasant to watch the relaxed, helpful
and friendly organisational staff, which includ-
Physical applications ed the marshals on the competition and train-
Large vats of ice water were available in the ing fields, the drivers and the helpers in the ac-
warm-up and the training stadiums. These were creditation offices and the hotels. Of particular
used by some of the athletes after intensive note was the behaviour of the judges, who in
training loads. Other athletes contented them- the technical competitions permitted as much
selves with rubbing their legs with ice packs. warm-up jogging, throwing and jumping as
During training, we did not see any cooling jack- was possible during the time period available
ets being used and during competition such a (which often led to a 10-15 min break between
jacket was only used by a German decathlete. the last warm-up attempt and the start of the
competition or the presentation).

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Final Preparations for Peak Competitions: Observations from the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics

Training Observations For each group we saw highly intensive ses-

sions introduced by a warm-up and charac-
When we speak of training in this context, we terised by a specific content (sprint drills and
mean the application of loads up to and includ- runs over very short distances, approach
ing the day before the competition. With few ex- run-up checks, jumps, submaximal throws).
ceptions most of the top athletes known to us Many jumpers carried out a technique-related
were not seen in the training areas during the training session. This normally consisted of a
days before the competition; only some could warm-up, strides, technique jumps of vary-
be observed doing general warm-up sessions, ing intensity followed by general exercises or
weight training, and more or less warm-down
probably to activate their functional systems.
jogging. Here, one could see a two-day cycle
with some athletes (e.g. Maggi), but not with
Of course, training programmes must really
others. Interestingly, we did not observe any
be analysed individually but we can say that for
of the throwers carrying out intensive strength
those athletes we could observe training dur-
loads but there was a variation in the number of
ing this period, the sessions normally were, as throws taken during this period and some ath-
described in the textbooks, of low volume but letes completed very intensive programmes.
highly intensive and specific. This was the case
for sprinters, jumpers and throwers.

Table 1: Selected case studies – Sprints and Hurdles

Alyson Felix (USA) - 200m

Competition result: 1st, 22.02 sec

August 8 (11 days before heats)

Warm-up: 5 min stretching, 8 x 80m (rest intervals: 80m walking, sometimes
backward)
Mobilisation: 12:15 min dynamic mobilisation and stretching
Sprint drills: 30-40m - knee lift: left-left-right-right, long legs, hops with bringing
the rear leg up to the front leg
Loading: 1x 80m, 1x 60m - stride pattern: from short to long, from powerful
to relaxed (rest interval: 3 min), run-off: 1 x 50m
Tempo runs: 200m – 23.0 sec, 250m – 29.5 sec, 100m -11.4 sec, (rest intervals: 10 min)
Warm-down: 400m easy jogging, massage by physiotherapist

August 15 (4 days before heats)

Start of training: 18:00h
Warm-up: 5 min stretching, 10 min warm-up jogging
Mobilisation: 15 min stretching: first statically for only a short time, then longer
into the movement using a band
Therapy: Ice bath, knee-joint check, 10 min massage

August 16 (3 days before heats)

Start of training: 14:00h
Warm-up: 8 x 100m tempo runs (rest intervals: 2 min)
Mobilisation: 20 min stretching and trunk-strength exercises
Loading: 3 x 80m acceleration runs (rest intervals: 4 min)
Warm-down: 10 min massage

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 Final Preparations for Peak Competitions: Observations from the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics

August 17 (2 days before heats)

Start of training: 13:30h
Warm-up: 8 x 80m (rest intervals: 80m)
Mobilisation: 20 min physiotherapy, mobilisation exercises, and stretching
Loading: 2 x 100m, 2 x 60m (rest intervals: 5 min)
Tempo runs: 2 x 150m tempo at about 85% (rest interval: 12 min)
Warm-down: 5 min jogging on the grass, ice bath, massage from physiotherapist

August 18 (day before heats)

Start of training: 15:15h
Warm-up: 800m jogging on the grass, 10 min static stretching, 20 min relax
ation and listening to music
Sprint drills: 6 x 40m, easy
Loading: 2 x 30m (rest interval: 3 min)
Warm-down: 20 min relaxation, 10 min massage

Tyson Gay (USA) - 100m

Competition result: 2nd, 9.71 sec (NR)

August 14 (day before heats)

Start of training: 10:00h
Warm-up: 6 x 100m low intensity (walking the curves, running the straights)
Exercises: Intense stretching of all major muscle groups assisted by physio
therapist
Sprint drills: 20m, knee lift, knee lift with gripping movement, skips with grip
ping movements
Run-offs: 80m, 60m, 50m, 40m
Warm-down: 600m jogging
Physiotherapy: 15 min massage, then mobilisation assisted by physiotherapist

Wei Ji (CHN), Dongpeng Shi (CHN), Jing Yin (CHN) – 110m hurdles
Competition results: Ji 8th, 13.51 sec (13.41 sec (SB) in semi-final)
Shi 3rd in semi-final, 13.42 (SB)
Yin dns

August 14 (4 days before heats)

Warm-up: 10-15 min jogging
Exercises: 30 min intense stretching exercises, sometimes assisted by coach
(standing split, etc.)
Running ABCs: In combination with many swinging exercises
Run-offs: 3 x 50-70m easy
Hurdles work: With 4 hurdles: 4 x trailing leg exercise, 2 x 5-step rhythm,
5-8 starts and runs up to the fourth hurdle, in one case the eighth
hurdle, rest intervals: 5-10 min
Warm-down: 10 minutes jogging

(Total duration of the session: 2.5 hours)

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Final Preparations for Peak Competitions: Observations from the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics

Table 2: Selected training case studies – Middle & Long Distance

Jennifer Barringer (USA) - 3,000m steeplechase

Competition result: 5th, 9:12.50 (AR)

August 14 (day before heats)

Warm-up: 15 min jogging
Exercises: 10 min general stretching exercises, 10 min hurdle exercises with hurdles
Run-offs: 4 x 80-100m, walking breaks
Trunk Strength: 15 min, each exercise repeated 40 times
Warm-down: Nothing

Pamela Jelimo (KEN) – 800m

Competition Result: dnf semi-final (2:03.5 in first round heat)

August 14 (2 days before heats)

Warm-up: About 45 min of jogging, fast
Exercises: 10 min swinging and stretching exercises
Accelerations: 2-3 x 60-80m
Tempo runs: 400m (ca. 58 sec), 200m walking break, 200m (27-28 sec),
100m walking break, 100m (13.5 sec), 50m walking break, 80m (11 sec)
Warm-down: 20 min jogging

Shannon Rowbury (USA) – 1500m

Competition result: 3rd, 4:04.18

August 14 (4 days before heats)

Warm-up: 45 min jogging
Exercises: 10 min dynamic stretching assisted by physiotherapist
Running ABC: 10 x 25m
Accelerations: 1 x 200m, 1 x 80m
Run-offs: 2 x 5 x 100m, fast with jogging intervals, 3 min rest between series
Exercises: Leg swings: 2 x 4-10
Warm-down: No jogging

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 Final Preparations for Peak Competitions: Observations from the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics

Table 3: Selected training case studies - Throws

Lijlao Gong (CHN), Meiju Li (CHN), Xiangrong Liu (CHN) – Shot Put
Competition results: Gong 3rd, 19.98m (PB)
Li 7th, 18.76m
Liu 10th, 18.52m

August 14 (2 days before the competition)

Warm-up: 10 min jogging
Exercises: 15 min stretching exercises, sometimes assisted by the coach
Standing puts: 6-8 puts (4-16m) in quick succession
Gliding puts: 20-23 puts (around 16-18m), only few corrections by the coach
Strength: Half squats, 140-160kg, imitations (in weight room)
Warm-down: No warm-down activity observed

Xuejun Ma (CHN), Amin Song (CHN), Shaoyang Xu (CHN) – Discus

Competition results: Ma 11th, 58.79m (63.38m (SB) in qualification)
Song 5th, 62.42m
Xu 13th in qualification, 61.02m (SB)

August 15, 4 days before qualification round

Warm-up: 15 minutes jogging, with walking breaks
Exercises: 15 min stretching, 10 min preparation of the shoulder using an elas
tic band
Standing throws: 6-8 throws, about 45-50m
Rotational throws: 20-25, about 53-60 m (a few corrections by the coach, mostly by
using short gestures)
Athletic exercises: Medicine ball throws 20-30m, five sprint and multi-hop series over
about 20-25m each
Exercises: 5-10 min stretching, with assistance
Massage: 30 min treading massage on the back and legs (by female fellow
athletes), foot massage

(Duration of the session: At least 2.5 hours.)

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Final Preparations for Peak Competitions: Observations from the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics

Table 4: Selected training case studies – Jumps

Anna Chicherova (RUS), Svetlana Shkolina (RUS), Elena Slesarenko (RUS) – High Jump
Competition results: Chicherova 2nd, 2.02m (SB)
Shkolina 6th, 1.96m
Slesarenko 10th, 1.92m

August 17 (day before qualification round)

Warm-up: 8 min jogging
Exercises: 15 min stretching
Running ABC: 6-8 x 30m
Accelerations: 2-3 x 50-70m
Preliminary stimulus: Chicherova: third-squat 100-120 kg, Slesarenko: 5 x 5 jumps over
hurdles placed with large spacings
Exercises: Stretching and strengthening exercises with rubber band
Warm-down: 5-8 min jogging

Chaunté Howard Lowe (USA) – High Jump

Competition result: 7th, 1.96m

August 14 (4 days before qualification round)

Warm-up: 10 min jogging
Exercises: 10 min stretching, including some facilitation exercises assisted by
a physiotherapist
Running ABC: 3 x 40-60m
Jumps: From both a short run-up and competition run-up, several jumps
over 1.90 and 1.93m
Warm-down: 5 min jogging, stretching exercises

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 Final Preparations for Peak Competitions: Observations from the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics

Maureen Higa Maggi (BRA) – Long Jump

Competition result: 7th, 6.68m

August 17 (4 days before qualification round)

Warm-up: 10 min jogging
Exercises: 15 min intense stretching
Running ABC: 6 x 30m
Accelerations: 60m and 80m
Jumping ABC: 4 x 30m
Technique: 2x run-up checks, three competition jumps
Bounding runs: 40 and 60m
Exercises: 5 min stretching
Warm-down: 5 min jogging

August 19 (2 days before qualification round)

Warm-up: 10 min jogging
Exercises: 20 min intense stretching
Running ABC: 4 x 30m
Accelerations: 60m and 80m
Bounding runs: 40m and 60m
Technique: 3-4 run-up checks
Standing long jump: 5 attempts (weak impression, 2.50m)
Exercises: 5 min stretching
Warm-down: 5 min jogging

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Final Preparations for Peak Competitions: Observations from the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics

Table 5: Selected warm-up case studies – Sprints and Hurdles

Usain Bolt (JAM) - 100m

August 15, heat

Getting into the mood: 60 min hanging out on a massage bench
Warm-up running: 200m jog, 5 x 60m easy accelerations
Exercises: 10 min stretching programme assisted by physiotherapist
on the bench
Run-offs: 3 x 40m, rest interval: 4 min each
Competition result: 1st,10.20 sec
Warm-down: 10 min stretching assisted by physiotherapist

August 15, quarter-final

Getting into the mood: 60 min hanging out on a massage bench
Warm-up running: 5 x 60m easy accelerations, rest interval: 1 min each
Exercises: 10 min stretching programme assisted by physiotherapist
on the bench
Run-offs: 3 x 20m, rest interval: 2 min each
Competition result: 2nd,10.03 sec
Warm-down: 5 x 50m low-intensity runs, 10 min stretching exercises
assisted by physiotherapist

August 16, semi-final

Getting into the mood: 60 min hanging out on a massage bench
Warm-up running: 5 x 50m easy accelerations, 50m walking breaks
Exercises: 10 min stretching programme assisted by physiotherapist
on the bench
Run-offs: 3 x 50m, rest interval: 3 min each
Competition result: 1st, 9.89 sec
Warm-down: 10 min stretching assisted by physiotherapist

August 16, final

Getting into the mood: 60 min hanging out on a massage bench
Warm-up running: 5 x 50m easy accelerations, 50m walking breaks
Exercises: 10 min stretching programme assisted by physiotherapist
on the bench
Run-offs: 2 x 30m, 2 x 40m on command, rest interval: 4 min each
Call Room: Sitting around with some hopping
Competition Result: 1st, 9.58 sec (WR)

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 Final Preparations for Peak Competitions: Observations from the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics

Asafa Powell (JAM) – 100m

August 15, heat

Warm-up running: 5 x 80m with slight acceleration, 3 x 50m run-offs, various drills
Exercises: 5 min stretching
Accelerations: 2 x 80m fast
Run-offs: 30m, 30m, 40m, 50m from the blocks
Competition result: 3rd, 10.38 sec (relaxed)
Warm-down: 400m jog, 10 min massage, mobilisation

August 15, quarter-final

Warm-up running: 2 x 80m accelerations
Exercises: 5 min stretching
Accelerations: 2 x 60m fast
Run-offs: 2 x 50m, 2 x 30m, 3 x 40m, rest intervals 5 min each:
Competition result: 1st, 9.95 (relaxed)
Warm-down: 400m jogging, 10 min massage, mobilisation

Sanya Richards (USA) - 400m

August 15, heat

Warm-up: Easy jogging and skipping alternately, limbering up, and
walking (one lap), eight very easy accelerations down the
straight, walking through each curve
Exercises: 35 min swinging exercises, stretching and intense stretching
(passive stretching assisted by physiotherapist)
Run-offs: 1 x 30m, fast and relaxed, 1 x 50m, 1 x 80m (10.1 sec),
then to the Call Room
Competition result: 1st, 51.06 sec
Warm-down: 2 laps warm-down jogging

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Final Preparations for Peak Competitions: Observations from the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics

Table 6: Selected warm-up case studies – Middle and Long Distance

Jennifer Barringer (USA) - 3,000m steeplechase

August 15, heat

Warm-up: 25 min, easy jogging
Exercises: 5 min active stretching exercises
Running ABC: 8 x 20m
Technique: 8 x hurdle clearances
Run-offs: 5 x 90m

• In the stadium:
Run-offs: 3 x 80m at race pace
Competition result: 9:26.81, 3rd
Warm-down: 15 min jogging
Ice bath: 5-7 min
Exercises: 5 min

August 17, final

Warm-up: 30 min, easy jogging
Exercises: 5 min active stretching exercises
Running ABC: 6 x 20m
Technique: 4x hurdle clearances
Run-offs: 6 x 90m

• In the stadium:
Run-offs: 3 x 80m at race pace
Competition result: 5th, 9:12.50 (AR)
Warm-down: 15 min jogging

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 Final Preparations for Peak Competitions: Observations from the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics

Augustino Choge (KEN) - 1,500m

August 15, heat

Warm-up: 40 min jogging
Exercises: 15 min in combination with running ABC
Run-offs: 1 x 80m easy, 4 x 80m at race pace followed by 10 min
inactive

• In the stadium:
Run-off: 1 x 100m
Competition result: 3rd, 3:44.73
Warm-down: 30 min easy jogging, no stretching

August 17, semi-final

Warm-up: 40 min jogging
Exercises: 15 min in combination with running ABC
Run-offs: 1 x 80 m easy, 5 x 80 m at race pace, stretching during
rest intervals followed by 10 min inactive

• In the stadium:
Run-offs: 2 x 100m
Competition: 2nd, 3:36.43
Warm-down: 40 min easy jogging, no stretching

August 19, final

Warm-up: 35 min jogging
Exercises: 15 min in combination with running ABC
Run-offs: 2 x 80m easy, 4 x 80m at race pace, stretching during
rest intervals followed by 10 min inactive

• In the stadium:
Run-offs: 2 x 100m
Competition result: 5th, 3:36.53

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Pamela Jelimo (KEN) – 800m

August 15, heat

Warm-up: 20 min jogging
Exercises: 10 min swinging exercises
Run-offs: 4 x 80m, easy

• In the stadium:
Run-offs: 2 x 60m into the curve
Competition result: 1st, 2:03.50
Warm-down: No jogging

August 17, semi-final

Warm-up jog: 25 min, easy
Exercises: 10 min swinging exercises
Run-offs: 4 x 80m, easy, 1 x 80m, fast
Exercises: 5 min
Competition result: dnf

Maryia Savinova (RUS) – 800m

August 17, heat

Warm-up: 20 min jogging
Exercises: 10 min stretching assisted by physiotherapist
Running-ABC: 8 x 25m fast wearing spikes
Accelerations: 3 x 70m fast
Run-off: 1 x 120m at race pace
Exercises: 5 min

• In the stadium:
Run-off: 1 x 100 m at race pace
Exercises: 5 min stretching
Competition result: 1st, 2:03.27

August 17, semi-final

Warm-up: 25 min jogging
Exercises: 10 min stretching assisted by physiotherapist
Running ABC: 10 x 25m wearing spikes
Accelerations: 3 x 70m
Run-off: 1 x 100m
Exercises: 5 min

• In the stadium:
Run-off: 1 x 90m
Warm-down: 20 minutes jogging
Exercises: 5 min stretching
Competition result: 1st, 1:59.30

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 Final Preparations for Peak Competitions: Observations from the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics

Mehdi Baala (FRA) – 1,500m

August 15, heat

Warm-up: 20 min jogging
Exercises: 15 min, followed by 20 min inactive

• In the stadium:
Run-offs: 2 x 60m
Competition result: 1st, 3:42.77
Warm-down: No jogging

August 17, semi-final

Warm-up: 10 min jogging, 20 min inactive

• In the stadium:
Run-offs: 2 x 70m
Competition result: 3rd, 3:37.07
Limbering-up: 15 min assisted by physiotherapists

August 19, final

Warm-up: 15 min jogging
Exercises: 5 min stretching exercises, followed by 20 min inactive

• In the stadium:
Run-offs: 2 x 100m at race pace, rest interval: walking slowly
Competition result: 7th, 3:36.99

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Final Preparations for Peak Competitions: Observations from the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics

Kipruto Kiprop (KEN) – 1,500m

August 15, heat

Warm-up: 40 min jogging
Exercises: 15 min in combination with running ABC
Run-offs: 1 x 80m easy, 2 x 80m at race pace, stretching during
rest intervals, followed by 10 min inactive
• In the stadium:
Run-offs: 1 x 100m
Competition result: 2nd, 3:41.42,
Warm-down: 30 min easy jogging

August 17, semi-final

Warm-up: 45 min jogging
Exercises: 20 min in combination with running ABC
Run-offs: 1 x 80m easy, 5 x 80m at race pace, stretching during
rest intervals 10 min inactive

• In the stadium:
Run-offs: 2 x 100m
Competition result: 2nd, 3:36.24
Warm-down: 30 min easy jogging, no stretching

August 19, final

Warm-up: 35 min jogging
Exercises: 15 min in combination with running ABC
Run-offs: 2 x 80m easy, 4 x 80m at race pace, stretching during
rest intervals, followed by 10 min inactive

• In the stadium:
Run-offs: 2 x 100m
Competition result: 4ht, 3:36.47
Warm-down: 30 min easy jogging, no stretching

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 Final Preparations for Peak Competitions: Observations from the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics

Table 7: Selected warm-up case study – Jumps

Nelson Evora (POR) – Triple Jump

August 16, qualification

Warm-up: 300m run easy jogging, bouncing jog (including arm circles),
100m slightly accelerating, lunge right + left, reaching and
knee-lift exercises, jogging
Exercises: Passive stretching assisted by a physiotherapist, especially
hip joint
Warm-up jumps: 3x easy triple jumps from 3 run-up steps, 1 long run-up (48m)
with long jump from the board

• In the Stadium
Warm-up jumps: 1x approach check with hop, 1x approach check with triple jump
(ca 16.50m), 1x triple jump from 11 run-up strides, ca. 16.30m
Competition result: 17.44m

August 18, final

Warm-up: 600m easy jogging, bouncing jog (including arm circles),
including easy triple-jump rhythms
Exercises: Passive stretching assisted by a physiotherapist, especially
hip joint
Run-offs: 2 x 40m with high knee lift and indicated take-off
Warm-up jumps: 3x two-legged jumps, three easy triple jumps from 4,
10 and 12 approach strides, 1x long run-up (48m)
with take-off from board

• In Stadium
Warm-up jumps: 1x approach check with hop, 1x approach check (wearing
competition kit), 1 x triple jump from 11 approach strides
Competition result: 2nd, 17.55m

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Table 8: Selected warm-up case studies – Throws

Christian Cantwell (USA), Reese Hoffa (USA), Adam Nelson (USA) – Shot Put

August 15, final

Warm-up jog: Walking, short jogging sections (start 40-45 min before
going to the callroom)
Exercises: Easy stretching exercises
Standing shot puts: 3-4 easy puts, 17-19.5m
Rotational shot puts: 5-8 puts up to or beyond the performance limit (21.5-22m),
with fouling

• In the stadium:
Rotational shot puts: 5-8 puts up to or beyond the performance limit (21.5-22m),
with fouling
Gliding shot puts: 2-3 puts, distance: around 21m
Competition results: Cantwell 1st, 22.03m (WL)
Hoffa 4th, 21.28m
Nelson 5th, 21.11m (SB)

Tomasz Majewski (POL) - Shot Put

August 15, final

Warm-up jog: 300 m (start only 30 min before going to the callroom)
Exercises: 10 min easy, including a lot of hip stretching exercises
Standing shot puts: 6 x 18-19m
Gliding shot puts: 4 x 20-21m (easy)
Exercises: For hands and shoulders

• In the stadium:
Gliding shot puts: 3 x 20-21m (tense)
Competition results: 2nd, 21.91m

Valerie Vili (NZL) - Shot Put

August 16, final

Note: Start of the warm-up less than 30 minutes before going to the Call Room

Warm-up jog: 400m run, dynamic

Exercises: 10 min stretching exercises, interrupted by jogging
Warm-up putting: Only with glide, 3-4 attempts, 18-20m

• In the stadium
Warm-up putting: Two attempts, 18.6m and 20m
Competition result: 1st, 20.44m

32 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 Robert Harting (GER) Piotr Malachowski (POL) Gerd Kanter (EST) Virgilijus Alekna (LTU) Zoltan Kovago (HUN)
18:00
18:05 Arrival Arrival
18:10
18:15
18:20 Arrival
18:25 Stay in the tent Arrival
18:30 Jogging
Championships in Athletics

18:35 Gymnastic
exercises
18:40 Jogging (3 min) Stretching and lim- Jogging and gym- Arrival
bering up assisted nastics exercises
by physiotherapist
18:45 1 min of gymnastic
exercise
18:50 Jogging (3 min) Limbering-up exercises Stretching assisted
by physiotherapist
18:55 Walking, Running ABC
limbering-up exercises
19:00 2 standing throws: 3 standing throws: Imitations, standing

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

ca 51m, ca 50m ca 51m - 56m, throws
imitations
19:05 No warm-up throws 2 throws: 3 throws: Jogging and limber- Standing throw:
at the warm-up area ca 55m, ca 64m ca 59m, 59m, 72m ing-up exercises ca 60m
19:10 3 throws: No warm-up throws 2 throws: ca 62m,
ca 72.5m, 70m, at the warm-up area ca 63m
73.5m 18:00
19:15 Limbering-up exercises 1 throw: ca 64m
19:20 Call Room Call Room Call Room Call Room Call Room
On Field 2 throws: 2 throws: ca 67m 2 throws ca 67m
ca 62m, 67m

33
Final Preparations for Peak Competitions: Observations from the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics

Result 3rd, 66.88m 6th, 65.17m

Table 9: Comparison of the warm-up routines of top discus throwers for the final of the 2009 IAAF World

1st, 69.43m 2nd, 69.15m 4th, 66.36m

Final Preparations for Peak Competitions: Observations from the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics

It was noticeable that three groups of Chi- the rule of thumb is that the less stressful the
nese athletes (110m hurdlers, discus throwers, competition exercise is for the whole organism
shot putters) did workouts of considerable (e.g., shot put), the more frequent the repeti-
length (2.5-3 hours) just four or even three days tions in the warm-up. Often, the throwers threw
before their competitions started. In addition both on the warm-up field and then again in
to highly intensive training in their competition the stadium, but sometimes they did so only
events, some of them did what appeared to be in the stadium.Here, the athletes were always
intensive general sprinting, jumping, throwing allowed by the judges to do as many attempts
and strength exercises (see tables for details). as they liked.
Based on this, one arrives at the assumption
that in their normal training the loads used Focusing on the sprint events, observa-
must be much higher. tions of athletes from the great sprint nations of
North America and the Caribbean led us to the
Finally, there is the case of the 2008 Olym- following statements:
pic 800m Champion Pamela Jelimo, who was
in the middle of a season in which she was 1. All warm-up programmes and the behav-
generally off form. In Berlin she did not com- iour during the last few days before the
plete her semi-final race. Only two days before competition are highly tailored to the indi-
her first race, she did what German coach vidual athlete.
Paul Schmidt calls a classic pre-loading for
the 800m, which is normally done five days 2. The classic warm-up jog is often replaced
before an important competition (see Table 2 by five to ten sprints or starts plus accel-
for details). One assumption could be that she eration runs at low intensity (approx. 60-
is used to very high training loads and this is 70%). The length of the sprints is chosen
her normal procedure; another might be that on an individual basis and ranges from
she was trying to gain a psychological boost 50 to 100m. According to coaches’ state-
by reassuring herself of her fitness. ments, it is only important during these
warm-up sprints to “hit” the steps and to
run with little effort
Warm-up Observations
3. In the rest intervals between warm-up
As with training programmes, the warm-up sprints, the athletes either walk back to the
procedures used by athletes on competition starting point, or they perform light stretch-
days must be assessed individually. Gener- ing, mobilisation or core-muscle exercises.
ally, however, we can say that the majority of
the observed athletes demonstrated restraint 4. After the warm-up sprints, dynamic
regarding the duration and intensity of their stretching and mobilising exercises are
warm-ups. There were only a few who carried very popular. The athletes either perform
out what we consider complex programmes. these exercises on their own, with the help
of rubber bands or tubes, or they are as-
Although in some cases pre-loads could sisted by a physiotherapist. In some cases,
be observed in the warm-ups of long sprint- however, static stretching could be seen in
ers or middle-distance runners, for example conjunction with swing exercises.
using under-distance runs, one cannot speak
of a consistent standard. Even in these events, 5. If sprinting drills are performed, these are
as with the short sprints, a rather easy warm- used to prepare for fast actions and are
Please send all correspondence to:
up was the rule. In the technical disciplines, done in a deliberately relaxed way. There
we normally saw that after a general warm- Wolfgang Killing
is a clear differentiation into coordination
up, the throwing/jumping would begin. Here, wolfgang.killing@leichtathletik.de
and frequency drills. Frequency comes

34 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 usually after coordination. In most cases, In general, it can be said that the greater
depending on the training or competition, the safety and stability of the athlete, the more
three to six sprint drills are performed. moderate the warm-up jumps. Hooker’s con-
centration on only a few jumps, due to an inju-
6. Accelerations are mostly done in such a ry, shows what is possible with a good mental
way that long and relaxed accelerations preparation even without warm-up jumps or a
are followed by short and fast accelera- competition with increasing heights. More than
tions. During crouch starts and run-offs, 10 intensive run-up and jump combinations, as
the focus is on powerful knee extension was observed in a German horizontal jumper,
(0-20m), followed by hip extension (20- are not only a sign of considerable uncertainty
40m) and lifting of one’s head (40-60m). but can also be tiring.
The high frequency of the first steps and
the slow lifting of the head is a priority. Minimal jogging, gymnastic exercises and
only few throws were the hallmarks of the top
7. Spikes are only used when the athletes throwers’ warm-ups. In some cases, a passive
want to run very fast. preparation assisted by a physiotherapist was
observed (e.g. Kozmus, Thorkildson, Spota-
In the middle- and long-distance events it was kova). Many throwers, particularly the javelin
striking that most athletes did their warm-up throwers, also used elastic bands when pre-
jogging at very low intensity. Warm-ups were paring for their competitions. Intensive prepa-
rather short and intense pre-loads as recom- ration with lots of movement and relatively
mended and done in the past could only be many warm-up attempts were observed in
observed in a few individual cases. As far as the shot put and javelin. Often, one had the
flexibility exercises are concerned, one could impression that some of these athletes “killed”
see differences by nation. For example, the themselves on the warm-up field. The rotation-
Kenyans preferred swinging exercises, while al throwers, i.e., the discus and hammer throw-
the Russians did static stretching exercises. ers, were very economical when moving, and
some of them did their warm-up throws only in
The jumpers’ preparations included warm- the competition stadium.
up jogging, stretching (active and/or passive
assisted by physiotherapists), running ABCs
with the use of combinations to a greater ex-
tent than was the case with athletes from other Please send all correspondence to:
event blocks, jumping ABCs, strides, imita- Wolfgang Killing
tions, then, in the stadium, start checks. In wolfgang.killing@leichtathletik.de
the different jumping events, the preparation
ended as follows:
• Horizontal jumps: long and triple jumps
from shortened run-ups at a moderate in-
tensity.
• Pole vault: performing elements and
sometimes the whole exercise, more fe-
male than male vaulters actually cleared
the bar.
• High jump: jumps over the bar with in-
creasing bar height.

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 35

36 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014
 Study

Blow up During Warm-up: © by IAAF

29:1; 37-52, 2014

Introduction of a Novel Method

to Improve Athletic Performance
by Dick H.J. Thijssen, Tom G. Bailey, Timothy Cable,
Maria Hopman, Greg Atkinson and Helen Jones

ABSTRACT AUTHORS
Short periods of transient blood flow re- Dick H. J. Thijssen, PhD, is Professor at Liv-
striction or ischaemia, known as ´isch- erpool John Moores University, Great Brit-
aemic preconditioning´ (IPC), are known ain, and Associate Professor in the Depart-
to enhance both vasculature function and ment of Physiology, Radboud University
muscle function, which are important fac- Nijmegen Medical Centre, the Netherlands.
tors in sport performance. In this study,
adapted from two papers published in the Tom G. Baily is a PhD candidate and re-
American Journal of Physiology and Medi- searcher at the Research Institute for
cine and Science in Sport and Exercise, the Sport and Exercise Science, Liverpool John
authors investigate the possibility that IPC Moores University Great Britain
could enhance performance in endurance
running, and examine the potential under- Timothy Cable, PhD, is a Professor at Liver-
lying mechanisms related to lactate me- pool John Moores University, Great Britain.
tabolism and changes in vascular function.
After exposure to four cycles of five-min- Maria Hopman, MD, PhD, is a Profes-
ute bilateral cuff inflation on their upper sor at Radboud University, Nijmegen, the
thighs, 13 moderately training male par- Netherlands.
ticipants performed running tests (to as-
sess blood lactate accumulation), followed Greg Atkinson, PhD, is a Professor at Liver-
by a 5km time trial (to assess the impact of pool John Moores University, Great Britain.
IPC on endurance running performance +
vascular function). A significantly better Helen Jones, PhD, is a Senior Lecturer at
performance was found in the mean 5km Liverpool John Moores University, Great
performance after the IPC condition. It was Britain.
also found that IPC 1) attenuates blood
lactate accumulation during submaximal
exercise and 2) prevents impairment in
vascular function that is typically associ- Introduction
ated with strenuous running exercise. The
authors conclude that, with practical de- he ultimate goal for all athletes is to
velopment, IPC may offer an inexpensive,
easy applicable and non-invasive strategy T achieve their individual maximal per-
formance. To a large extent, maximal
to improve running exercise performance. performance level is determined by physiologi-
cal function and it is axiomatic that all legal
avenues optimising physical function should

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 37

Blow up During Warm-up: Introduction of a Novel Method to Improve Athletic Performance

be investigated. The Fick equation describes ies are protected from injury when they are re-
that physiological function is determined by peatedly exposed to short periods of transient
the weakest link in the chain of central and pe- blood flow restriction or ischaemia. Exposure
ripheral factors that contribute to oxygen de- of a dog’s coronary artery to four cycles of five
livery and extraction, starting in the lungs by minutes of ischemia (i.e. IPC) results in a 75%
oxygen uptake and ending in the peripheral tis- reduction in cardiac injury after a 40-minute
sue by oxygen consumption. Interventions that ischemic insult41. Such procedures are as-
improve oxygen delivery and/or extraction, sociated with obvious practical limitations for
therefore, are likely to improve exercise per- clinical use in humans. However, cardioprotec-
formance (e.g. “live high–train low” regimens, tive effects of IPC are also present when the
sleep in hypoxic chambers, increasing oxygen repeated bouts of ischemia are applied to a
carrying capacity of erythrocytes). remote vascular bed. For example, a previous
study published in The Lancet, found that re-
The intervention introduced here relates to peated cuff inflation around the forearm in pa-
´ ischaemic preconditioning´ (IPC). This tech- tients with an acute myocardial infarction (per-
nique represents a novel, simple, cheap, legal formed in the ambulance) is associated with a
and easy applicable method that immediately significantly smaller infarction area (Figure 1)7.
improves peripheral vascular and muscular Studies also found beneficial effects when IPC
function. In this report, we describe a series of is applied before cardiac surgery49.
experiments that provide the first data in hu-
mans to support the potential of IPC to enhance The upper panel of Figure 1 represents the
athletic performance, but also to reveal underly- situation in which prolonged occlusion of an
ing mechanisms of these benefits of IPC. artery is followed by necrosis of cardiac tissue.
When occlusion is preceded by ischaemic
What is ischaemic preconditioning? preconditioning (four periods of 5-min occlu-
IPC was introduced in the mid-1980's by sions of a limb) cardiac injury is at least partly
cardiologists41. It describes the fact that arter- reduced (lower panel).

Figure 1: Effects of ischaemic preconditioning

38 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 Blow up During Warm-up: Introduction of a Novel Method to Improve Athletic Performance

Although the exact mechanisms for IPC are and represent the first description of the effect of
unclear, studies have found that IPC has well- IPC to enhance performance in the literature17.
established effects on the vasculature (e.g. ad-
enosine), resulting in an increased blood sup- Aims of this research project
ply46. In addition, previous studies in animals The general aim was to gain further insight
have shown that IPC can enhance muscle into the potential of IPC to enhance performance
efficiency in ATP-usage via ATP-sparing, aug- in humans. First, we were interested whether, in
mented function of the mitochondrion or in- addition to cycling exercise17, IPC could also im-
creased efficiency in the excitation-contraction prove running exercise, i.e. the most common
coupling27, 34, 43. Based on the effect of IPC on type of exercise during sports. Therefore, Aim
the vasculature and muscle function, IPC may 1 is to examine the impact of IPC to enhance
potentially contribute to beneficial effects of running exercise performance.
IPC to exercise performance.
No previous study has attempted to under-
Effect of ischaemic preconditioning on stand the potential mechanisms that underlie
human performance the remarkable effects of IPC on exercise per-
We performed a pilot study in 15 moderate- formance. Data from animal studies indicate
to-highly trained subjects who performed two that improvement in mitochondrion function is
maximal cycling tests; 1. Control test, 2. Test a key mechanism underlying the beneficial ef-
preceded by IPC (Figure 2). Remarkably, cycling fect of IPC45,51. Such changes may alter ATP
exercise preceded by IPC was associated with usage and, therefore, the build-up of lactate
an immediate 3% higher maximal oxygen con- in muscle tissues. In addition, IPC improves
sumption and 1.6% higher maximal workload. muscle blood flow46, potentially improving re-
To put these numbers in perspective, such im- moval of lactate11,31. Finally, IPC improves mus-
provements are normally observed after pro- cle contraction efficiency, possibly by enhanc-
longed, intensive exercise training of several ing muscle force and contractility34 and/or via
weeks. These pilot data were recently published increased efficiency of excitation-contraction

Figure 2: Individual and mean maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max in mlO2/min/kg, n=15) during the
maximal exercise test without (black square) and with ischaemic precondioning (open squares) (Both tests
were given in a randomised order to prevent potential improvement in oxygen consumption induced by famil-
iarisation. Error bars represent SE. *P=0.003.)

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 39

Blow up During Warm-up: Introduction of a Novel Method to Improve Athletic Performance

coupling43. This suggests that IPC may alter is that this technique can be implemented im-
lactate production and/or removal, conse- mediately during the daily practice of athletes.
quently contributing to an improved exercise Therefore, IPC directly relates to the most im-
performance. Therefore, Aim 2a of the present portant aspect of athletics: i.e. performance
study was to examine the potential of IPC to improvement. In addition to the clear beneficial
alter the onset of blood lactate accumulation. effects for daily practice of athletes, this study
also provides important and novel mechanistic
High-intensity, strenuous exercise is associ- insight into pathways that eventually limit hu-
ated with immediate vascular injury, leading to man performance. Such novel knowledge may
a decrease in vascular function16. A reduction mark an important and significant step forward
in function of vessels may potentially be det- in exercise physiology.
rimental for exercise performance22, but also
seems to be associated with a lower blood flow Methods
to the exercising limb9. Previous studies found
that vascular injury after prolonged ischemia Participants
can be prevented by IPC29,37. Similarly, IPC In a randomised, single-blind, crossover
may prevent vascular injury associated with study, thirteen healthy moderately-trained
strenuous exercise. Therefore, Aim 2b was to males (25±6 years; 176±4cm; 77±7kg) volun-
examine the effect of IPC on brachial artery teered to participate. Based on their medical
vascular function after running exercise. history, participants were free of health prob-
lems and did not use any medication. Prior to
In general, this series of experiments will im- testing, all participants were informed of the
prove our understanding of the impact of IPC methods of the study, but remained naive of
to enhance exercise performance and pro- study rationale to prevent any placebo effect
vides insight into the underlying mechanisms. of IPC. All subjects provided written informed
Specifically, we will examine: consent before participation. The study was
approved by the Liverpool John Moores Uni-
AIM 1 (‘performance’): the impact of IPC on versity ethics committee and adhered to the
running performance (5km time trial) in healthy Declaration of Helsinki (2000).
subjects
Experimental Design
AIM 2a (‘mechanism: lactate’): the impact of All participants refrained from alcohol, caf-
IPC on the onset of blood lactate accumulation feine and additional nutritional training supple-
during running exercise in healthy subjects ments for 24 hours prior to all exercise testing.
Participants reported twice to the laboratory
AIM 2b (‘mechanism: vascular’): the impact of to perform the same testing procedure, either
IPC on the acute impairment in vascular func-
preceded by four cycles of five-minute bilateral
tion in healthy subjects after strenuous running
cuff inflation to 220 mmHg (i.e. IPC-interven-
exercise
tion) or cuff inflation to 20 mmHg (i.e. SHAM-
intervention). In a randomised, single-blind,
How is this series of experiments relevant crossover study, participants performed five
for the development of athletics? three-minute stages of treadmill running at 10-
We propose a novel and potentially effica- 14 km/h to assess blood lactate accumulation
cious approach to enhance the benefits of (Aim 2a), which was then followed by one km/h
training to improve performance for athletes increments every two min until voluntary ex-
at all levels. Combining this novel intervention haustion. Heart rate and oxygen consumption
into sports is unique and it will not interfere was continuously monitored throughout exer-
with normal preparations for a match/race or cise. Following a 45-minute rest in the supine
with race (pacing) strategy. Another advantage position, subjects performed a 5km running

40 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 Blow up During Warm-up: Introduction of a Novel Method to Improve Athletic Performance

Figure 3: Experimental design to assess Aim 1 (performance), 2a (‘lactate’) and 2b (‘vascular’)

time trial on a treadmill (after being familiarised IV, Jaeger, Germany) for oxygen consump-
with this time trial three to four times before tion (VO2 ml·kg-1·min-1), ventilation (VE L·min-1)
performance of this test) (Aim 1). For Aim 2b, and respiratory exchange ratio (RER) and were
brachial artery endothelial function was exam- averaged over the last 15 sec of each stage.
ined before and after the IPC- or SHAM-inter- Heart rate was measured continuously with a
vention as well as immediately after the 5km chest strap and monitor (RS800, Polar, Fin-
land), whilst ratings of perceived exertion (RPE)
time trial (Figure 3).
were measured at the end of each stage us-
ing Borg’s 6-20 scale. A 2.5 ml venous blood
Ischemic Preconditioning: IPC was per-
sample was collected via a forearm cannula at
formed in the supine position using bilateral
rest and after each submaximal stage. Upon
arterial occlusion18. Automated occlusion cuffs
collection, each sample was immediately
were placed proximally around the upper thigh
placed on ice and spun in a refrigerated cen-
and inflated to 220 mmHg to block arterial in-
trifuge. Plasma was stored at -80°C and were
flow for five minutes. The ischemic procedure
later analysed for lactate concentration (Day-
was repeated four times bilaterally, with each
tona, Ireland). Blood lactate concentration (in
ischemic episode separated by five minutes
mMol-1) was plotted against workload (inten-
of rest. On another occasion, participants fol-
sity) during the incremental running test. The
lowed an identical protocol, but instead the
absolute increase in blood lactate was plotted
cuff was inflated to 20 mmHg (without affect-
against time and compared between both con-
ing arterial inflow). The latter procedure repre-
ditions. The onset of blood lactate accumula-
sented the SHAM-intervention, whilst the order
tion (OBLA) was analysed as the point (km/h)
of days was counterbalanced.
that was associated with a lactate level that first
exceeded the 4 mMol-1 threshold28. OBLA rep-
Blood lactate accumulation (Aim 2a): A resents a marker of endurance capacity which
discontinuous incremental test was used to is frequently used to predict endurance ability42
assess accumulation of blood lactate. The test and performance4. The reproducibility of the
commenced following a five-minute warm-up OBLA at a given intensity has been reported as
ranging between 6-10 km/h (this was stan- high (r=0.88) and is able to detect meaningful
dardised for all tests). Five cycles of three- changes in training status21.
minute submaximal stages (10-14 km/h) were
performed, interspersed with 30 sec of pas- 5km time trial (Aim 1): Upon completion of
sive recovery to obtain lactate measurements the running test to assess the OBLA, a 45 min
(5). During the test, breath-by-breath expired rest period in the supine position followed, then
gases were continuously monitored (Oxycon a 5km running time trial was performed on a

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 41

Blow up During Warm-up: Introduction of a Novel Method to Improve Athletic Performance

motorised treadmill (Pulsar 4.0, H/P Cosmos, Pro 300V2, Dinamap, Tampa, FL). This was fol-
Germany). Participants were instructed to run lowed by assessment of brachial artery diam-
five kilometres as quickly as possible. The run- eter and velocity.
ning time and running speed were blinded to
the participant. The speed of the treadmill was To examine brachial artery FMD, the arm
set at 8 km/h, and once the participant was was extended and positioned at an angle of
ready the time trial was started. Throughout ~80° from the torso. A rapid inflation and de-
the time trial, participants were allowed to al- flation pneumatic cuff (D.E. Hokanson, Bel-
ter running speed, but were kept blinded for
levue, WA) was positioned on the forearm,
running speed and running time. The only in-
immediately distal to the olecranon process
formation available to the participants during
to provide a stimulus to forearm ischemia. A
each time trial was total distance covered (m)
10MHz multi-frequency linear array probes,
as to adjust work-output to pace towards the
attached to a high-resolution ultrasound ma-
known endpoint1. No further information or
encouragements were provided. Heart rate chine (T3000; Terason, Burlington, MA) was
was monitored continuously, with RPE was then used to image the brachial artery in the
recorded at the end of each 1000m. All trials distal 1/3rd of the upper arm. Continuous Dop-
were performed with a fan placed 0.5m in front pler velocity assessments were obtained using
of the treadmill to provide air circulation and the ultrasound and were collected using the
cooling to the participant to match field condi- lowest possible isonation angle (always <60°).
tions. The 5km time trial has previously shown Following baseline assessments, the forearm
to have a greater absolute reliability, compared cuff was inflated (>200 mmHg) for five minutes.
to time-to-exhaustion tests of the same rela- Diameter and flow recordings resumed 30 sec
tive intensity33. Before the beginning of the ex- prior to cuff deflation and continued for three
perimental trials participants received at least minutes thereafter, in accordance with recent
three supervised familiarisation trials. The 5km technical specifications6,50. Post-test analysis
time trial revealed a coefficient of variation (CV) was performed using custom-designed edge-
of 2.2% test-retest in participants after famil- detection and wall-tracking software, which
iarisation. This finding is in line with previous is largely independent of investigator bias6,50.
studies24,33. From synchronised diameter and velocity data,
blood flow (the product of lumen cross- sec-
Brachial artery endothelial function (Aim tional area and Doppler velocity) and shear
2b): Brachial artery endothelial function was rate (four times mean blood velocity/vessel
measured using the flow-mediated dilation diameter) were calculated at 30Hz. Reproduc-
(FMD) technique48. This method provides an ibility of diameter measurements using this
index of vascular function of the brachial ar- semi-automated software is significantly better
tery. This measure was performed before and than manual methods50.
after the IPC/SHAM-intervention to examine
the potential immediate effect, but also after Statistics
the 5km time trial to examine whether IPC can Statistical analyses were performed using
prevent the decline in FMD after strenuous
SPSS 17.0 (SPSS, Chicago, IL) software. All
exercise. For this purpose, participants were
data are reported as means (±SD), and statis-
instructed to abstain from strenuous exercise
tical significance assumed at P<0.05. For all
for 24 hrs and from caffeine and alcohol inges-
analyses, trial order (IPC or C first) was entered
tion for 18 hrs before attending the laboratory.
into the statistical model as a between sub-
Measurements were performed in the supine
position. Baseline assessment was performed jects factor. According to recent advice, the
after resting for 20 minutes, followed by as- least significant difference (LSD) test was used
sessment of heart rate and blood pressure for pair-wise multiple comparisons44,47.
using an automated sphygmomanometer (GE

42 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 Blow up During Warm-up: Introduction of a Novel Method to Improve Athletic Performance

For Aim 1 (‘performance’), A Students’ as covariates. Mean and 95% confidence in-
paired t-test was used to compare 5km time tervals (95% CI) for the effect magnitudes of
trial performance (IPC versus C). In addition, a brachial artery FMD are cited.
2-factor repeated measures GLM (trial x time)
was also used to examine differences in pa- RESULTS
rameters during the 5km time trial (RPE, run-
ning speed and heart rate). 5km time trial (Aim 1)
Mean time trial performance significantly im-
For Aim 2a (‘mechanism: lactate’), a 2-fac- proved following the IPC-intervention (34±49 sec,
tor (trial x time) repeated measures GLM with 95% CI five to 64 sec, P=0.027) (Figure 4). Run-
95% confidence intervals was used to assess ning speed and heart rate gradually increased
differences in parameters (blood lactate levels, during the 5km time trial, but these increases
oxygen consumption and heart rate) during the were similar between conditions (Table 1).
five stages of the incremental test to examine Post-hoc analysis showed that the RPE was
our primary hypothesis. Also, a one-factor re- significantly lower during the first 1000m of
peated measures GLM was used to compare the 5km time trial after IPC compared to the
OBLA (IPC versus C). control intervention, but this difference disap-
peared when continuing exercise (Table 1).
For Aim 2b (‘mechanism: vascular’), we
deemed it important to control for the influ- Blood lactate accumulation (Aim 2a)
ence of moderators of FMD (shear rate and Heart rate, oxygen consumption, ventilation
baseline diameter). We therefore analysed and ratings of perceived exertion increased
the effects of trial and time on logarithmically- across the five incremental stages, but these
transformed diameter changes using a Gen- increases were of similar magnitude in both
eralised Estimating Equation (GEE) which in- conditions (Table 2). Resting blood lactate lev-
corporated baseline diameter and shear rate els were similar between both tests (Figure 5).

Figure 4: Aim 1: Performance (Individual and mean (error bars represent SD) data on 5km time trial perfor-
mance after IPC and control interventions in healthy young men (n=13) (* denotes a significant treatment effect
of IPC, P=0.027.)

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 43

Blow up During Warm-up: Introduction of a Novel Method to Improve Athletic Performance

Table 1: Exercise characteristics during the 5km time trial in healthy subjects (n=13)

Heart rate (b·min-1) 1000m 2000m 3000m 4000m 5000m P-values

Control 167±8 173±7 176±5 177±5 185±6 Time: <0.001

IPC 166±11 172±6 177±8 179±5 189±7 IPC: 0.159
Time*IPC: 0.180
RPE
Control 14±3 15±2 16±1 17±1 19±1 Time: <0.001
IPC 13±3* 15±2 16±1 17±1 19±1 IPC: 0.136
Time*IPC: 0.030

Running speed (km·h-1)

Control 12.8±1.5 13±1.5 13.2±1.5 13.7±1.6 14.3±2.2 Time: <0.001
IPC 13±1.0 13.5±1.2 14.1±1.3 14±1.5 14.7±1.6 IPC: 0.371
Time*IPC: 0.387

*Significantly different between IPC and C at P<0.05. RPE; ratings of perceived exertion.

Blood lactate concentration increased over at 14 km/h (Figure 5). A later OBLA was evident
time in both conditions (P<0.001). When exer- when exercise was preceded with IPC, but did
cise was preceded with IPC, a smaller increase not reach statistical significance (13.1±1.9 and
in blood lactate was observed, resulting in a dif- 14.6±1.4 km/h, mean difference 1.5-km/h, 95%
ference between both tests of 1.07±0.11 mMol-1 CI -0.18 to 3.87, P=0.071).

Figure 5: Aim 2a: lactate (Blood lactate levels at rest at all five submaximal stages during the incremental run-
ning tests. Exercise preceded by IPC shown with solid circles and exercise preceded by control intervention
shown with open circles. Error bars represent SE. *Post hoc significantly different between C and IPC.)

44 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 Blow up During Warm-up: Introduction of a Novel Method to Improve Athletic Performance

Table 2: Exercise characteristics during incremental stages during running test in healthy subjects (n=13)

10 km/h 11 km/h 12 km/h 13 km/h 14 km/h P-values

VO2(mLO2·kg-1·min-1)
Control 34.1±2.58 36.5±2.2 39.4±2.5 42.1±2.4 45.3±2.8 Time: <0.001
IPC 34.4±1.2
36.6±1.2 39.5±1.8 41.9±2.3 45.0±2.8 IPC: 0.971
Time*IPC: 0.796

VE (L·min-1)
Control 65±9 72±11 81±15 94±18 107±19 Time: <0.001
IPC 65±9 73±10 81±13 94±19 106±18 IPC: 0.88
Time*IPC: 0.630

RER
Control 0.84±0.03 0.88±10.4 0.91±0.03 0.94±0.05 0.99±0.04 Time: <0.001
IPC 0.83±0.03 0.86±0.04 0.91±0.03 0.94±0.07 0.98±0.03 IPC: 0.378
Time*IPC: 0.521

Heart rate (b·min-1)

Control 136±12 152±14 166±8 175±7 181±12 Time: <0.001
IPC 136±13 150±12 166±11 176±5 182±14 IPC: 0.761
Time*IPC: 0.540

RPE
Control 10±2 12±2 13±2 14±1 16±1 Time: <0.001
IPC 10±2 12±2 13±2 14±2 16±2 IPC: 0.357
Time*IPC: 0.841

RPE; ratings of perceived exertion, VE; ventilation, RER; respiratory exchange ratio

Brachial artery endothelial function (Aim 2b) interventions (P>0.30, Table 3). In the SHAM
No differences in baseline diameter and trial, FMD decreased following the 5km time
SR AUC were found at baseline between testing trial (P=0.02). However, in the IPC trial FMD
days or after the IPC- or SHAM-intervention (all was similar post-IPC and post-5km time trial,
P>0.05). At baseline, differences in FMD were with an FMD of 5.4% (4.4-6.4) and 5.7% (4.6-
negligible and non-significant between the 6.8) (P=0.60; Figure 6), respectively. IPC had
SHAM [5.3% (4.5-6)] and IPC [4.8 (3.6-5.9)] tri- no effect on the change in baseline diameter
als (P>0.05). FMD changed by less than 0.6% and SR AUC (Table 3).
immediately after both the IPC and SHAM

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 45

Blow up During Warm-up: Introduction of a Novel Method to Improve Athletic Performance

Figure 6: Aim 2b: vascular (Brachial artery flow-mediated dilation (FMD) before (pre) and after (post) the inter-
vention (IPC or SHAM) as well as post 5km time trial in health, volunteers (n=11, two participants were not
included due to technical problems) during the SAHM- (solid squares) and IPC-intervention (open squares).
Error bars represent 95% CI. Data from the GEE were included in the figure.)

Table 3: Brachial artery FMD before (pre) and after (post) the IPC or SHAM intervention as well as
after the 5km time trial (TT) in healthy volunteers (n=11, one subject was missing because of tech-
nical problems) (Data is presented as mean (95% Confidence Intervals). P-values refer to a Gener-
alised Estimating Equation (effect of ‘time’, ‘IPC’ and ‘time*IPC’).)

Intervention Post 5km TT P-values

pre Post

Drest (mm)
SHAM 0.41(0.38-0.44) 0.41(0.39-0.43) 0.44(0.41-0.47)* Time: <0.001
IPC 0.41(0.39-0.44) 0.41(0.38-0.43) 0.44(0.41-0.47)* IPC: 0.688
Time*IPC: 0.607

SR AUC (s, 10 3)
SHAM 15.7 (12.4-19.0) 16.3 (12.8-19.7) 32.8 (24.6-41.0)* Time: <0.001
IPC 11.4 (7.8-15.1) 13.8 (11.5-16.1) 26.8 (20.5-33.1)# IPC: 0.009
Time*IPC: 0.262

Post-hoc significantly at P<0.05 different from *pre-intervention or #SHAM

46 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 Blow up During Warm-up: Introduction of a Novel Method to Improve Athletic Performance

Discussion Impact of IPC on mechanisms: lactate

Oxygen uptake at the lactate threshold rep-
The general aim of this study was to exam- resents the strongest predictor for maximal
ine the potential of IPC to enhance exercise oxygen uptake 12, 39. Lower blood lactate con-
performance and to elucidate potential un- centrations at a given workload are therefore
derlying mechanisms for this effect. First, our associated with improved exercise economy,
study is the first to demonstrate that IPC can including in highly trained athletes 36, 39. Inter-
improve running exercise performance. More- estingly, data in our study indicates that IPC
over, we provided the first insight into potential attenuates the accumulation of blood lactate
mechanisms, providing strong evidence that during an incremental running test, a finding
IPC is associated with a reduction in blood that is supported by the trend for a later onset
lactate accumulation during submaximal run- of blood lactate accumulation. More specifi-
ning exercise. In addition, IPC was associated cally, we found significantly lower blood lactate
with the prevention of impaired vascular func- levels after IPC at submaximal running speed
tion that is typically observed after strenuous of 14 km/h, which may relate to the improved
exercise. Therefore, our results may have im- exercise performance during the 5km time trial
portant consequences for athletes to improve (performed at average speed of 13.7 km/h af-
exercise performance. ter IPC, compared to 13.1 km/h after SHAM).

Impact of IPC on performance It is important to note that the attenuated

Recent studies, including from our labora- accumulation of lactate during exercise is not
tory, have highlighted the potential of IPC to explained by differences in absolute or relative
improve cycling and swimming exercise per- exercise intensity level between tests (Table 2).
formance14,18,27. Our data add novel information Moreover, due to our randomisation procedure
that IPC also improves running performance; and statistical analysis, familiarisation or order-
i.e. the most common mode of exercise in ath- effects are unlikely explain our findings. A po-
letics and during (team) sports. Due to our ex- tential explanation for the altered lactate levels
perimental set-up, our data provides important may relate to a faster removal and/or lower
practical insight into the application of IPC for production of lactate during exercise. For ex-
athletes. First, previous researchers have ob- ample, IPC may work through improvements in
served beneficial effects of IPC when applied vascular function, which regulates blood flow
immediately before exercise, which is associ- to remove blood lactate, but also enhances
ated with obvious practical limitations for ath- blood flow to ensure sufficient O2 supply (re-
letes. In our study, the faster 5km time trial was sulting in dominance of aerobic glycolysis and
performed 90 min after IPC. This indicates that less lactic acid production). Also, increases in
the benefits of IPC on exercise performance mitochondrial capacity importantly contribute
have a longer time-window than initially antici- to endurance performance25. Previous studies
pated. In addition, the benefits of IPC were ap- in animals and humans indicate that IPC en-
parent in the 5km time trial, despite performing hances mitochondrial capacity, most likely via
a running test prior to this time trial. This sug- ATP-sensitive potassium channels located on
gests that the effects of IPC remain, even after the inner membrane46. An alternative but not
an initial exercise bout. Practically, these ob- mutually exclusive explanation could relate to
servations are highly important, as application a reduction in muscle lactate production after
of IPC during athletic competitions will likely be IPC. Animal studies have shown previously
performed well before the actual performance that IPC can enhance muscle efficiency in
event, even before the warm-up stage. ATP-usage via ATP-sparing, augmented func-
tion of the mitochondrion or increased efficien-
cy in the excitation-contraction coupling27, 34, 43.

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Blow up During Warm-up: Introduction of a Novel Method to Improve Athletic Performance

Nevertheless, within the bounds of our current ous exercise46. Although the underlying mecha-
data we can only speculate about the mecha- nisms are not fully understood, prevention of
nisms underlying the lower blood lactate levels vascular damage after strenuous exercise may
at submaximal workload with IPC contribute to the effect of IPC on sport perfor-
mance and/or recovery from exercise.
Impact of IPC on mechanisms: vascular
Based on the importance of blood flow con- What are limitations of our study?
trol during exercise, changes in performance A potential limitation of this study is that
after IPC may also relate to the vasculature. we provided limited insight into the practical
First, we confirmed findings from previous application of IPC in athletes to enhance per-
studies16, 23, 35 that brachial artery endothelial formance level. Little is known about optimis-
function (i.e. vascular function) is reduced after ing the protocol for IPC (number of ischaemic
strenuous running exercise. More importantly, a events + duration of ischaemia for an optimal
unique and novel finding in our study is that the benefit on exercise performance). Based on
decrease in vascular function was abolished the findings presented in this series of experi-
when exercise was preceded by IPC. Several ments, logical follow-up studies include the as-
previous studies have established that IPC can sessment of different (timing of) IPC-protocols.
prevent vascular injury after prolonged periods Such knowledge will further improve the practi-
of ischemia30, 37, 38 or prevent cardiac damage cal implication of this technique in daily routine
in clinical groups, as evidenced by smaller in- for athletes to enhance sport performance.
crements in ischemic biomarkers and infarct
size7, 10. In line with these observations, we add Clinical relevance: who will benefit?
the novel observation that IPC also protects An obvious question that arises from our
against the acute decrease in vascular function data is whether all athletes benefit from IPC
observed after strenuous exercise. Our find- to enhance performance. In a recent study,
ings may have clinical consequences, as an we examined the impact of IPC during a re-
attenuated vascular function is associated with peated anaerobic sprint test and repeated
an impaired exercise-induced blood flow9. Al- cycling sprints in elite rugby players3. Interest-
though speculative, prevention of the impaired ingly, we found a found a moderate to strong
vascular function and blood flow response dur- effect size for IPC to enhance power output
ing strenuous exercise by IPC may contribute during high-intensity cycling exercise and at-
to the enhanced exercise performance. tenuate running time and cycling sprint output
during repeated sprint exercise. This obser-
Our findings that application of IPC to the vation confirms findings from a recent study,
lower limbs prevents a decrease in upper limb which found improved performance of 0.7
brachial artery vascular function indicate that sec during the 100m freestyle in elite swim-
the effects of IPC are systemic rather than lo- mers after IPC of the upper limbs15. In addition
calised. Strenuous exercise in humans is asso- to running exercise, evidence (including from
ciated with increased levels of oxidative stress, our laboratory) supports a potential for IPC to
which may be linked to the development of vas- improve cycling performance14, 18, and swim-
cular dysfunction after exercise20. Interestingly, ming times27. Finally, the beneficial effects of
previous studies provided evidence that IPC IPC on exercise performance seems to relate
upregulates cellular antioxidant defence mecha- to sprinting3, short-term exercise (1-2 minutes) 27,
nisms, thereby preventing tissue damage13, 40. moderate-term exercise14, 18, and to endurance
In addition, IPC has well-established effects on exercise (i.e. 5km time trial). Taken together,
vasodilators, such as adenosine and bradykinin, our introduction of IPC as a potential strategy
which may contribute to the protective effects of to improve exercise may apply to all athletes,
IPC against cellular damage and increase blood which is unique as most interventions are spe-
supply to the exercising muscles during strenu- cific for a single sport event only.

48 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 Blow up During Warm-up: Introduction of a Novel Method to Improve Athletic Performance

Conclusions and Recommendations velopment of sport-specific techniques or

competition tactics
In conclusion, we have established the po-
tential of IPC to improve running exercise per- Whilst the focus of this report is on (elite)
formance in healthy men. In addition to the re- athletes, we believe that IPC may benefit
markable effect on exercise performance, we various groups. A logical follow-up from this
provided novel mechanistic insight into the po- project will be the application of IPC in vari-
tential mechanisms that may explain this effect. ous patient groups. These groups experience
First, we found that IPC attenuates blood lac- important limitations to perform exercise and
tate accumulation during submaximal exercise. benefit from exercise training (such as cardio-
Second, IPC prevented impairment in vascular vascular disease, diabetes mellitus, COPD).
function that is typically associated with strenu- Application of IPC may enable these groups to
ous running exercise. The lower blood lactate improve their performance and benefit to exer-
accumulation and improved vascular function cise training. Currently, we are performing the
by IPC may contribute to an enhanced exercise first studies in spinal cord-injured individuals
performance. Thus, the series of experiments and heart failure patients to examine the po-
performed in our laboratory have introduced tential of IPC. Such interventions could lead to
IPC as a novel, cheap, easy applicable and a larger benefit of exercise training for patient
non-invasive strategy to improve exercise per- groups. This also marks the potential of IPC
formance in humans. to lead to clinically meaningful improvements
in health for various patient groups.
Technical advances have demonstrated
value in the history of sport. However, develop- Taken together, the studies performed in our
ment takes a long time, has problems with im- laboratory have resulted in the first description
plementation (disqualification in the worst case of the potential of IPC to improve performance.
scenario), is associated with high costs, and is The follow-up studies, partly described in this
always restricted to a single sports event. We report, consolidate the practical benefit of IPC
have provided strong evidence that a novel, low to improve performance in various groups,
cost, and easy applicable tool (i.e. repeated cuff whilst we have produced the first mechanistic
inflation during warm-up) can enhance sport insight to understand these remarkable effects
performance. Recommendation for application of ‘ischaemic preconditioning’. Therefore, our
of this novel method in athletes is very broad: introduction of IPC represents a large step for-
ward for (applied) exercise physiology and the
1. IPC has a large potential for most Olympic athlete’s benefit. More importantly, our series
athletes and is not restricted to a single event. of experiments have introduced a cheap, non-
invasive, legal, easy to apply manner that are
2. IPC can be applied acutely (short term) suitable for all types (endurance-sprint), levels
and therefore is clinically relevant. (moderate vs elite, paralympics vs olympics)
and modes (cycling vs running) of exercise to
3. IPC can be applied at all levels (moderate enhance performance which can be imple-
versus elite athletes, Paralympics versus mented immediately.
Olympics).

4. IPC is a legal, simple, easy accessible

and a low cost intervention that can easily Please send all correspondence to:
be applied. Prof Dick Thijssen
Dick.Thijssen@radboudumc.nl
5. IPC can be applied without interference
with the athlete’s training programme, de-

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 49

Blow up During Warm-up: Introduction of a Novel Method to Improve Athletic Performance

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cine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39, 1374-1379. to clinical application - part 1. The Netherlands Journal of
34. Lawson, C.S. & Downey, J. M. (1993). Precondition- Medicine, 62, 353-363.
ing: state of the art myocardial protection. Cardiovascular 47. Rothman, K.J. (1990) No adjustments are needed for
Research, 27, 542-550. multiple comparisons. Epidemiology, 1, 43-46.

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48. Thijssen, D.H.; Black, M.A.; Pyke, K.E.; Padilla, 50. Woodman, R.J.; Playford, D.A.; Watts, G.F.;
J.; Atkinson, G.; Harris, R.A.; Parker, B.; Widlan- Cheetham, C.; Reed, C.; Taylor, R.R.; Puddey, I.B.;
sky, M.E.; Tschakovsky, M.E. & Green, D.J. (2011). Beilin, L.J.; Burke, V.; Mori, T.A. & Green, D. (2001).
Assessment of flow-mediated dilation in humans: a meth- Improved analysis of brachial artery ultrasound using a
odological and physiological guideline. Am J Physiol Heart novel edge-detection software system. J Appl Physiol 91,
Circ Physiol, 300, H2-12. 929-937.

49. Venugopal, V.; Hausenloy, D.J.; Ludman, A.; 51. Yellon, D.M. & Hausenloy, D.J. (2007). Myocardial
Di Salvo, C.; Kolvekar, S.; Yap, J.; Lawrence, D.; reperfusion injury. N Engl J Med, 357, 1121-1135
Bognolo, J. & Yellon, D.M. (2009). Remote ischaemic
preconditioning reduces myocardial injury in patients un-
dergoing cardiac surgery with cold-blood cardioplegia: a
randomised controlled trial. Heart, 95, 1567-1571.

52 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 53
54 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014
Applied Research
contents g Monitoring Skin Thermal Response to
Training with Infrared Thermography
by Ismael Fernández de la Cuevas,

x
Manuel Sillero de la Quintana, Miguel Angel
Garcia de la Concepcion, Juan Ribot de la
Serrano, Pedro Gomez de la Carmona and
Joao CB Marins

x
x
x
x
 x

x
 Study

Monitoring Skin Thermal © by IAAF

29:1; 57-71, 2014

Response to Training with

Infrared Thermography
by Ismael Fernándezde la Cuevas, Manuel Sillero de la Quintana,
Miguel Angel Garcia de la Concepcion, Juan Ribot de la Serrano,
Pedro Gomez de la Carmona, Joao CB Marins

ABSTRACT AUTHORS
There is no doubt that core or central tem- Ismael Fernandez de la Cuevas, PhD, is a
perature has a direct relationship with post-doctoral student at INEF, the Poly-
exercise intensity. However, local tem- technic University of Madrid, Spain.
perature responses, specifically the acute
temperature effects of workouts on joints Manuel Sillero de la Quintana, PhD, is a
and muscles, and the temperature changes professor in the Faculty of Physical Activity
that take place during the recovery process, and Sport Sciences at INEF, the Polytechnic
have not yet been well described. Infrared University of Madrid, Spain.
thermography (IRT) is a safe, non-invasive
and low-cost technique that makes it pos- Miguel Angel Garcia de la Concepcion, is a
sible to measure specific local thermal re- PhD student currently working at the Aspe-
sponses to exercise. The authors used IRT to tar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hos-
observe changes in skin temperature relat- pital in Qatar.
ed to muscle and joint activity of both the
upper and lower limbs during, immediately Juan Ribot de la Serrano is a post-graduate
after and up to eight hours after strength student at at INEF, the Polytechnic Univer-
and aerobic training. They found that the sity of Madrid, Spain.
use of IRT may provide important informa-
tion on local metabolic activity generated Pedro Gomezde la Carmona, PhD, is a phys-
by training and adaptations related to the ical conditioning coach for the Real Betis
reestablishment of initial skin temperature Balompié football club in Seville, Spain.
post training, which can indicate whether
the athlete has recovered enough to be Joao CB Marins, PhD, is a professor at the
able to effectively train or compete again. Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Brazil.
If this finding can be confirmed, IRT would
be a practical tool for monitoring athletes’
training.

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 57

Monitoring Skin Thermal Response to Training with Infrared Thermography

Introduction studies about the long term evolution of Tsk

after moderate intensity strength or aerobic
training. Therefore, it seems quite interest-
he physiological effects of training are
T reasonably well established in terms
of hormonal1,2, morphological3, bone4,
ing to study the long-term thermal behaviour
of the skin after exercise as a reflection of the
neural5, or cardiovascular6 responses, or with responses of the structures underneath it.
regard to the type of training7. However, local Moreover, analysis of local thermal response
temperature responses, specifically the acute may provide the technical team (practitioners,
effects of workouts on joints and muscles, and physical therapist and coaches) with important
the changes that take place during the recov- information on the recovery status of the ath-
ery process, have not yet been well described. lete and his/her capacity to continue training at
a given level of intensity.
There is no doubt that core or central tem-
perature has a direct relationship with exercise It is well-known that core temperature
intensity8,9 . Some studies have focused on gradually decreases after conclusion of an ex-
measuring central thermal response by using tended period of exercise8,25. However, to our
gastrointestinal capsules (ingestible sensors) knowledge, there is no research about local
or by taking rectal, oesophageal or tympanic and specific thermal responses of joints and
temperature during and after exercise9-13. muscles temperatures just after exercise and
These have reported different temperature re- during the recovery process.
sponses in certain regions of the body, such
as the joints, compared to the central temper- Therefore, the purpose of the study is to
ature14 caused by redistribution of blood flow use IRT to determine the evolution of Tsk for
via hypothalamic thermal control15. The tem- muscles and joints after aerobic and strength
perature response from each part of the body training in order to understand better the im-
can also vary in the recovery period, as the pact of physical activity on the thermoregula-
trained muscular regions and joints involved in tory system and metabolism. We hypothesize
the movement have a higher metabolic activity that the temperature response of the skin over
with faster energetic and tissue recovery facili- eight hours post workout will be different in
tated by increased blood supply2,16. the joints than in the muscles, and different for
aerobic training and strength training.
Infrared Thermography (IRT)17 is a safe, non-
invasive and low-cost technique that makes it Methods
possible to rapidly record the irradiated en-
ergy released from the body18. It has recently Subjects
been proved that a high-resolution thermal im- A total of fifteen physically active univer-
age can provide interesting information about sity students from the Technical University of
the complex thermoregulation system of the Madrid (Age: 21.44 ± 2.64 years; Height: 1.78
body19. The development of fast and easy IRT ± 0.04m; Weight: 73.2 ± 7.6kg; BMI: 23.05 ±
monitoring tools allows us to obtain general 1.56) reporting that they exercise at least three
and local thermal profiles of humans, including times per week volunteered for this study. The
their main body regions of interest (ROI), and to participants reported no physical limitations
provide interesting information on physiologi- or diseases, and declared no consumption of
cal responses after exercise. medicines, drugs, alcohol or tobacco. They
were asked to refrain from a list of activities 24
The influence of physical activity on skin hours prior to the test.
temperature (Tsk)24 and the validity of the as-
sessment of Tsk distributions by thermog- The Ethics Committee of the Technical
raphy19 are well known, but there is a lack of University of Madrid approved the study plan,

58 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 Monitoring Skin Thermal Response to Training with Infrared Thermography

following the principles outlined by the Word on the principles described by Baechle &
Medical Assembly Declaration of Helsinki. Earle27. Each participant warmed up for five
minutes on a cycle ergometer. The 1RM pro-
Training and establishment of working load tocol consisted of a warm-up phase followed
intensity parameters by five progressive lifts, with the work load in-
The participants chosen for the study signed creased systematically until only one repetition
a consent form informing them about the aims, with the proper technique and a rhythm of 2:2
procedures and risks involved in the investiga- (2 seconds eccentric and 2 seconds concen-
tion. They also answered questions pertaining tric) could be performed. To prevent muscu-
to a history of their injuries, strength training ex- lar fatigue, a maximum of five sets were used
perience, and other personal details. Measure- to determine 1 RM28. Table 1 summarises the
ments for height (m) and weight (kg) as well as maximal strength values achieved.
their capacity and limitations with the assigned
exercises were recorded. Participants were fa- Strength training session protocol
miliarised with the appropriate technique of the After the familiarisation process, the
exercises (rhythm and coordination) as well as strength training portion of the study was
the thermography machine (IRT). started. Participants performed a five-minute
warm-up on the bicycle followed by five min-
During the morning of the study, partici- utes of general stretching targeting the mus-
pants recorded their individual resting heart cles involved in the selected exercises. Be-
rate (RHR). This value was used to calculate fore each lift, six to ten repetitions with a light
their maximal heart rate (MHR) with use of the weight were performed to establish proper
Whaley formula26. Based on the formula, 60% technique and rhythm of execution (cadence
and 75% of their MHR-RHR was calculated, 2:2). All participants performed four sets of ten
establishing the heart rate limits for the study. repetitions at 70% of 1RM, with a rest period of
With the limits established, participants per- 90 seconds between sets and three minutes
formed a trial run for 45 minutes on the tread- between exercises.
mill, familiarising them with the aerobic portion
of the study. Monitoring during the exercise provided re-
al-time feedback about the speed and range of
With regards to the strength training com- movement of each exercise. Participants per-
ponent, two exercises for major muscle groups formed two main exercises (BP and LP), fol-
- bench press (BP) and crossed pulleys (CP) lowed by two ancillary exercises (CP and LE).
for the chest; leg press (LP) and leg exten- Upon the completion of the last exercise, ther-
sion (LE) for the thigh - were chosen. All par- mogram measurements were conducted two
ticipants completed a one repetition maximum minutes post, followed by a ten-minute passive
(1RM) test for each exercise in two separate stretching session of the muscles used in the
sessions. The 1RM test, was measured based exercises.

Table 1: Averaged maximal strength results

1RM 1RM/kg

BP: Bench press (session 1) 76.36±9.44 0.79±0.10

CP: Crossed pulleys (session 2) 26.07±6.01 0.27±0.06
LE: Leg extension (session 1) 107.86±14.24 1.11±0.15
LP: Leg Press (session 2) 180.57±28.25 1.86±0.29

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 59

Monitoring Skin Thermal Response to Training with Infrared Thermography

Resistance training session protocol AU, AL, PU, PL) were registered before the ex-
Similarly to the strength portion of the study, ercise (BE), immediately after exercise (IAE) and
participants warmed up for five minutes prior once an hour post-workout (“A+1” to “A+8”).
to a 45-minute treadmill run at a moderate in- Temperature data from the selected regions of
tensity (60-75% HR). The intensity of the ex- interest (ROI) were obtained from 72 anatomi-
ercise was measured using the Borg scale of cal regions based on criteria set out by Gomez
perceived exertion (from 6 to 20). Carmona et al30 (see Figure 1). The selected
ROI were: pectoral (PEC), dorsal (DOR) del-
Before and after each run, participants were toids (DEL), biceps brachii (BIB), triceps brachii
weighed to establish a dehydration level. A cal- (TRB), quadriceps (QUA) and Hamstring (HAM)
culation of the measured loss was performed muscles and 2) the elbow (ELB) and knee
giving a value for the amount of water needed (KNE) joints bilaterally (left and right), when ap-
to be consumed post exercise. With regards plicable, in the frontal (F) and dorsal (D) views.
to ingestion of food, participants were allowed In addition, during the resistance training, the
their normal daily intake during the supervised abdominal (ABD) region was considered. Tym-
eight-hour period post-exercise. Water con- panic temperature readings were taken twice
sumption was calculated to at least 150% of during each thermal assessment.
the weight lost due to dehydration29.
The thermographic protocol for this study
General and thermographic protocol was in agreement with the guidelines of the
Participants were asked to maintain normal European Association of Thermology concern-
eating and resting habits, but were instructed to ing the participants, camera and environmen-
desist from any exercise for at least 24 hours be- tal conditions31, ensuring the recording of im-
fore the trial. Each trial session began between ages of the highest quality.
08:30 and 11:30. Participants were requested to
remain in their underwear for a minimum of 15 Equipment
minutes in order to achieve a thermal balance Thermograms were recorded using the 335
with their surroundings, before baseline skin FLIR infrared camera (FLIR Systems, Sweden),
temperatures were recorded. The average tem- with data extracted by Termotracker software
perature for the room was maintained at 20.6 ± (Pemagroup, Spain). Tympanic temperature
0.7°C with a humidity reading of 44.0 ± 3.2%. was recorded with a ThermoScan® PRO-4000
(BRAUN, Germany). The environmental condi-
During the workouts participants wore tions were controlled by a BAR-908-HG por-
shorts, T-shirt and training shoes. They were table weather station (Oregon Scientific, USA).
instructed to consume the minimal amount of
water during and immediately after exercise29. The machines used for the strength training
With the room temperature kept at a constant protocol were: leg extension (X Pression - Pan-
temperature (18.5°C and 21.0°C), participants atta, Italy); leg press (Free Weight); Smith ma-
were monitored for eight hours post-trial. They chine (X Pression - Panatta, Italy); cable station
were asked to abstain from having a shower, with bar (X Pression - Panatta, Italy). For the
but were allowed to wear comfortable clothing. initial assessment, experimental trial and the
During the monitoring period they remained aerobic training test, the Runner Advance “E”
seated, partaking in passive activities (i.e. (Panatta, Italy) treadmill and the RS400 heart
reading, studying or playing computer games). rate monitor (Polar, Finland) were used.
The only time they were allowed to leave the
room was to eat between 13:30 and 15:30. Statistical analyses
Average and standard deviations for the
Ten series of four thermograms (Anterior Tsk of the selected ROI were derived from the
and Posterior of the Upper and Lower body: thermograms using the Termotracker software

60 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 Monitoring Skin Thermal Response to Training with Infrared Thermography

Figure 1: Body area templates use for Thermgraphy recording of local temperatures

(Pemagroup, Spain). To find any significant dif- moment and the results of the post hoc Tukey
ferences between each muscle and joint ROI analysis among different moments during re-
as well as tympanic temperature reading, de- cording of Tsk are also presented. Further-
scriptive and multivariate analysis of repeated more, Table 3 shows the relation of Tsk to the
measure tests by the data collection moment articular regions and tympanic temperatures.
with additional Tukey post hoc tests were car-
ried out over time. To perform analysis of the From Table 2 we concluded that the TskIAE
data, statistical significance was established at is lower or similar than TskBE in all the muscle
p<0.05 using the SPSS software (version 15.0). ROIs. In turn, differences regarding thermal re-
sponses related to muscle activity in the select-
Results ed exercises (agonist, synergist or antagonist)
for both the upper and lower limbs are shown.
Effects of strength training on skin tem-
perature The thermal response of the skin of the artic-
A summary of the averaged Tsk and the ular regions (elbows and knee) was also differ-
standard deviations for each muscle ROI in the ent when considering either the upper or lower
ten conditions: baseline before exercise (BE), limbs (Table 3). In the upper limb, the strength
immediately after the strength training (IAE) and exercises affected the anterior differently from
during the eight hours of recovery (“A1” to “A8”) the posterior part of the elbow with regards to
is presented in Table 2. Additionally, significant Tsk. However, the Tsk response of the knee to
differences for the multivariate analysis of re- the strength training exercise did not reflect a
peated measures test for Tsk by data collection significant decrement in most areas.

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 61

62
RECOVERY POST EXERCISE Post hoc Tukey
Dif. BE –
Dif. BE-A+n
ROI BE IAE A+2 A+3 A+4 A+5 A+6 A+7 A+8 P IAE Dif. IAE-A+n
A+1 (1) (only
(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) P<0.05? (only p<0.05)
p<0.05)
(Δ?)
31.98 31.57 32.18 32.28 32.32 32.45 32.53 32.53 32.29 32.38 p=0.18 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
FR 0.000 4,5,6,8 (­↑­)
± 0.65 ± 0.83 ± 0.54 ± 0.45 ± 0.61 ± 0.49 ± 0.58 ± 0.48 ± 0.40 ± 0.46 (↓≈0.4) (­↑­)
32.03 31.66 32.27 32.26 32.30 32.42 32.46 32.54 32.27 32.36 p=0.19 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
FL 0.000 4,5,6 (­↑­)
Deltoids ± 0.66 ± 0.86 ± 0.54 ± 0.43 ± 0.56 ± 0.54 ± 0.64 ± 0.52 ± 0.46 ± 0.59 (↓≈0.4) (­↑­)
(DEL) 30.94 29.96 30.95 31.18 31.39 31.35 31.38 31.53 31.28 31.32 Yes 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
DR 0.001 3,4,5,6 (­↑­)
±0.83 ± 1.23 ± 0.80 ± 0.66 ± 0.67 ± 0.67 ± 0.76 ± 0.73 ± 0.68 ± 0.64 (↓≈1.0) (­↑­)
30.91 29.91 30.97 31.10 31.22 31.39 31.36 31.51 31.26 31.29 Yes 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
DL 0.005 4,5,6 (­↑­)
± 0.86 ± 1.28 ± 0.77 ± 0.78 ± 0.70 ± 0.69 ± 0.77 ± 0.65 ± 0.62 ± 0.75 (↓≈1.0) (­↑­)
31.78 31.04 31.95 32.15 32.27 32.46 32.48 32.56 32.32 32.39 Yes 2,3,4,5,6,7,8 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
FR 0.000
Pectoral ± 0.54 ± 1.12 ± 0.48 ± 0.53 ± 0.56 ± 0.46 ± 0.60 ± 0.48 ± 0.49 ± 0.58 (↓≈0.7) (­↑­) (­↑­)
(PEC) 31.75 31.08 31.95 32.13 32.25 32.48 32.47 32.60 32.35 32.36 p=0.06 2,3,4,5,6,7,8 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
FL 0.000
± 0.58 ± 1.09 ± 0.55 ± 0.54 ± 0.52 ± 0.47 ± 0.61 ± 0.48 ± 0.49 ± 0.58 (↓≈0.7) (­↑­) (­↑­)
31.12 29.35 31.25 31.42 31.63 31.72 31.67 31.85 31.61 31.74 Yes 3,4,5,6,7,8 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
DR 0.000
Dorsal ± 0.66 ± 1.15 ± 0.64 ± 0.71 ± 0.59 ± 0.54 ± 0.67 ± 0.75 ± 0.59 ± 0.71 (↓≈1.8) (­↑­) (­↑­)
(DOR) 31.19 29.44 31.34 31.51 31.61 31.77 31.78 31.91 31.68 31.79 Yes 3,4,5,6,7,8 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
DL 0.000
± 0.66 ± 1.20 ± 0.59 ± 0.72 ± 0.56 ± 049 ± 0.66 ± 0.71 ± 0.56 ± 0.69 (↓≈1.8) (­↑­) (­↑­)
31.52 31.47 31.67 31.63 31.76 31.72 31.81 31.93 31.75 31.84 p=0.85
Biceps FR 0.204 6 (­↑­) -
± 0.66 ±0.70 ± 0.50 ± 0.74 ± 0.52 ± 0.69 ± 0.70 ± 0.63 ± 0.56 ± 0.64 (→≈0.05)
Braquii
Monitoring Skin Thermal Response to Training with Infrared Thermography

31.46 31.48 31.66 31.48 31.62 31.73 31.76 31.90 31.65 31.73 p=0.94
(BIB) FL 0.238 6 (­↑­) -
± 0.70 ± 0.65 ± 0.58 ± 0.83 ± 0.67 ± 0.82 ± 0.77 ± 0.76 ± 0.68 ± 0.71 (→≈0.02)

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

29.32 29.09 29.51 29.50 29.71 29.80 29.90 30.06 29.90 29.99 p=0.36 1,3,4,5,6,7,8
Triceps DR 0.002 3,4,5,6,8 (­↑­)
± 0.97 ± 0.76 ± 0.69 ± 0.79 ± 0.71 ± 0.76 ± 0.86 ± 0.79 ± 0.79 ± 0.77 (¯↓≈0.2) (­↑­)
Braquii
29.27 29.16 29.43 29.31 29.45 29.69 29.80 29.92 29.81 29.92 p=0.70
(TRB) DL 0.010 6,8 (­↑­) 5,6,7,8 (­↑­)
± 0.99 ± 0.76 ± 0.70 ± 0.91 ± 0.76 ± 0.83 ± 0.91 ± 0.84 ± 0.87 ± 0.86 (↓≈0.1)
29.68 29.67 30.20 29.86 30.10 30.23 30.35 30.38 30.30 30.06 p=0.95 1,3,4,5,6,7,8
Quadri- FR 0.029 1,6 (­↑­)
± 0.77 ± 1.01 ± 0.63 ± 0.52 ± 0.74 ± 0.53 ± 0.88 ± 0.62 ± 0.78 ± 0.67 (→≈0.01) (­↑­)
ceps
29.56 29.63 30.12 29.76 29.99 30.12 30.16 30.21 30.17 29.96 p=0.82 1,3,4,5,6,7,8
(QUA) FL 0.048 1 (­↑­)
± 0.76 ± 0.96 ± 0.56 ± 0.51 ± 0.73 ± 0.53 ± 0.83 ± 0.61 ± 0.74 ± 0.66 (→≈0.07) (­↑­)
30.23 28.65 30.62 30.81 31.15 31.26 31.51 30.47 31.43 30.90 Yes 2,3,4,5,6,7,8 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
for each considered muscular ROI along the data collection process. (STRENGTH TRAINING)

DR 0.000
Hamstring ± 0.93 ± 1.06 ± 0.71 ± 0.72 ± 0.85 ±0.68 ± 0.62 ± 0.65 ± 0.85 ± 0.71 (↓≈1.6) (­↑­) (­↑­)
(HAM) 30.25 28.68 30.66 30.82 31.21 31.34 31.58 31.50 31.42 30.90 Yes 2,3,4,5,6,7,8 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
DL 0.000
± 1.04 ± 1.09 ± 0.74 ± 0.75 ± 0.94 ± 0.69 ± 0.67 ± 0.64 ± 0.82 ±0.71 (↓≈1.6) (­↑­) (­↑­)
ROI = Regions of Interest; F = Frontal; D = Dorsal; R = Right; L = Left; BE = Before exercise; IAE= Immediately After Exercise;
Table 2: Averaged temperatures (±) standard deviations and repeated measurements multivariable analysis

A+n = Number of hours after training; (X) = Codes for significant differences in the post hoc Tukey test during resting.
 TRAINING)

RECOVERY POST EXERCISE Post hoc Tukey

Dif BE-

A+2 A+3 A+4 A+5 A+6 A+7 A+8 Dif. BE – IAE A+n Dif IAE-A+n
ROI BE IAE P
A+1 (1)
(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) P<0.05? (Δ?) (only (only p<0.05)

p<0.05)
31.82 31.86 31.98 31.82 31.93 31.97 32.06 32.19 31.97 32.10 p=0.87
FR 0.316 6 ­­(­↑­) -
± 0.71 ± 0.52 ± 0.57 ± 0.87 ± 0.55 ± 0.75 ± 0.67 ± 0.57 ± 0.59 ± 0.63 (→≈0.04)
31.77 31.75 31.98 31.67 31.83 31.90 32.02 32.17 31.96 32.00 p=0.92
FL 0.160 6 (­↑­) -
Elbow
± 0.67 ± 0.5 ± 0.52 ± 0.76 ± 0.70 ± 0.84 ± 0.71 ± 0.62 ± 0.57 ± 0.64 (→≈0.07)
28.95 29.61 29.25 29.04 29.23 29.26 29.42 29.56 29.26 29.42
(ELB)
DR 0.103 Yes (↑≈0.6) 6 (­↑­) 2 (­↓­­)
± 0.80 ± 0.69 ± 0.75 ± 0.66 ± 0.81 ± 0.69 ± 0.74 ± 0.52 ± 0.65 ± 0.77
28.92 29.67 29.11 28.73 28.87 29.08 29.00 29.26 29.06 29.20
DL 0.082 Yes (­↑≈0.7) - 1,2,3 (­↓­­)
± 1.00 ± 0.66 ± 0.81 ± 0.98 ± 0.99 ± 0.82 ± 0.98 ± 0.83 ± 0.87 ± 0.97
28.31 27.61 28.44 28.10 28.31 28.65 28.59 28.58 28.40 28.32 p=0.11
FR 0.113 - 1,4,6 (­↑­)
± 1.13 ± 1.23 ± 0.62 ± 0.94 ± 0.90 ± 1.01 ± 1.10 ± 1.15 ± 1.09 ± 1.01 (↓≈0.7)
28.31 27.43 28.49 28.14 28.43 28.75 28.64 28.60 28.40 28.34 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
FL 0.019 Yes (↓≈0.9) -

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

± 1.24 ± 1.01 ± 0.62 ± 0.81 ± 1.02 ± 1.14 ± 1.25 ± 1.23 ±1.27 ± 1.20 (­↑­)
Knee
31.00 29.01 30.79 30.93 31.28 31.28 31.25 31.22 31.25 30.99 3,4,6 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
DR 0.000 Yes (↓≈2.0)
(KNE)
± 0.68 ± 0.91 ± 0.66 ± 0.80 ± 0.56 ± 0.76 ± 0.79 ± 0.76 ± 0.73 ± 0.67 (­↑­) (­↑­)
31.15 29.33 31.03 31.13 31.50 31.56 31.46 31.39 31.38 31.10 3,4,5,6 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
DL 0.000 Yes (↓≈1.8)
± 0.79 ± 0.81 ± 0.63 ± 0.66 ± 0.57 ± 0.73 ± 0.76 ± 0.79 ± 0.71 ± 0.71 (­↑­) (­↑­)
Timpanic 36.66 36.76 36.57 36.50 36.64 36.66 36.68 36.80 36.72 36.69 p=0.21
0.012 2 (­↓­­) 1,2 ­(↓­­)
Temperature ± 0.29 ± 0.21 ± 0.22 ± 0.29 ± 0.34 ± 0.26 ± 0.23 ± 0.27 ± 0.36 ± 0.30 (­↑≈0.1)

ROI = Regions of Interest; F = Frontal; D = Dorsal; R = Right; L = Left; BE = Before exercise; IAE= Immediately After Exercise;
A+n = Number of hours after training; (X) = Codes for significant differences in the post hoc Tukey test during resting. (*p=0.06)
Table 3: Averaged temperatures (±) standard deviations and repeated measurements multivariable analysis
for each considered articular ROI and tympanic temperature along the data collection process. (STRENGTH

63
Monitoring Skin Thermal Response to Training with Infrared Thermography
Monitoring Skin Thermal Response to Training with Infrared Thermography

Effects of resistance training on skin tem- mediately after strength training, ranging from
perature. 0.1°C to 1.6°C. Significance (p<0, 05) was
Similarly to the strength training data, Ta- demonstrated only in the posterior deltoid (R
bles 4 and 5 present a summary of the mus- & L), pectoral (R), dorsal (R & L) and hamstring
cle, joint Tsk and tympanic temperature at rest (R & L) (see Table 2). Comparing strength to
(BE), immediately after aerobic exercise (IAE) aerobic training (Table 4), there was a reduction
and during the eight-hour recovery period (“A1” of the Tsk in 63% of the analysed ROIs post
to “A8”). Multivariate analysis of repeated mea- 45-minute run. The change in range was from
sures test and post hoc Tukey analysis for the 0.3°C to 0.8°C. However, a significant differ-
Tsk among the different recording moments ence (p<0.05) was only observed in the right
are presented in these tables. anterior shoulder.

In most of the selected ROIs, the upper limb The thermal response to strength training
TskIAE is lower than the TskBE with significance was heterogenic in the joints (Table 3) with
being achieved only in the anterior part of the a significant rise (p<0.05) in the back part of
deltoids (See Table 4). In contrast, the triceps the elbow (R & L) and a reduction in the knee
brachii TskIAE is higher than the TskBE. Con- joint. Significance was observed in the left
cerning the lower limb muscles, the IAE tem- anterior and both the left and right posterior
perature remained constant or showed a slight part (p<0.05), with an average decrease of
increase but was of no significance. up to 2.0°C. The response to aerobic versus
strength training in the joints was different with
The results for the joints were heteroge- a slight and non-significant decrease on the
neous (Table 5) with significant increments of anterior and posterior regions of the elbow
Tsk shown in the posterior part of the elbows and knee joints, respectively. The temperature
and anterior part of the knees. However, non- change was between 0.3°C and 0.5°C, with
significant measures of Tsk were recorded IAE a heightened and significant increase on the
compared with the BE baselines. Within Table posterior region of the elbow and the anterior
5, an increase in IAE of the tympanic tempera- region of the knee (p<0.05), ranging between
tures are shown but were not significant. With 1.2°C and 2.7°C.
regards to the abdominal area there was a
sharp decrease in temperature IAE. From the data collected the muscle areas of
Tsk were lower than the initial IAE temperature
Discussion with a pronounced decrease in the strength
training protocol. With regards to the elbow or
Thermographic recordings present a com- knee joints, a greater decrease in temperature
plex physiological response of the skin to was observed in the knee post strength train-
different training load, involving the skeletal ing. The mean difference was approximately
muscle (metabolism), the cardiovascular sys- 2.0°C in the posterior. However, after aerobic
tem (blood flow), neural system (central and training the temperature was reduced between
local) and adrenergic system32,33. In this study, 0.4°C – 0.5°C with the higher readings record-
therrmographic data indicated that the skin re- ed in IAE of the posterior region of the elbow
sponse was specific for the muscle group and (between 1.0°C – 2.7°C) and anterior part of
selected joints evaluated over time for different the knee (between 1.2°C – 1.5°C).
training loads.
Skin cooling has been shown to occur dur-
Short-term effects of training on skin tem- ing both running16,34 and exercise with a cycle
perature. ergometer35. However, the reduction of tem-
Among the 16 evaluated muscle ROIs, a re- perature after strength training has yet to be
duction of Tsk occurred in 75% of cases im- investigated. Using IRT, Merla et al21 showed

64 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 RECOVERY POST EXERCISE Post hoc Tukey
Dif. BE –
ROI BE IAE A+1 A+2 A+3 A+4 A+5 A+6 A+7 A+8 P IAE Dif. BE-A+n Dif. IAE-A+n
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) P<0.05? (only p<0.05) (only p<0.05)
(D?)
31.62 30.80 32.06 32.03 32.24 32.20 32.26 32.40 32.29 32.28 Yes 1,3,4,5,
FR 0.000 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8(­↑)
±0.55 ±1.08 ±0.55 ±0.72 ±0.68 ±0.77 ±0.42 ±0.51 ±0.49 ±0.55 (↓0.8) 6,7,8(↑­)
31.69 30.94 32.13 32.06 32.25 32.17 32.27 32.29 32.36 32.30 0.069 1,3,4,5,
FL 0.000 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8(­↑)
Deltoids ±0.49 ±1.15 ±0.54 ±0.69 ±0.52 ±0.71 ±0.42 ±0.50 ±0.50 ±0.56 (↓0.7) 6,7,8(↑­)
(DEL) 30.90 30.48 31.28 31.26 31.43 31.48 31.38 31.49 31.31 31.41 0.420 3,4,5,
DR 0.031 1,4,6(↑­)
±0.67 ±1.44 ±0.67 ±0.79 ±0.88 ±0.73 ±0.66 ±0.52 ±0.66 ±0.74 (↓0.4) 6(↑­)
30.84 30.67 31.22 31.14 31.33 31.37 31.34 31.39 31.21 31.32 0.785
DL 0.112 3,4,5,6(↑­) 4(↑­)
±0.67 ±1.28 ±0.73 ±0.88 ±0.86 ±0.80 ±0.62 ±0.52 ±0.60 ±0.81 (↓0.2)
31.38 30.67 31.87 32.08 32.21 32.21 32.28 32.28 32.30 32.25 0.128 1,2,3,4,5,
FR 0.000 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8(­↑)
Pectoral ±0.54 ±1.40 ±0.59 ±0.72 ±0.69 ±0.88 ±0.47 ±0.60 ±0.54 ±0.70 (↓0.7) 6,7,8(↑­)
(PEC) 31.37 30.80 31.90 32.12 32.24 32.21 32.27 32.30 32.35 32.28 0.208 1,2,3,4,5,
FL 0.000 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8(↑­)
±0.55 ±1.29 ±0.61 ±0.68 ±0.65 ±0.87 ±0.47 ±0.61 ±0.50 ±0.66 (↓0.6) 6,7,8(↑­)
31.07 30.70 31.39 31.50 31.85 31.75 31.70 31.75 31.66 31.81 0.550 3,4,5,
DR 0.020 4,6,8(↑­)
Dorsal ±0.65 ±1.62 ±0.56 ±0.74 ±0.62 ±0.79 ±0.36 ±0.39 ±0.50 ±0.62 (↓0.4) 6,7,8(↑­)
(DOR) 31.15 30.86 31.46 31.57 31.92 31.81 31.77 31.82 31.74 31.85 0.650 3,4,5,
DL 0.018 4,6,8(↑­)
±0.61 ±1.49 ±0.55 ±0.70 ±0.60 ±0.82 ±0.36 ±0.43 ±0.51 ±0.59 (↓0.3) 6,7,8(↑­)
31.34 30.60 31.59 31.42 31.71 31.67 31.70 31.77 31.77 31.78 0.165
Biceps FR 0.006 6,7,8(↑­) 6,7,8(↑­)
±0.60 ±1.31 ±0.58 ±0.80 ±0.64 ±0.72 ±0.46 ±0.49 ±0.49 ±0.51 (↓0.7)
Braquii
31.39 30.61 31.67 31.48 31.70 31.63 31.70 31.76 31.82 31.78 0.064 1,2,3,4,5
(BIB) FL 0.003 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8(↑­)
±0.45 ±1.20 ±0.56 ±0.78 ±0.66 ±0.66 ±0.46 ±0.44 ±0.44 ±0.46 (↓0.8) ,6,7,8(↑­)
29.08 30.05 29.76 29.51 29.69 29.61 29.76 29.90 29.82 29.92 0.057 1,3,5,

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

Triceps DR 0.164 ---
±0.71 ±1.70 ±0.96 ±1.07 ±1.02 ±1.08 ±0.86 ±0.89 ±0.98 ±1.14 (↑1.0) 6,7,8(↓)
Braquii
29.04 30.45 29.75 29.47 29.62 29.55 29.58 29.63 29.61 29.73 Yes 1,3,
(TRB) DL 0.013 1,2,4,5,7(↓)
±0.62 ±1.60 ±1.12 ±1.18 ±1.08 ±1.09 ±0.88 ±0.85 ±0.82 ±1.05 (­↑1.4) 6,7,8(↓)
29.59 29.77 30.39 30.15 29.94 30.09 30.11 30.17 30.20 30.10 0.741 1,2,4,5,
Quadri- FR 0.088 4(­↑)
±0.56 ±1.31 ±0.57 ±0.62 ±0.70 ±0.68 ±0.75 ±0.56 ±0.64 ±0.58 (↑0.2) 6,7,8(↑­)
ceps
29.44 29.77 30.33 30.04 29.88 30.04 30.04 30.07 30.07 29.98 0.446 1,2,4,5,
(QUA) FL 0.086 ---
±0.53 ±1.28 ±0.61 ±0.56 ±0.69 ±0.62 ±0.70 ±0.52 ±0.64 ±0.54 (↑0.3) 6,7,8(­↑)
29.60 29.84 30.57 30.83 30.72 30.69 30.94 30.28 30.88 30.56 0.650 1,2,3,4,5
Hams- DR 0.021 2,3,4,5,7(↑­)
for each considered muscular ROI along the data collection process (RESISTANCE TRAINING)

±0.50 ±1.66 ±0.63 ±0.86 ±0.59 ±0.88 ±0.83 ±2.04 ±0.68 ±0.89 (↑0.2) ,7,8(↑­)
tring
29.72 29.69 30.50 30.87 30.74 30.74 31.04 30.37 30.99 30.63 0.746
(HAM) DL 0.013 1,2,3,4,5,7,8(↑­) 1,2,3,4,5,7,8(↑­)
±0.54 ±1.67 ±0.67 ±0.86 ±0.62 ±0.83 ±0.78 ±1.99 ±0.73 ±0.84 (→0.0)

ROI = Regions of Interest; F = Frontal; D = Dorsal; R = Right; L = Left; BE = Before exercise; IAE= Immediately After Exercise;
A+n = Number of hours after training; (X) = Codes for significant differences in the post hoc Tukey test during resting.
Table 4: Averaged temperatures (±) standard deviations and repeated measurements multivariable analysis

65
Monitoring Skin Thermal Response to Training with Infrared Thermography
66
TRAINING)

RECOVERY POST EXERCISE Post hoc Tukey

Dif. BE – Dif BE- Dif IAE-
ROI BE IAE A+1 A+2 A+3 A+4 A+5 A+6 A+7 A+8 P IAE A+n A+n
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) P<0.05? (only (only
(D?) p<0.05) p<0.05)
31.70 31.35 32.03 31.84 31.99 31.84 32.04 32.13 32.06 32.04 0.267 1,2,3,4,
FR 0.000 1,5,6(↑­)
±0.49 ±0.83 ±0.46 ±0.54 ±0.61 ±0.64 ±0.44 ±0.44 ±0.47 ±0.41 (↓0.3) 5,7,8(↑­)
31.66 31.35 32.01 31.76 31.90 31.79 32.00 32.05 32.04 31.94 0.320 1,5,6,
FL 0.000 6,7(↑­)
Elbow ±0.39 ±0.85 ±0.55 ±0.72 ±0.66 ±0.71 ±0.52 ±0.44 ±0.43 ±0.42 (↓0.3) 7,8(↑­)
(ELB) 28.77 30.89 29.50 29.10 29.09 29.26 29.28 29.44 29.30 29.27 Yes 1,2,3,4,
DR 0.001 6(↑­)
±0.78 ±1.71 ±1.12 ±1.29 ±1.16 ±1.09 ±0.88 ±0.84 ±1.14 ±1.02 (­↑2.1) 5,6,7,8(↓)
28.75 31.43 29.43 28.78 28.95 29.11 29.18 29.13 29.10 29.11 Yes 1,2,3,4,
DL 0.000 1(↑­)
±0.68 ±1.58 ±1.32 ±1.29 ±0.90 ±1.20 ±0.78 ±0.74 ±0.80 ±0.97 (­↑2.7) 5,6,7,8(↓)
28.30 29.81 29.39 28.46 28.31 28.60 28.53 28.54 28.44 28.55 Yes (↑­ 2,3,4,
FR 0.000 1(↑­)
±0.70 ±1.31 ±1.01 ±1.08 ±1.15 ±1.26 ±1.28 ±1.15 ±1.21 ±0.97 1.5) 5,6,7,8(↓)
28.31 29.53 29.39 28.51 28.42 28.68 28.55 28.53 28.36 28.51 Yes 2,3,5,6,
FL 0.005 1(↑­)
±0.75 ±1.36 ±1.07 ±1.14 ±1.26 ±1.34 ±1.36 ±1.20 ±1.24 ±1.17 (­↑1.2) 7,8(↓)
Knee
30.40 29.96 30.99 30.80 31.01 31.04 30.90 30.33 30.77 30.92 0.141 1,2,3,4, 1,2,3,4,
(KNE) DR 0.023
Monitoring Skin Thermal Response to Training with Infrared Thermography

±0.52 ±1.21 ±0.58 ±0.74 ±0.63 ±0.59 ±0.66 ±1.78 ±0.53 ±0.49 (↓0.4) 5,7,8(↑­) 5,7,8(↑­)
30.55 30.05 31.16 31.04 31.15 31.18 30.99 30.40 30.95 31.00 0.106 1,2,3,4, 1,2,3,4,
DL 0.015

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

±0.58 ±1.17 ±0.58 ±0.78 ±0.73 ±0.67 ±0.68 ±1.76 ±0.60 ±0.52 (↓0.5) 5,7,8(↑­) 5,7,8(­↑)
Timpanic
0.069 1,2,3,
Tem- 36.62 36.91 36.62 36.59 36.60 36.67 36.72 36.77 36.76 36.68 0.028 ---
(↑0.3) 4,5(↓)
perature ±0.28 ±0.43 ±0.25 ±0.27 ±0.21 ±0.25 ±0.28 ±0.26 ±0.24 ±0.26
Yes 1,2,3,4,5 1,2,3,4,
Abdominal 31.17 29.69 31.77 31.94 32.09 32.12 32.14 32.10 32.16 32.10 0.000
(↓1.5) ,6,7,8(↑­) 5,6,7,8(↑­)
±0.65 ±1.64 ±0.64 ±0.86 ±0.79 ±0.97 ±0.61 ±0.65 ±0.62 ±0.72

ROI = Regions of Interest; F = Frontal; D = Dorsal; R = Right; L = Left; BE = Before exercise; IAE= Immediately After Exercise;
A+n = Number of hours after training; (X) = Codes for significant differences in the post hoc Tukey test during resting.
each considered articular ROI and tympanic temperature along the data collection process (RESISTANCE
Table 5: Averaged temperatures (±) standard deviations and repeated measurements multivariable analysis for
 Monitoring Skin Thermal Response to Training with Infrared Thermography

a reduction in Tsk in response to a gradual intense running, blood flows from the abdomi-
increase of running intensity over 12 minutes nal region to other muscles providing nutrients
in the forearms (5.2°C), the trunk (3.0°C), and and a cooling effect. The measurement for Tsk
the quadriceps (4.6°C). The two training proto- in the abdominal region indicates a decrease in
cols of this study produced similar results, but blood flow when analysed.
with less magnitude in the case of the strength
training. At this point we have to consider that Interval strength training promotes a spe-
the characteristics of the efforts were quite dif- cific local thermal adjustment in contrast to a
ferent. In our study, the duration of the exer- continuous run, with running imposing a neural
cises exceeded 30 minutes versus 12 minutes vasodilation reflex in the skin32. The redistribu-
in the studies of Merla et al21. The observed tion of blood from the skin to the active muscle
acute Tsk reduction IAE may be partially com- region is inhibited by an increased need for
pensated by heat conduction mechanisms: internal heat loss. This inhibition is caused by
the sweat created, as a result of blood flowing thermal stress in response to extremely high
from the muscle to the skin, releases excess air temperatures, or by a large internal heat
heat from the muscle. production for a prolonged period of high in-
tensity exercise. Nonetheless, these phenom-
The thermal gradient between the skin and ena were not seen in this study.
blood accounts for evaporation of sweat. This
mechanism cools the blood, maintaining the Tympanic temperature is an indicator of in-
internal temperature at an acceptable level14,32. ternal body temperature. A study by Meir et
The tympanic temperature measurements of al13 indicated that tympanic temperature ac-
this study validated this argument as they were counted for a significant increase of 0.34°C
significantly higher than the skin temperature compared to the resting condition at the end of
IAE. a rugby match. This rise was greater than the
value for strength training (0.11°C), but similar
The internal temperature of the body can be to the data after aerobic training (0.29°C), in
influenced by exercise intensity8,9. Regulation the present study. In turn, the data collected
of blood temperature, pressure and metabolic in this study indicates a direct relationship be-
activity by the hypothalamus protects the body tween the increment of internal temperature
from dangerous increases in core temperature. with the intensity and duration of exercise.
Active central and peripheral vasoconstriction
and vasodilation mechanisms in the body en- Skin temperature during recovery
sure that blood flows from the muscle to the Changes of Tsk during the eight hours of
skin. Under extreme conditions, six to eight l/ recovery in the ROI for both strength and aero-
min of blood may flow32 in an attempt to cool bic training increased when compared to the
the skin. In addition, the stimulation of sweat initial temperature BE and IAE (Tables 2 and 4).
glands and the reduction of the temperature of However, Tsk increases for the joints did not
blood by convection, the relationship of ambi- present with any significant changes. Though
ent air temperature to the skin19,36 ensures that a sharp temperature increase in the anterior
temperature of the body is maintained at a safe region of the knee post aerobic training was
and constant level. The radiated skin tempera- seen, this value was similar to the rest value
ture in response to the aforementioned mech- two hours post 40-minute run (Tables 3 and
anisms can be captured by IRT19, 36. 4).The use of IRT in research evaluating Tsk re-
sponse during recovery post strength training
The displacement of blood flow from the is sparse. This limitation prevents the compari-
skin to regions of active muscle assists in the son of our data to other material. However, the
reduction of body temperature obtained IAE, rise in Tsk in several regions of the body post
during short-term exercise21. During moderate running has been shown by Merla et al.35.

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 67

Monitoring Skin Thermal Response to Training with Infrared Thermography

In general, the highest recorded tempera- by environmental conditions (≈ 20.6°C and

tures occurred four to six hours and six to 44% RH), creating a thermal gradient between
nine hours post strength and aerobic training, the skin and environment38. In cases of ex-
respectively. An interesting response was no- tremely hot environmental conditions (≈ 38°C
ticed concerning maximal Tsk values recorded and ≈ 70% RH in tropical areas) it is possible
IAE and two hours post training for the anterior that this response would be different.
part of the knee and posterior part of the el-
bow. The values obtained in these areas were It is difficult to establish the effect of circa-
quite similar to the resting conditions. dian variation of temperature on the results of
this study. A study by Arnett41 indicated that
After the exercise there is a new metabolic swim training in the morning eliminated the
condition, demanding specific thermal adjust- effect of daily variation in body temperature,
ments including a redistribution of blood flow. with Morris et al36 concluding that Tsk dur-
Furthermore, it is known that during the recov- ing recovery after exercise (70% VO2 max for
ery period the internal oesophageal tempera- 30 min) did not vary significantly. However, it is
ture remains elevated indicating an increased interesting to note that in this study, the highest
metabolic activity37. After the completion of temperature recorded for the ROI was approxi-
the exercise, activation of the mechanisms for mately six hours post-exercise, which is similar
releasing the metabolic and mechanic heat to peak temperatures recorded by circadian
produced during the training period and their rhythm studies42.
long term effects is still necessary. Kenny et
al14 established that 53% of heat stored during In this study, the thermal measurements re-
60 minutes of cycling at 70 W was lost in 60 corded for the 24 ROI in relation to Tsk were
minutes of recovery. Therefore, the increase in different before, during and after both strength
skin temperatures during the recovery period and aerobic training. The results were influ-
may be attributed to the activation of the above enced by the type of training (strength vs aero-
mentioned mechanism. bic), the characteristics of the collected sam-
ples as well as the environmental conditions
Exercise produces an increase of nitric ox- (room temperature). The constant monitoring
ide (NO) in the blood, an important vasodilator of the body with regards to the aforementioned
of the cutaneous arteriole. Given the need for influences, is a very complex endeavour involv-
a local metabolic heat loss, NO promotes the ing the synergy between the hypothalamus and
vasodilation in the exercised regions through a other multiple sensors15. This feedback loop
mechanism called the prolonged plateau nitric provides a constant monitoring of the internal
oxide vasodilation mechanism33. The result is temperature, maintaining a safe range for the
an increase in blood supply causing an eleva- proper function of the body. Factors that may
tion of local temperature, which can be mea- influence this “safe” temperature range are:
sured by thermal imagers. age25,32,41, gender25, level of fitness12,42, hydra-
tion10,32, clothing43, circadian rhythm40, type of
Increases in Tsk during the recovery of the training, as well as environmental conditions34.
joints and muscle, may be influenced by other
mechanisms such as glycogen resynthesis16 The specificity of local thermal responses to
or adaptive mechanisms of hypertrophy2. The exercise requires further study to enhance the
heat generated by these mechanisms occurs basic knowledge, particularly in high-perfor-
in the anatomical structures just under the skin. mance competitive sport, where the athlete’s
recovery actions and the assimilation of train-
The thermal profile obtained during the ing loads, are essential for the intervention of
eight-hour recovery period can be influenced physical therapists and trainers.

68 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 Monitoring Skin Thermal Response to Training with Infrared Thermography

Conclusions Recommendations

Considering the ROI, Tsk presents specific Use of thermography may prove to be a
responses in relation to strength and aerobic valuable tool for trainers. By evaluating the lo-
training. The main changes in Tsk observed in cal metabolic activity generated by the work-
muscle (chest and thigh) were a reduction in out, and the subsequent return to baseline
temperature immediately post exercise versus Tsk, a decision can be made when the athlete
the initial values, and a progressive increase can resume training. In addition, therapists
during the eight hour recovery period with Tsk may use thermography as a tool for monitor-
peaking approximately six hours post exercise. ing individual effects of techniques on their
This value during the recovery period was never patients. In turn, the absence of differences in
higher than 1°C compared to the initial resting temperature between paired ROIs may indi-
values. The impact of exercise on Tsk with re- cate a balanced condition thereby minimising
gards to the joints (knee and elbow) was lower the possibility of injury.
and more heterogeneous with the local tem-
peratures increasing or decreasing moderately The use of thermography on a regular basis
in the ROI after strength training. However, the during the training will create a thermal profile
effects were more relevant after aerobic training of the athlete, with special attention given to
in both the anterior part of the knee and poste- regions (muscle and joint) exposed to a higher
rior part of the elbow; with the recovery lasting training load or greater risk of injury. Incre-
only one or two hours. Therefore, use of IRT may ments of Tsk in these regions may be a strong
provide important information on local adapta- indicator of an incomplete recovery. This infor-
tions in response to re-establishing the initial mation may help trainers control, decrease or
skin temperature post training. This may indicate abandon the training until Tsk returns to base-
whether the athlete has recovered enough to ef- line levels.
fectively train or compete again. If this theory is
proven, IRT would be a practical and easy tool
for monitoring the athletes’ training.
Please send all correspondence to:
Ismael Fernandez de la Cuevas
ismael.fernandez@upm.es

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 69

Monitoring Skin Thermal Response to Training with Infrared Thermography

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26. WHALEY, M.H. et al. (1992). Predictors of over- and un-
10. BATCHELDER, B.C. et al. (2010). Gastrointestinal tem- derachievement of age-predicted maximal heart rate. Med
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24(1): 68-73. 27. BAECHLE, T.R., & EARLE, R.W. (2008). and National
Strength & Conditioning Association (U.S.), Essentials of
11. GAGNON, D. et al. (2009). Core temperature differenc- strength training and conditioning. 3rd ed., Champaign, IL:
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Physiology, 105(3): 453-461. 28. TAYLOR, L.W. et al. (2012). Effects of resistance ex-
ercise intensity on extracellular signal-regulated kinase
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tives. J Physiol Anthropol, 29(1): 1-12.
29. SAWKA, M.N. et al. (2007). American College of Sports
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FERNÁNDEZ CUEVAS, I. (2010). Sistema para cuantificar la
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32. CHARKOUDIAN, N. (2010). Mechanisms and modifiers 38. CHEUVRONT, S.N. et al. (2010). Mechanisms of aerobic
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33. JOHNSON, J.M. & KELLOGG, JR., D.L. (2010). Local 39. ARNETT, M.G. (2002). Effects of prolonged and re-
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35. MERLA, A., L. DI DONATO, & ROMANI, G.L. (2002). 41. Niu, H.H. et al. (2001). Thermal symmetry of skin tem-
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New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 71

72 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014
Coaching
contents g Shot Put With Lighter Implements
by Basil Grammaticos

x
x
x
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x
 STUDY

Shot Put With © by IAAF

29:1; 75-81, 2014

Lighter Implements
by Basil Grammaticos

ABSTRACT AUTHOR
Following a competition in 2012, a group Basil Grammaticos, Ph.D., is a Director of
of the world’s top shot putters were invited Research at the National Scientific Re-
to compete using a 5kg implement. The search Centre (CNRS) in Paris and is cur-
results were somewhat surprising in that rently head of the modelling team of the
the distances achieved were not as long as joint University of Paris VII – University of
might be expected, based on the assump- Paris XI Laboratory for Imaging and Mod-
tion that the length of a throw is inversely elling for Neurobiology and Cancer Studies
proportional to the mass of the shot. The (IMNC).
aim of this paper is to provide an intuitive,
physics-based interpretation of the results
of the aforementioned competition and set
a frame for the description of shot putting
with implements of non-standard weights.
The model, combined with the classical ki- Introduction
nematics results for a projectile motion un-
der the influence of gravity (and neglecting his paper has been motivated by the
air resistance), allows the derivation of a
simple expression for the dependence of
T results of a 2012 competition1, where
top-class shot putters were invited,
the length of throw on the implement mass. after the normal competition, to vie for the lon-
This result is compared to existing perfor- gest put of the year. Thus, after having com-
mances and the limitations of the model pleted an event using the regulation weight,
when too heavy or too light implements are 7.257kg shot, the athletes returned to the circle
used are discussed. It is hoped that the re- in order to compete with a lighter, 5kg imple-
sults can assist coaches by providing a tool ment. The results with the normal implement
for interpreting the capability of athletes were the following:
based on their results with different weight
shots. Name Country Distance
of Athlete with 7.257kg
Reese Hoffa USA 21.72m
Tomasz Majewski POL 20.84m
Dylan Armstrong CAN 20.63m
Justin Rodhe CAN 20.63m
Jacub Giza POL 18.72m
Kamil Zbroszczyk POL 18.19m

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 75

Shot Put With Lighter Implements

With the lighter one, the order did not the most salient features, which, we believe, are
change a lot and the throw distances were: the ones determining the length of the throw as
a function of the mass of the implement.

Name of Athlete Distance with 5kg In our model we distinguish two phases,

which are fundamentally different. The first
Hoffa 25.20m is what we call the acceleration phase. The
Rodhe 24.68m thrower starts from a position where his veloc-
Majewski 24.54m ity is zero and, using one of the two custom-
Armstrong 24.36m ary techniques, glide or spin, moves from the
back to the front edge of the circle acceler-
Giza 21.34m
ating all the way. In the glide technique, there
Zbroszczyk 20.50m
is a substantial vertical acceleration, while in
the spin technique a centrifugal acceleration is
Now, at first sight, these results may appear perceived in the athlete’s frame, but these de-
astonishing. The naive assumption that the tails are not expected to play a crucial role and
length of the throw is inversely proportional to thus we shall not delve further on these points.
the mass of the shot would have one expect The net result of the acceleration phase is to
much longer throws with the lighter imple- bring the hand of the thrower holding the shot
ment. However, the collected data disputes to some velocity v 0. Since the thrower is much
this proportionality argument forcing one to more massive than the shot (typically 100kg
seek a better understanding of the situation. compared to 4-7kg) a small difference in the
Therefore, the aim of this paper is to provide mass of the shot will not make any difference
an intuitive, physics-based, interpretation of when it comes to the value v 0 of the velocity
the results of the aforementioned competition attained. Thus as a first approximation we can
and set a frame for the description of shot put- assume that the acceleration phase leads to
ting with implements of non-standard weight. a velocity v 0 independently of the mass (m) of
In fact, contrary to what is alluded to in the title, the implement.
our approach is valid also in the case where a
heavier implement is used (more on this in the The second phase is that of the throw itself,
Discussion). during which the thrower pushes the shot and,
expending a quantity of energy E, which we
In what follows we start by presenting our take to be always the same, increases the ki-
model and then analyse the kinematics of the netic energy of the shot from
shot after it has left the thrower’s hand. We
combine these two items in order to make a to
prediction on the dependence of the throw
length to the mass of the implement and com- where v is the velocity at which the shot leaves
pare it to existing data. Finally, we discuss the the thrower’s fingers. We have thus
results obtained, pointing out limitations to
their domain of validity and propose a some- (1)
what better model.
It is clear from this expression that the final
The Model velocity of the shot depends crucially on its
mass. The separation of the throwing process
It is beyond the scope of the present paper in two phases is quite a natural one and, in fact,
to present a biomechanically accurate model of common to all throws. In his book on throw-
the shot put. On the contrary, we shall over-sim- ing events, SILVESTER distinguishes precisely
plify the shot putting process in order to isolate these two phases in his discussion of the bio-

76 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 Shot Put With Lighter Implements

mechanics of throwing techniques2. Indeed, pect the optimal angle to be smaller than 45°.
the corresponding chapter deals with the pro- Still, in order to simplify our argument let us
cesses of “developing momentum in the run- at first neglect this effect and assume θ = 45°.
up area” (a most restrictive one in the case of We find that the throw length is given by
shot put) and of “transmitting energy from the
body to the implement”, corresponding to the (4)
acceleration and push phases of our model. this can further be approximated by

(5)
The Kinematics of Shot Putting
(the first correction being , of the order
Once the shot leaves the hand of the ath- of 1% given the typical value of d)
lete, its trajectory is subject to the usual laws
of ballistics. The trajectory of a projectile re- We can now go back to the full angle de-
leased at height (h), with velocity (v) and at an pendence. The optimisation of the angle gives
angle (θ) with respect to the horizontal is given, a solution around θ = 41° (using our standard
as a function of time (t) by the equations values of v and h). This is in agreement with
(2a) previous results5,6 but with slight disagreement
with measurements based on competition
and (2b) data4,7,8, which give angles around 37°- 38° .
The explanation of this discrepancy is given in
where x, y give the position of the (centre of an elegant way by Lenz & Rappl9 who con-
mass of the) shot, measured along the horizon- sidered the correlation between the velocity
tal and vertical axes and where g is the gravi- of the shot and the release angle. Still, for the
tational acceleration. These equations can case at hand, given the small deviation of the
be found in any elementary physics textbook. optimal value of the angle from 45° and the fact
They are derived by neglecting the effect of air that we use an approximation for S, equation
resistance on the moving body. In the case of (5), we can safely neglect the angle effect and
the shot put, this is perfectly justified as shown
work just with the expression S = 2d + 1.
by Lichtenberg & Wills3. The length (L) of
the throw is given by the value of x when y =
0. Eliminating t between the two equations of
The Dependence of Throw Length on
(2a & b) we find that L is given by Implement Mass

(3) Starting from equation (5) we revert to

quantities with dimensions and find for the
At this point it is advantageous to introduce throw length
non-dimensional quantities (6)

2
and Next we use equation (1) and obtain v

Using typical values for v = 14m/s, h = 2m, (7)

and given that g = 9.8m/s2, we find for d the
value d = 54: in the same spirit, a throw of L = we substitute into (6) and find
20m gives an S of 10.
(8)
The standard textbook answer as to the op-
timal angle in ballistics is θ = 45°. However this which we represent schematically as
is valid only for throws from zero height. Since
in our case the release height is not negligible (9)
with respect to the other parameters, we ex-

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 77

Shot Put With Lighter Implements

Equation (9) gives the dependence of the athlete if that weight were used in competition.
throw length on the mass of the implement. Another junior athlete for whom some results
Roughly stated, a large value of a would indi- exist is for Krzysztof Brzozowski (POL)12. His
cate a good acceleration in the circle, while a best performance records in 2012 were 19.63m
large value of b indicates a strong push. Vali- with a 7.25kg shot, 21.78m with a 6kg while with
dating equation (9) is far from an easy task. the 5kg shot his personal best was 23.23m dat-
While elite throwers may train with heavier or ing back to 2010.
lighter implements the precise data are not
available. When competitions like the one that We start by obtaining the parameters a and
spurred this study are held, one has just the re- b from the 2012 performances and find a =
sults for two different shot weights, which only 9.3m and b = 74.8kgm. With use of equation
allow to fix the parameters of (9). If we analyse (9) for a 5kg shot we find a distance of 24.3m
the results of the introduction using (9) we find perfectly compatible with the one meter shorter
the following set of parameters for the athletes: result recorded when the athlete was younger,
since a junior thrower is expected to improve
Name of Athlete a (m) b (kgm) substantially in two years. Finally we examined
the case of the two time world champion David
Hoffa 14.0 56.0 Storl (GER)13 who as a junior in 2009, recorded
Majewski 12.7 59.6 20.43m with a 7.25kg shot, and 22.73m with
a 6kg one. No performance with the 5kg shot
Armstrong 12.4 60.0
appears to be known past 2007 but the use of
Rodhe 11.6 65.2
(9) and the fitted parameters (a = 9.4m and b =
Giza 12.9 42.2 80.0 kgm) give a prediction of 25.4m, which is
Zbroszczyk 13.1 37.2 not at all unreasonable, given the excellence of
this athlete.

In addition to drawing comparisons on elite Discussion

athletes, application of this model can be used
with junior male throwers provided the exis- While based on quite reasonable hypothe-
tence of useful data. Even though competitions ses, the equation relating the length of a throw
are held with lighter implements, the elite junior to the mass of the shot is blatantly wrong to the
throwers do also train with the heavier ones and eyes of a physicist. Given an expression like
often participate at senior events. Unfortunately (9) one is naturally led to the question of what
the data is scarce and only one complete set of happens at the limits m → ∞ and m → 0. The
performances was found, that of the new prod- answers obtained through use of equation (9)
igy thrower Jacko Gill (NZL). His personal re- at both limits are wrong. For m → ∞ equation
cords, all of them from 2011, are 20.38m with a (9) predicts L = a (i.e. a non-zero result), while
7.25kg, 22.31m with a 6kg, and 24.45m with the for m → 0 it predicts an infinitely long throw.
5kg shot10. Using the two heavier implements Does this mean that our model is wrong? Not
and equation (9) we obtain the following values at all, for the absurd results obtained at the two
for a = 11.1m and b = 67.2kgm. With these val- limits are possibly due to the fact that some
ues one is able to extrapolate a performance of basic assumptions are violated.
24.54m with a 5kg shot. This value is in agree-
ment with the value obtained for the actual throw Let us examine first the m → ∞ case. The
(24.45m). It is interesting to note that this athlete tacit hypothesis in our model is that the throw-
also trains with a heavier shot (8kg), and there er accelerates always to the same final velocity
exists one testimonial of a 18.20m throw. Our v, independently of the shot’s mass. This can
expression (9) predicts a throw around 19.5m, only be true as long as this mass is small com-
which would not have been impossible for the pared to the body mass of the thrower, let’s

78 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 Shot Put With Lighter Implements

say up to 10%. As the weight of the implement which can be written schematically
becomes substantial the hypothesis breaks
down. In any case, given the constraints of the (13)
material world, the heaviest shot we could ex-
pect to have at our disposal without exceeding
the 11-13cm diameter is one at around 20kg. However, in order to compute the throw
Still it is expected that even so far from the m length L we must use the full expression (4),
→ ∞ limit, a 20kg shot would alter significantly since d is not guaranteed to be a large quan-
the dynamics of the acceleration phase. tity anymore. We remark here that a new pa-
rameter ƒ has made its appearance. While we
Referring now to the m → 0 limit, the tacit expect its value to be of the order of a few kg
hypothesis here is that the limit to the velocity there is no easy way to fit it precisely, in partic-
imparted to the shot is solely due to the iner- ular in view of the paucity of results on which to
tia of the shot itself. However when the mass of make a fit. Still, an upper limit can be obtained
the latter becomes very small the inertia of the by asking that the value of p be positive. This
body parts (essentially the arm and the hand) results in an ƒ value being smaller than 6kg.
becomes far from negligible. Another complica- Based on this assumption thus we decided to
tion stems from the fact that for light, fast-mov- pursue our calculations by fixing ƒ at 5kg. Fit-
ing implements, the resistance of the air cannot ting the performances of Gill for m = 7.25kg
be neglected anymore and the study must be and 6kg we found the values p = 113kgm and
redone afresh, including this effect. All in all we q = 100kgm. These values lead to a predic-
expect equation (9) to be certainly valid for 4kg tion of 24.1m for a 5kg shot while for a 8kg the
shots and perhaps still valid down to 3kg while it result is 19.4m. On an anecdotal level we may
will most probably break down at the 2kg level. mention the 37m throw of Gill with a 1kg shot,
a result very far from the prediction of equation
Having discussed the limitations of equation (9), which turns out to be in nice agreement
(9) as to the mass of the implement, it is now pos- with the value of L, predicted for the set of p
sible to present a better model, which has the and q just obtained, which is 37.6m.
merit of possessing correct m → ∞ and m → 0
limits, at the expense of only a moderate compli- While the use of equation (4) leads to a
cation. First, we take into account the mass of the somewhat complicated expression linking L to
implement during the acceleration phase. This m, it is quite easy to visualize this dependence
leads to an expression for v0 given by graphically (see Figure 1, next page). This graph
is based on using the parameters for Gill.
(10)
Moreover once the graph is obtained it is
easy to introduce a simple expression fitting
where m0 is the mass of the athlete. Second, the curve. We find
we introduce the arm inertia of the athlete dur- (14)
ing the push phase, whereupon expression (7)
becomes
with l = 286kgm and k = 6.5kg. One interesting
(11) result of this fit is that the elite throwers should
be able to throw an osmium shot of the same
diameter as the regulation one but of a weight
Combining (10) and (11) we find an expres- slightly over 20kg at a distance of over 10m
sion for d of the form (Of course we do not think that anyone would
stage a competition with such a precious im-
(12)
plement).

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 79

Shot Put With Lighter Implements

Figure 1: The thick line represents the results of the improved model, while the dashed one is obtained from equa-
tion (9). The dotted curve corresponds to the best fit with the simple analytical expression (14).

As an interesting aside of the analysis pre- low. If we assume a more realistic value of k =
sented in this paper, one may wonder how this 4kg we find, using the performance of 21.24m
model might relate with female throwers. For for a 4kg shot, l = 170 kgm. Based on these
instance, how far would Valerie Adams (NZL) values we can now predict that Adams should
throw a 7.25kg shot? I had the chance to ex- be able to throw the 5kg shot at 18.90m and
change correspondence with Jean Pierre Egg- the 7.25kg at just over 15m. This would be a
er, her coach, and I posed this question to him. respectable performance, coveted by many a
It seems that in the past, Valerie, without spe- male throwers at a regional level. Let us hope
cial preparation, has thrown the 7.25kg shot that such a test fits in the preparation of this
13m. Moreover, with a 5kg implement, she has athlete under the guidance of her coach and
thrown 18.24m, exactly 3m less than her best that some new data will be available in the near
performance with the regulation 4kg shot. Let future confirming the present approach.
us try to analyse this data using equation (14).
Conclusion
We find readily l=127kgm and k=2kg. This
leads to an estimate of 13.8m with a 7.25kg This paper provides a model of predicting
shot. While this performance is in agreement the results of throwing a shot put with lighter,
with the one mentioned above it is my feeling, regulation and heavier shots. It is hoped that this
as shared by her coach that she can perform model will provide coaches with another tool to
better than this. In fact, the value of 2kg for aid in the training of their athletes. The predic-
k, which plays a role of effective mass of the tion based on their current characteristics may
moving body parts (essentially the arm), is too provide a target for the athletes to aim for.

80 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 Shot Put With Lighter Implements

Acknowledgment REFERENCES

I am indebted to Jean Pierre Egger who kind- 1. See report at http://www.iaaf.org/news/news-

id=67597.html
ly answered my questions, providing me with
data on Valerie Adams but also offering a most 2. Silvester, J. (2003). Complete Book of Throws. Cham-
paign, IL: Human Kinetics.
useful insight on the coaching of throwers.
3. Lichtenberg, D.B & Wills, J.G. (1978). Maximizing
the range of the shot put. Am. J. Phys. 46, 546.

4. Kuhlow, A. & Heger, W. (1975). Die Technik des Ku-

gelstoßens der Manner bei den Olympischen Spielen 1972
Please send all correspondence to:
in München, In: Beiheft zu Leistungssprt, 2
Basil Grammaticos
5. Linthorne, N.P. (2001). Optimum release angle in the
grammati@paris7.jussieu.fr shot put. J. Sports Sci. 19: 359.

6. De Luca, R. (2005). Shot-put kinematics. Eur J Phys,

26: 1031.

7. Bartonietz, K. & Borgstrom, A. (1995). The

throwing events at the World Championships in Athletics
1995, Goteborg - Technique of the world’s best athletes.
Part 1: shot put and hammer throw, New Studies in Athlet-
ics, 10: 43.

8. Luhtanen, P.; Blomquist, M. & Vanttinen, T.

(1997) A comparison of two elite putters using the ro-
tational technique, New Studies in Athletics 12 (1997) 25.

9. Lenz, A. & Rappl, F. (2010). The optimal angle of re-

lease in shot put. arXiv:1007.3689v2.

10. Data from http://www.iaaf.org/athletes/biogra-

phies/letter=g/country=nzl/athcode=250560/index.
html

11. In the commentary of http://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=znjA KCB7Clw

12. Data from http://www.iaaf.org/athletes/biogra-

phies/letter=b/country=pol/athcode=243599/index.
html

13. Data from http://www.iaaf.org/athletes/biogra-

phies/letter=s/country=ger/athcode=227915/index.
html

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 81

82 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014
Development
contents g Competition of Sports
by Helmut Digel

x
x
x
x
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x
 Viewpoint

Competition of Sports © by IAAF

29:1; 85-87, 2014

by Helmut Digel

survival of a sport is secured as long as there

AUTHOR
are enough people willing to comply to the re-
spective rules of that particular sport.

Helmut Digel is a Professor for Sport Sci- Some sports are subject to internal com-
ence and Sport Sociology. He is an IAAF petition in so far as they comprise different
Council member, Chairman of the IAAF events, which can be of varying attractiveness.
Marketing and Promotion Commission, a In swimming various individual stokes - breast-
member of the IAAF Development Com- stroke, backstroke crawl or butterfly - are in a
mission and a Consultant Editor for New sense competing against each other. In athlet-
Studies in Athletics. He also holds various ics there 47 events, all of which respectively
leadership positions in both sport and sport strive to ensure attention and new blood for
science in Germany. themselves. Running is more successful than
the throws. The jumps seem consistently at-
tractive to the public, whereas some events,
laiming that the various sports are e.g. race walking, seem less so.
C competing against each other might
be surprising at first sight. Biathlon or This competitive situation can be quite dif-
athletics can only be found once, which is like- ferent from nation to nation. Hence there are
wise true for handball or table tennis. As soon athletics nations in which the technical events
as a certain sport shows a specific organiza- are very popular, e.g. Hungary, Czech Republic
tion, it is a monopolist for a specific branch of and Germany; there are regions, in which race
sport. This monopoly position is guaranteed walking is very attractive, e.g. in the Russian
to each sport by the legislative body, which is republics of Mordovia and Chevashia; coun-
why in e.g. the German umbrella organization, tries where middle and long distance events
the DOSB (Deutscher Olympischer Sportbund dominate, e.g. Kenya and Ethiopia; and coun-
- German Olympic Sports Confederation) tries where the sprints are most attractive, e.g.
there can only be one member association for Jamaica, the Bahamas, Nigeria and the USA.
each sport.
Setting national priorities in respect to the
The same is true on the level of the IOC (In- Olympic sports not only happens within the
ternational Olympic Committee) where there respective sports, but also in respect to some
is only one single contact in respect to each sports in general. Badminton is extremely pop-
sport. Hence the Olympic sports are generally ular in Indonesia and Malaysia. Wrestling how-
not subject to any internal competition, as they ever is a popular national sport in many African
are played according to codified rules. The and Asian countries.

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 85

Competition of Sports

These observations reflect the actual com- at broadcasts of a competition, as well as the
petition situation within and between the Olym- audience present at the competition, willing to
pic sports, as it has developed over the last pay for a ticket. If these calculations are carried
decades. The success of a sport depends pri- out and one looks at these statistics over a lon-
marily on how accomplished it is at recruiting ger period of time, one can watch the rise and
athletes, drawing spectators and media audi- fall of the market positions of both the Olympic
ences to competitions and generally in pre- sports and of the non-Olympic sports within
senting itself as an attractive sport of interest the sport market.
to the mass media and commercial partners.
Some Olympic sports seem to have be-
Apart from the competition of the Olympic come nearly totally dependent on the Olympic
sports amongst each other, there has been a Games. Their international market position is
competition between the non-Olympic sports extremely weak judged by the sport calendar
and the Olympic sports long. But also the non- excepting the Olympic Games, and the bulk of
Olympic sports are in an increasingly fierce their financial resources come from their share
competition amongst each other. In this con- of the Olympic income. This applies to archery,
text, the big question is which of the non-Olym- curling, modern pentathlon, synchronised
pic sports will become eligible to move up to swimming, skeleton and eventing in equestrian.
the privileged Olympic group. Others, however, are marked by a rising ten-
dency. Some non-Olympic sports show more
Meanwhile a competitive situation has arisen spectators, sponsoring revenues and television
between the non-Olympic sports and the Olym- viewers than some Olympic sports are capable
pic sports in respect to the partnership between of achieving. One simply has to think of sports
the economy and sports, as well as concerning like dragon boat racing, karate and billiard. In
the reception of these sports in the media, which the World Games sports like water skiing, (in-
is carried out in all its severity. Winter sports are line) speed skating and sport climbing have to
fighting against summer sports, and basically be called spectacular.
everybody is fighting against everybody else.
Trying to evaluate the international competi-
On a world-wide scale, football (soccer) tive quality of a sport, exact and hence reliable
takes an exceptional position. No other sport data is desirable in respect to spectators per
can similarly tie spectators, sponsors and year, sponsoring volume and television viewers
mass media down to it, as is the case in foot- per year for each and every sport. However,
ball. Without any doubt this dominance creates such data is only available for a few countries
a disadvantage for all remaining sports, and it and regions. Following expert-ratings concern-
is not surprising that an increasing number of ing these indicators, football (soccer) leads the
sport organisations have initiated discussions ranking of sports, except in North America.
on the consequences of this dominance. Now- Leading positions are being taken by sports
adays it seems to be inevitable for each sport like baseball, basketball, volleyball and hand-
to be precisely aware of its own market position ball. Ice hockey dominates winter sport, fol-
in the respective international competition. lowed by skiing and biathlon. Generally team
sports bind the most spectators to themselves
The market positions of the sports can be throughout the year and therefore are also at-
defined very exactly. By measuring the volume tractive to sponsors. In this competitive situa-
of sponsorship that an association achieves tion only a few individual sports can stand their
through selling licenses, one can know the ground, e.g. athletics and swimming. In terms
economic value of a sport. The market share of the afore mentioned indicators, sports like
can be measured very accurately, just as the modern pentathlon, curling and mountain bik-
number of spectators, that can be reached ing show only little success.

86 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 Competition of Sports

One also has to take into consideration that If a sport wants to survive in this aggressive
national rankings can vary profoundly from competition, a self-critical examination of its
international evaluations. This is true when own attractiveness is absolutely inevitable. Is
comparing continents to each other, but within the presentation of its competitions still up-to-
one continent one can also observe vast dif- date? Which target groups are reached with the
ferences. In Europe, England shows e.g. the competitions? Which ones are not reached?
following ranking momentarily: football, rugby, How many paying spectators are there in the
cricket, cycling, athletics. In France, football events of the national championships? Which
and rugby take the top positions, like in Eng- sponsoring volume can the association achieve
land, but then basketball, handball and cycling with its events? What would in this context be
follow, whereas in Germany football is followed realistic goals for the future? Which coopera-
by handball, skiing, basketball and Formula 1. tion is there with the mass media? Is there suf-
ficient news coverage on television?
Some rankings change nearly every year,
others have remained constant throughout Such questions are to be answered soberly.
several decades. Regardless of this situation, Consequently sensible goals have to be set to
marketing experts and sport executives of TV make the sport competitive in the future. Each
stations and online media are making their de- sport has a realistic chance to increase its share
cisions about the cooperation with one sport in the competitive market of sports, but only if it
on the basis of the currently valid rankings in takes a systematic and professional approach
the respective nations. and is open to the necessary changes.

Pleases send all correspondence to:

Prof. Dr. Helmut Digel
helmut.digel@uni-tuebingen.de

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 87

88 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014
Documentation
contents g Selected and Annotated Bibliography

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 SELECTED AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

No. 99: © by IAAF

29:1; 91-125, 2014

Warm-Up
by Jürgen Schiffer

Introduction pects of the warm-up: It contains 83 articles

from the year 2000 to 2013.
he traditional opinion among athletes
T and coaches is that time spent on
warming up will improve an athlete’s
One of the most discussed issues in con-
nection with the warm-up is the question of
level of performance. As a result the coach whether static stretching is a useful part of the
must encourage the athlete to regard the warm-up procedure or whether it can even
warm-up as an essential part of both the train- have detrimental effects on the subsequent
ing session and competition itself. An appro- performance. At least 27 articles in this biblio-
priate warm-up will result in: graphy address this issue.

1. Activating the body’s circulatory system by Of these, the one by Wiemann & Klee (2004)
enhancing blood flow, which will improve deserves particular attention. The authors
the body’s ability to utilize oxygen and re- draw on new knowledge about the anatomy
move waste product. Blood vessels open of muscle fibres, as well as research that has
up increasing blood flow and thereby examined the role of stretching in preparing to
maintaining muscle temperature. participate in vigorous physical activity. The
important conclusion that comes from muscle
2. Engaging the musculoskeletal system, structure research is that the amount of pas-
which will further warm up muscles to re- sive tension the elastic elements of the muscle
duce muscle stiffness, to provide a more have to bear is by no means smaller during
forceful contraction and to help prevent extreme stretching than during active tension
injuries. in voluntary maximal isometric contractions.
Indeed, the passive tension from stretching
3. Exciting the neuromuscular system, which can be much higher. Consequently, the forc-
allows the brain to coordinate the nervous es applied during contractions and stretch-
system’s ability to fire muscles effectively ing in training should have the same or simi-
and efficiently. It will also increase speed lar effects. In the discussion on the effects of
of contraction and relaxation of warmed stretching, the authors emphasize the distinc-
muscles. tion between short-term and long-term stretch
training programs. The authors are concerned
Failure to properly warm up, on the other only with the short-term programmes. The
hand, can lead to discomfort, poor perfor- distinction between intensive stretching (e.g.
mance and possibly injury. stretching to the maximal tolerable tension)
and light, submaximal stretching is made. The
The following bibliography, which is the first benefits of stretching on the range of motion at
in NSA dealing exclusively with different as- the joints (movement amplitude) are not ques-

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 91

No. 99: Warm-Up

tioned. Short-term stretching has been found Concerning the current status of research
to increase the amplitude by at least 8%. on this topic, the article by Ückert and Joch can
be taken as an example. In their study, twenty
The authors refer to a review on stretch- subjects performed two laboratory endurance
ing research conducted by Wydra (1997) who tests in conditions of high ambient tempera-
found that the conventional rhythmical-ballistic ture and relative humidity. One test followed a
stretching (out of vogue for some time) has at 20- minute warm-up and the other a 20-min-
least the same, and in some cases a superior ute pre-cooling procedure. The comparison of
effect on joint amplitude compared with that results showed that pre-cooling significantly
of static stretching. What is interesting is that extends the time to exhaustion and slows the
the most gains in movement amplitude are increase in both body core temperature and
reached in the first 3-5 repetitions, with only heart rate. Therefore, it seems that pre-cooling
slight increases with additional repetitions. In optimises thermoregulatory processes before
a short-term stretch training session the ten- physical effort in warm conditions and has a
sion on the passive structures of the muscles positive influence on performance.
fibres increases. In stretching the muscle, the
athlete becomes accustomed to the stretch Other questions addressed concern for ex-
pain, which allows an increased tolerance of ample the relevance of the warm-up to:
higher movement amplitudes. Consequently,
the athlete can reach or exceed the load limit • The quality of the subsequent perfor-
of the passive structures of the muscle fibres mance in general (15 articles).
without knowing it. Thus, before competitions,
an athlete may through stretching exceed the • Injury prevention in particular (5 articles).
limits of the passive structures of the muscles
causing micro-trauma. The authors conclude • The organisation and duration of the
that the perceived benefits of intense static warm-up (12 articles).
stretching before a maximum performance
have not been proven. On the contrary, intense This bibliography, which does not acclaim
static stretching prior to vigorous physical ac- to be complete, has been compiled by using
tivity is responsible for a reduced performance • SPOLIT, the sports literature database
in addition to producing a higher risk of injury. of the Federal Institute of Sport Science
This is not to say that regular stretch training (BISp) in Cologne, Germany (www.bisp-
will not improve performance by an increase in datenbanken.de, free access),
joint flexibility. The issue is when to participate • SPORTdiscus, the database of the Sport
in static stretching sessions. The authors ar- Research and Information Centre in Otta-
gue that static stretching should be performed wa, Canada (www.sirc.ca, no free access).
in separate training sessions. In the warm-up
phase immediately before maximal perfor- In addition, many articles were found by
mances only submaximal stretching should “free search” in the Central Library of Sports
be used. Five light, but dynamic, stretches are Science of the German Sports University in
sufficient to prepare the body for action. Cologne and some stem from the private li-
brary of the author.
Another controversial topic is the use of
pre-cooling measures as a preparation for en-
durance performances. This topic is dealt with Readers interested in obtaining one or more
articles from this bibliograhy should contact
by seven sets of authors included in this bib-
Dr. Jürgen Schiffer
liography.
j.schiffer@dshs-koeln.de.

92 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 No. 99: Warm-Up

Bibliography Research suggests that static stretching can neg-

atively influence muscle strength and power and
Abate, M.; Di Carlo, L.; Di Donato, L.; Romani, may result in decreased functional performance.
G. L.; Merla, A. The dynamic warm-up (DWU) is a common alter-
Comparison of cutaneous termic response native to static stretching before physical activity,
to a standardised warm up in trained and but there is limited research investigating the ef-
untrained individuals fects of a DWU. The purpose of this study was to
The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness, compare the acute effects of a DWU and static
Turin, 53, (2013), 2, pp. 209-215 stretching warm-up (SWU) on muscle flexibility,
Aim: Warm-up prior to exercise induces an in- strength, and vertical jump using a randomized
creased production of metabolic heat, which controlled trial design. Forty-five volunteers were
triggers the thermoregulatory system to initiate randomly assigned into a control (CON), SWU, or
heat loss mechanisms. Variations in cutaneous DWU group. All participants rode a stationary bi-
tissue temperature have been already reported cycle for 5 minutes and completed a 10-minute
in trained subjects, by means of high resolu- warm-up protocol. During this protocol, the DWU
tion thermal imaging. Purpose of this paper was group performed dynamic stretching and run-
to quantitatively evaluate, by means of infrared ning, the SWU group performed static stretching,
thermography, the differences in the cutaneous and the CON group rested. Dependent variables
temperature among trained and untrained sub- were measured immediately before and after the
jects. Methods: Forty male volunteers performed warm-up protocol. A digital inclinometer mea-
a standard warm-up exercise on a stationary cy- sured flexibility (degrees) for the hamstrings,
cle, divided in three steps: 1) 0-5 minutes at 100 quadriceps, and hip flexor muscles. An isokinetic
Watt; 2) 5-10 minutes at 130 Watt; and 3) 10-15 dynamometer measured concentric and eccen-
minutes at 160 Watt. Thermal images from tho- tric peak torque (N•m/kg) for the hamstrings and
rax and upper limbs were collected during the quadriceps. A force plate was used to measure
exercise. Heart rate was also measured. Results: vertical jump height (meters) and power (watts). In
In comparison to baseline, trained subjects ex- the DWU group, there was a significant increase
hibited a significant temperature reduction in the in hamstring flexibility (pretest: 26.4 ± 13.5°, post-
third step (trunk, P<0.01; upper limbs, P<0.009), test: 16.9 ± 9.4°; p < .0001) and eccentric quad-
while no difference was observed in untrained riceps peak torque (pretest: 2.49 ± 0.83 N•m/kg,
subjects. In the comparison between groups, a posttest: 2.78 ± 0.69 N•m/kg; p = 0.04). The CON
statistically significant difference was observed and SWU did not significantly affect any flexibility,
in both regions of interest, in the second (trunk, strength, or vertical jump measures (p > 0.05).
P<0.01; upper limbs, P<0.02), and in the third The DWU significantly improved eccentric quad-
step (trunk, P<0.0002; upper limbs, P<0.0008). riceps strength and hamstrings flexibility, where-
During the whole exercise, heart rate increased as the SWU did not facilitate any positive or nega-
progressively in all participants, but more mark- tive changes in muscle flexibility, strength, power,
edly in untrained subjects. Conclusion: Cutane- or vertical jump. Therefore, the DWU may be a
ous thermoregulatory response differs among better preactivity warm-up choice than an SWU.
trained and untrained participants. Infrared ther-
mal imaging is useful in detecting these differenc- Arroyo-Morales, M.; Fernández-Lao, C.; Ariza-
es, providing additional data to the physiological García, A.; Toro-Velasco, C.; Winters, M.; Díaz-
evaluation of subjects performing sport activities. Rodríguez, L.; Cantarero-Villanueva, I.; Huij-
bregts, P.; Fernández-De-las-Peñas, C.
Aguilar, A. J.; DiStefano, L. J.; Brown, C. N.; Psychophysiological effects of pre-perfor-
Herman, D. C.; Guskiewicz, K. M.; Padua, D. mance massage before isokinetic exercise
A. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
A dynamic warm-up model increases quad- Colorado Springs, 25, (2011), 2, pp. 481-488
riceps strength and hamstring flexibility Sports massage provided before an activity is
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, called pre-event massage. The hypothesized
Colorado Springs, 26, (2012), 4, pp. 1130-1141 effects of pre-event massage include injury pre-

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 93

No. 99: Warm-Up

vention, increased performance, and the promo- Nine were highly trained, 13 were moderately
tion of a mental state conducive to performance. trained, and 8 were sedentary. Subjects partici-
However, evidence with regard to the effects of pated in both treatments, which were randomly
pre-event massage is limited and equivocal. The assigned and were 48-72 hours apart. In one
exact manner in which massage produces its hy- treatment, subjects warmed-up first by walking
pothesized effects also remains a topic of debate on a treadmill for 5 minutes at approximately
and investigation. This randomized single-blind 50% of their age-predicted maximum heart rate,
placebo-controlled crossover design compared and then performed 3 static stretches: quadri-
the immediate effects of pre-event massage to ceps, hamstrings, and calf muscles. Each stretch
a sham intervention of detuned ultrasound. Out- was held 3 times, 15 seconds each. Next, flexibil-
come measures included isokinetic peak torque ity measurements were determined for the hip,
assessments of knee extension and flexion; hamstrings, and ankle using a goniometer. The
salivary flow rate, cortisol concentration, and other treatment consisted of performing 20 min-
α-amylase activity; mechanical detection thresh- utes of walking or jogging at a moderate intensi-
olds (MDTs) using Semmes-Weinstein monofila- ty, then the same stretching exercises were per-
ments and mood state using the Profile of Mood formed and the same flexibility measurements
States (POMS) questionnaire. This study showed were taken. Reliability coefficients ranged from
that massage before activity negatively affected 0.90-0.96. There were no significant differences
subsequent muscle performance in the sense in any of the flexibility measurements except for
of decreased isokinetic peak torque at higher hip flexibility, which approached significance (p
speed (p < 0.05). Although the study yielded no = 0.06) and therefore favored stretching after the
significant changes in salivary cortisol concentra- workout. The placement of stretching, before or
tion and α-amylase activity, it found a significant after a workout, does not make a difference in its
increase in salivary flow rate (p = 0.03). With the effect on flexibility.
massage intervention, there was a significant in-
crease in the MDT at both locations tested (p < Beedle, B. B.; Mann, C. L.
0.01). This study also noted a significant decrease A comparison of two warm-ups on joint
in the tension subscale of the POMS for massage range of motion
as compared to placebo (p = 0.01). Pre-event Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
massage was found to negatively affect muscle Colorado Springs, 21, (2007), 3, 776-779
performance possibly because of increased The purpose of this study was to compare a
parasympathetic nervous system activity and de- 5-minute treadmill activity at 70% maximum heart
creased afferent input with resultant decreased rate (MHR) and 5 to 6 minutes of ballistic stretch-
motor-unit activation. However, psychological ef- ing to a 5-minute treadmill activity at 60% of MHR
fects may indicate a role for pre-event massage in and 5 to 6 minutes of static stretching. Thirty
some sports, specifically in sportspeople prone healthy college students, 7 men and 23 women,
to excessive pre-event tension. volunteered. Most volunteers were moderately
active. All participants signed an informed con-
Beedle, B. B.; Leydig, S. N.; Carnucci, J. M. sent. Participants received the aforementioned
No difference in pre- and postexercise warm-ups in random order with 48 to 72 hours
stretching on flexibility between warm-ups. The stretching exercises
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, were a back stretch, a quad- riceps stretch, and
Colorado Springs, 21, (2007), 3, 780-783 a hamstring stretch. Three trials for 30 seconds
According to the American College of Sports each were given. After each warm-up the partici-
Medicine (1), there is limited information about pants performed the modified-modified Schober
when to stretch during an exercise session. The test for low back flexibility, active knee extension
purpose of this study was to determine if the test for hamstring flexibility, and plantar flexion
placement of static stretching, either before or for ankle flexibility. There were no significant dif-
after a workout, would affect flexibility in the hip, ferences on any of the 3 range of motion (ROM)
knee, and ankle. Thirty college-age men (n = 12) tests although the ankle ROM test was almost
and women (n = 18) volunteered to participate. significantly greater (68.8[degrees]) after the

94 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 No. 99: Warm-Up

warm-up with static stretching compared with eo and verbal feedback to modify technique, and
65.9 [degrees] after the warm-up with ballistic stretching appear to be essential components
stretching. A more intense cardiovascular activ- of these programs. Further research is critical to
ity and ballistic stretching were similar to a less determine ideal training program volume, inten-
intense cardiovascular activity and static stretch- sity, duration, and frequency.
ing on flexibility. If athletes perform a warm-up
and static or ballistic stretching before their work- Billat, V. L.; Bocquet, V.; Slawinski, J.; Lafitte,
outs, then they should continue to perform the L.; Demarle, A.; Chassaing, P.; Koralsztein, J. P.
warm-up and the stretching routine with which Effect of a prior intermittent run at vVO-
they are most familiar and comfortable. 2max on oxygen kinetics during an all-out
severe run in humans
Bien, D. P. The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness,
Rationale and implementation of anterior Turin, 40, (2000), 3, pp. 185-194
cruciate ligament injury prevention warm- Background: The purpose of this study was to
up programs in female athletes
examine the influence of prior intermittent run-
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, ning at VO2max on oxygen kinetics during a
Colorado Springs, 25, (2011), 1, pp. 271-285 continuous severe intensity run and the time
The sex disparity in anterior cruciate ligament spent at VO2max. Methods: Eight long-distance
(ACL) injury risk and the subsequent adverse ef- runners performed three maximal tests on a syn-
fects on knee joint health, psychosocial well-be- thetic track (400 m) whilst breathing through the
ing, and financial costs incurred have produced COSMED K4 portable telemetric metabolic anal-
a surge in research on risk factors and interven- yser: i) an incremental test which determined ve-
tions designed to decrease this disparity and locity at the lactate threshold (vLT), VO2max and
overall incidence. Biomechanical and neuromus- velocity associated with VO2max (vVO2max), ii)
cular differences have been identified throughout a continuous severe intensity run at vLT+50% (v-
the trunk and lower extremity that may increase delta50) of the difference between vLT and vVO-
noncontact ACL injury risk in female athletes. 2max (91.3±1.6% vVO2max) preceded by a light
Evidence demonstrates that many risk factors continuous 20 minute run at 50% of vVO2max
are modifiable with intervention programs and (light warm-up), iii) the same continuous severe
that athletic performance measures can be en- intensity run at v-delta50 with a prior interval
hanced. No universally accepted ACL injury pre- training exercise (hard warm-up) of repeated
vention program currently exists, and injury pre- hard running bouts performed at 100% of VO-
vention programs are diverse. Anterior cruciate 2max and light running at 50% of vVO2max (of
ligament injury prevention programs introduced 30 seconds each) performed until exhaustion (on
in a warm-up format offer multiple benefits, pri- average 19±5 min with 19±5 interval repetitions).
marily, improved compliance based on improved This hard warm-up speeded the VO2 kinetics:
practicality of implementation. However, draw- the time constant was reduced by 45% (28±7
backs of warm-up style formats also exist, most sec vs 51±37 sec) and the slow component of
notably that a lack of equipment and resources VO2 (deltaVO2 6-3 min) was deleted (-143±271
may preclude measurable improvements in ath- ml/min vs 291±153 ml/min). In conclusion, de-
letic performance that foster improved compli- spite a significantly lower total run time at v-
ance among participants. The purpose of this delta50 (6 min 19 ± 0 min 17 vs 8 min 20 ± 1
review is to analyze the current literature re- min 45, p=0.02) after the intermittent warm-up at
searching possible biomechanical and neuro- VO2max, the time spent specifically at VO2max
muscular risk factors in noncontact ACL injury in in the severe continuous run at v-delta50 was not
female athletes and the most effective means of significantly different.
implementing critical elements of a program to
decrease ACL injury risk in female athletes while Bird, S. P.; Stuart, W.
improving athletic performance. Hip and ham- Integrating balance and postural stability
string training, core stabilization, plyometrics, exercises into the functional warm-up for
balance, agility, neuromuscular training with vid- youth athletes

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 95

No. 99: Warm-Up

Strength and Conditioning Journal, Colorado Brown, P. I.; Hughes, M. G.; Tong, R. J.
Springs, 34, (2012), 3, pp. 73-79 The effect of warm-up on high-intensity,
The goal of the functional warm-up is to stimulate intermittent running using non-motorized
sensory and motor components related to pre- treadmill ergometry
paratory (feed-forward) and reactive (feed-back) Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
systems through functionally integrated move- Colorado Springs, 22, (2008), 3, pp. 801-808
ment patterns. This article presents balance and The aim of this study was to investigate the ef-
postural stability exercises that are easily imple- fect of previous warming on high-intensity in-
mented into the functional warm-up as a move- termittent running using nonmotorized treadmill
ment preparation strategy for youth athletes. ergometry. Ten male soccer players completed a
repeated sprint test (10 x 6-second sprints with
Bishop, D.; Maxwell, N. S. 34-second recovery) on a nonmotorized tread-
Effects of active warm up on thermoregula-
mill preceded by an active warm-up (10 minutes
tion and intermittent-sprint performance in
hot conditions of running: 70% VO2max; mean core tempera-
ture (Tc) 37.8 ± 0.2[degrees]C), a passive warm-
Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Belcon-
up (hot water submersion: 40.1 ± 0.2[degrees]
nen, 12, (2009), 1, pp. 196-204
C until Tc reached that of the active warm-up;
This study examined the effects of active warm-
10 minutes ± 23 seconds), or no warm-up (con-
up on thermoregulatory responses and intermit-
trol). All warm-up conditions were followed by a
tent-sprint cycle performance in hot conditions
10-minute static recovery period with no stretch-
(35.5 ± 0.6 °C, RH 48.7 ± 3.4%). Eight trained
ing permitted. After the 10-minute rest period,
males performed a 36-min, intermittent-sprint
Tc was higher before exercise in the passive trial
test (IST) after no (WUP 0), 10-min (WUP 10) or
(38.0 ± 0.2[degrees]C) compared to the active
20-min warm-up (WUP 20). The IST contained
(37.7 ± 0.4[degrees]C) and control trials (37.2 ±
2-min blocks consisting of a 4-s sprint, 100 s ac-
0.2[degrees]C; p < 0.05). There were no differ-
tive recovery and 20 s passive rest. Twice during
ences in pre-exercise oxygen consumption and
the IST, there was a repeated-sprint bout (RSB)
blood lactate concentration; however, heart rate
comprising five, 2-s sprints separated by not,
was greater in the active trial (p < 0.05). The
vert, similar20 s. There were no significant differ-
peak mean 1-second maximum speed (MxSP)
ences between trials for mean work (3870 ± 757
and group mean MxSP were not different in the
versus 4028 ± 562 versus 3804 ± 494 J sprint−1),
active and passive trials (7.28 ± 0.12 and 7.16 ±
peak power (W) or work decrement (%). How-
0.10 m/s, respectively, and 7.07 ± 0.33 and 7.02
ever, mean work was significantly less in RSB2
± 0.24 m/s, respectively; p > 0.05), although both
than RSB1 for WUP 20 only (P < 0.05). Plasma
were greater than the control. The percentage of
lactate was significantly higher after active warm-
decrement in performance fatigue was similar
up (WUP 20 = WUP 10 > WUP 0; P < 0.05), but
between all conditions (active, 3.4 ± 1.3%; pas-
not significantly different between conditions fol-
sive, 4.0 ± 2.0%; and control, 3.7 ± 2.4%). We
lowing either RSB. Rectal temperature (Tre) was
conclude that there is no difference in high-in-
significantly higher after active warm-up (37.0 ±
tensity intermittent running performance when
0.3 versus 37.3 ± 0.3 versus 37.7 ± 0.1 °C for
preceded by an active or passive warm-up when
WUP0, WUP10 and WUP20, respectively) and
matched for post-warm-up Tc. However, repeat-
throughout the IST. The longer active warm-up
ed sprinting ability is significantly improved after
resulted in a greater increase in Tre and was as-
both active and passive warm-ups compared to
sociated with a decrease in short-term repeated-
no warm-up.
sprint ability (with incomplete recovery), but not
prolonged, intermittent-sprint performance in the
Brunner-Ziegler, S.; Strasser, B.; Haber, P.
heat. As active warm-up did not improve perfor- Comparison of metabolic and biomechanic
mance (<40 min), team-sport athletes may mi- responses to active vs. passive warm-up
nimise changes in Tre (and the likelihood of heat procedures before physical exercise
illness) by avoiding excessive warm-up when Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
competing in the heat. Colorado Springs, 25, (2011), 4, pp. 909-914

96 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 No. 99: Warm-Up

Active warm-up before physical exercise is a Condition (PSC) – 5 minutes of passive static
widely accepted practice to enhance physical stretching; (c) Active Stretching Condition (ASC)
performance, whereas data on modalities to – 5 minutes of active static stretching; and (d)
passively raise tissue temperature are rare. The Dynamic Stretching Condition (DC) – 5 minutes
study compared the effect of active vs. passive of dynamic stretching. After each intervention,
warm-up procedures before exercise on en- the subjects performed 3 squat jumps (SJs) and
ergy supply and muscle strength performance. 3 countermovement jumps (CMJs), which were
Twenty young, male volunteers performed 3 measured electronically. For the SJ, 1-way re-
spiroergometer-test series without prior warm- peated measures analysis of variance (CC x PSC
up and after either an active or passive warm- x ASC × DC) revealed significant decreases for
up procedure. Oxygen uptake (VO2), heart rate ASC (28.7 ± 4.7 cm; p = 0.01) and PSC (28.7 ±
(HR), pH value, and lactate were determined at 4.3 cm; p = 0.02) conditions when compared
80% of individual VO2max values and during re- with CC (29.9 ± 5.0 cm). For CMJs, there were no
covery. Comparing no prior warm-up with pas- significant decreases (p > 0.05) when all stretch-
sive warm-up, pH values were lower at the fourth ing conditions were compared with the CC. Sig-
test minute (p < 0.004), and lactate values were nificant increases in SJ performance were ob-
higher at the sixth and third minutes of recovery served when comparing the DC (29.6 ± 4.9 cm;
(p < 0.01 and p < 0.010, respectively), after no p = 0.02) with PSC (28.7 ± 4.3 cm). Significant
prior warm-up. Comparing active with passive increases in CMJ performance were observed
warm-up, HR was lower, and VO2 values were when comparing the conditions ASC (34.0 ± 6.0
higher at the fourth and sixth test minutes (p < cm; p = 0.04) and DC (33.7 ± 5.5 cm; p = 0.03)
0.033 and p < 0.011, respectively, and p < 0.015 with PSC (32.6 ± 5.5 cm). A dynamic stretching
and p < 0.022, respectively) after active warm- intervention appears to be more suitable for use
up. Differentiation between active and passive as part of a warm-up in young athletes.
warm-up was more pronounced than between
either warm-up or no warm-up. Conditions that Cè, E.; Margonato, V.; Casasco, M.; Veics-
may promote improved performance were more teinas, A.
present after active vs. passive warm-up. Thus, Effects of stretching on maximal anaero-
athletes may reach the metabolic steady state bic power: the roles of active and passive
faster after active warm-up.
warm-ups
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
Carvalho, F. L. P.; Carvalho, M. C. G. A.; Simão, Colorado Springs, 22, (2008), 3, pp. 794-800
R.; Gomes, T. M.; Costa, P. B.; Neto, L. B.; Car- The purpose of the study was to provide practi-
valho, R. L. P.; Dantas, E. H. M. cal suggestions on the effect of stretching on the
Acute effects of a warm-up including ac- maximal anaerobic power preceded by active
tive, passive, and dynamic stretching on or passive warm-up. To this aim, 15 relatively fit
vertical jump performance male subjects (age 23 ± 0.2 years, height 177 ± 2
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, cm, body mass 74 ± 2 kg; [mean ± SE]) random-
Colorado Springs, 26, (2012), 9, pp. 2447-2452 ly performed a series of squat jumps (SJ) and
The purpose of this study was to examine the countermovement jumps (CMJ). Jumps were
acute effects of 3 different stretching methods preceded alternatively by: i) passive stretching of
combined with a warm-up protocol on verti- lower limbs muscles; ii) active warm-up (AWU);
cal jump performance. Sixteen young tennis iii) passive warm-up (PWU); and iv) the joining of
players (14.5 ± 2.8 years; 175 ± 5.6 cm; 64.0 ± stretching with either active warm-up (AWU+S) or
11.1 kg) were randomly assigned to 4 different passive warm-up (PWU+S). In control conditions
experimental conditions on 4 successive days. (C) only jumps were required. For the 2 jumps
Each session consisted of a general and specific the flight time (Ft), the peak force (Pf), and the
warm-up, with 5 minutes of running followed by maximal power ([Latin capital letter W with dot
10 jumps, accompanied by one of the subse- above]pmax) were calculated. It resulted that Ft,
quent conditions: (a) Control Condition (CC) – 5 Pf, and [Latin capital letter W with dot above]max
minutes of passive rest; (b) Passive Stretching values were significantly higher: i) after AWU than

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 97

No. 99: Warm-Up

after PWU and PWU+S in CMJ; and ii) in AWU adequate warm-up and dynamic sport-specific
as compared to those of other protocols of SJ. activities with at least 5 or more minutes of recov-
Stretching did not negatively affect the maximal ery before their sport activity.
anaerobic power, per se, but seems to inhibit the
effect of AWU. The results suggested that AWU Chattong, C.; Brown, L. E.; Coburn, J. W.; Nof-
seemed to increase vertical jump performance fal, G. J.
when compared to PWU, presumably due to an Effect of a dynamic loaded warm-up on
increase in metabolic activity as a consequence vertical jump performance
of AWU, which did not occur in PWU, despite Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
the same skin temperature. Passive stretching Colorado Springs, 24, (2010), 7, pp. 1751-1754
alone seemed not to negatively influence vertical Considering the importance of the vertical jump
jump performance, whereas, if added after AWU, in several sports, an optimal warm-up protocol
could reduce the power output. may help athletes perform at their maximum
level. The purpose of this study was to investi-
Chaouachi, A.; Castagna, C.; Chtara, M.; gate the potentiating effects of different levels of
Brughelli, M.; Turki, O.; Galy, O.; Chamari, K.; external resistance (weighted vest) during box
Behm, D. G. jumps on vertical jump performance. Twenty
Effect of warm-ups involving static or dy- resistance trained men (age 22.45 ± 1.73 years,
namic stretching on agility, sprinting, and height 176.83 ± 6.67 cm, mass 76.98 ± 8.56 kg)
jumping performance in trained individuals participated in this study. Subjects performed 5
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, jumps onto a box equivalent in height to their lat-
Colorado Springs, 24, (2010), 8, pp. 2001-2011 eral femoral condyle. After a 2-minute rest peri-
The objective of the present study was to investi- od, subjects performed 3 vertical jumps with the
gate the effects of static and dynamic stretching greatest height being recorded. On day 1, each
alone and in combination on subsequent agility, subject performed a control condition with no
sprinting, and jump performance. Eight differ- external resistance to establish a baseline verti-
ent stretching protocols: (a) static stretch (SS) cal jump height. On the following days, they per-
to point of discomfort (POD); (b) SS less than formed 4 random jump conditions with a weight
POD (SS<POD); (c) dynamic stretching (DS); (d) vest equivalent to 5, 10, 15, or 20% of their body
SS POD combined with DS (SS POD + DS); (v) weight then rested for 2 minutes before perform-
SS<POD combined with DS (SS<POD + DS); (vi) ing 3 posttest vertical jumps. Results demon-
DS combined with SS POD (DS + SS POD); (vii) strated no significant interaction of condition
DS combined with SS<POD (DS + SS<POD); by time for vertical jump height. However, there
and (viii) a control warm-up condition without was a significant main effect for time (p < 0.05)
stretching were implemented with a prior aerobic with posttest jump height (22.99 ± 3.35 in.) being
warm-up and followed by dynamic activities. De- greater than pretest jump height (22.69 ± 3.37
pendent variables included a 30-m sprint, agility in.). Performing an active dynamic warm-up with
run, and jump tests. The control condition (4.2 ± or without a weighted vest produced significantly
0.15 seconds) showed significant differences (p greater posttest vertical jump performance. A
= 0.05) for faster times than the DS + SS<POD dynamic warm-up may improve vertical jump
(4.28s ± 0.17) condition in the 30-m (1.9%) sprint. performance, albeit to a very small increment.
There were no other significant differences. The
lack of stretch-induced impairments may be at- Church, J. B.; Wiggins, M. S.; Moode, F. M.;
tributed to the trained state of the participants or Crist, R.
the amount of time used after stretching before Effect of warm-up and flexibility treatments
the performance. Participants were either profes- on vertical jump performance
sional or national level elite athletes who trained Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
6-8 times a week with each session lasting ap- Colorado Springs, 15, (2001), 3, pp. 332-336
proximately 90 minutes. Based on these findings Although different warm-up and flexibility rou-
and the literature, trained individuals who wish tines are often prescribed before physical activ-
to implement static stretching should include an ity, little research has been conducted to deter-

98 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 No. 99: Warm-Up

mine what effects these routines have on athletic short-term vibration exercise can enhance flex-
performance in activities. The purpose of this ibility and range of motion without having a detri-
investigation was to determine to what degree mental effect on muscle power, however it is less
different warm-up routines affect performance in clear which mechanisms may be responsible for
the vertical jump test. The 40 female participants this enhancement. It appears that vibration ex-
were asked to perform a general warm-up only, ercise is not capable of improving sprint speed
a general warm-up and static stretching, and performance; this could be due to the complex
a general warm-up and proprioceptive neuro- and dynamic nature of sprinting where the pur-
muscular facilitation (PNF) on 3 nonconsecutive ported increase in muscle power from vibration
days. Each of the treatments was followed by a exercise is probably lost on repeated actions of
vertical jump test. A 1-way repeated-measures high force generation. Vibration exercise is a safe
analysis of variance revealed a significant differ- modality that produces no adverse side effects
ence in vertical jump performance. A post hoc for injury or harm. It has the time-efficient capa-
analysis revealed decreased vertical jump per- bility of providing coaches, trainers, and exercise
formances for the PNF treatment group. Based specialists with an alternative modality that can
on the results of this study, performing PNF be- be implemented for warm-up and flexibility either
fore a vertical jump test would be detrimental to in isolation or in conjunction with other conven-
performance. tional training methods.

Cochrane, D. DeRenne, C.
The sports performance application of vi- Effects of postactivation potentiation
bration exercise for warm-up, flexibility and warm-up in male and female sport perfor-
sprint speed mances: a brief review
European Journal of Sport Science, Abingdon, 13, Strength and Conditioning Journal, Colorado
(2013), 3, pp. 256-271 Springs, 32, (2010), 6, 58-64
Since the turn of the 21st century, there has A proper precompetitive warm-up during sprint
been a resurgence of vibration technology to competition with explosive athletes will elicit a
enhance sport science especially for power and postactivation potentiation (PAP). This article
force development. However, vibration exercise will review the effects of heavy preload warm-
has been trialled in other areas that are central up protocols eliciting (PAP with explosive male
to athlete performance such as warm-up, flex- and female athletes, resulting in enhanced per-
ibility and sprint speed. Therefore, the aim of this formances and provide strength coaches with
review was to attempt to gain a better under- practical applications.
standing of how acute and short-term vibration
exercise may impact on warm-up, flexibility and Dixon, P. G.; Kraemer, W. J.; Volek, J. S.; How-
sprint speed. The importance of warming up for ard, R. L.; Gómez, A. L.; Comstock, B. A.;
sporting performance has been well document- Dunn-Lewis, C.; Fragala, M. S.; Hooper, D. R.;
ed and vibration exercise has the capability to Häkkinen, K.; Maresh, C. M.
be included or used as a standalone warm-up The impact of cold-water immersion on
modality to increase intramuscular temperature power production in the vertical jump and
at a faster rate compared to other conventional
the benefits of a dynamic exercise warm-
up
warm-up modalities. However, vibration exer-
cise does not provide any additional neurogenic Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
benefits compared to conventional dynamic and Colorado Springs, 24, (2010), 12, pp. 3313-3317
passive warm-up interventions. Vibration ex- The purpose of this study was to examine the in-
ercise appears to be a safe modality that does fluence of a cold treatment and a dynamic warm-
not produce any adverse affects causing in- up on lower body power in the form of a counter-
jury or harm and could be used during interval movement vertical jump (CMVJ). Nine physically
and substitution breaks, as it would incur a low active men, who were either current or ex-Nation-
metabolic cost and be time-efficient compared al Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division
to conventional warm-up modalities. Acute or 1 athletes, consented to participate in the study.

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 99

No. 99: Warm-Up

Using a balanced, randomized presentation and a rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and thermal
within-subject design, each subject performed 4 sensation scale (TSS) were measured; addition-
environmental and warm-up protocols (i.e., ambi- ally, a venous blood sample was collected before
ent temperature without warm-up, ambient tem- and after each session for measurement of in-
perature with warm-up, cold without warm-up, or terleukin-6 (IL-6), insulin-like growth factor (IGF-
cold with warm-up). Two sets of 3 maximal effort 1) and insulin-like growth factor-binding protein3
CMVJs were performed on a force plate at each (IGF-BP3). Results indicated that a greater dis-
testing time point. For each protocol, the subjects tance was covered during the pre-cooling condi-
completed a pretest set of CMVJ (pretreatment tion (3.35 ± 0.20 vs. 3.11 ± 0.13 km; p = 0.05).
[PRE]), were then exposed to 1 of the 2 tempera- Further, most of this improvement was evident
ture treatments, completed another set of CMVJ from a greater distance covered during moder-
(initial [IT]), then either went through a 15-minute ate intensities of 7 to 14 km/h (2.28 ± 0.18 vs.
warm-up, or were asked to sit in place. Then a 2.00 ± 0.24 km; p = 0.05). Peak speeds and
final set of CMVJs was completed (posttreatment very-high-intensity efforts (20 km/h ±) were not
[PT]). The primary finding in this study was that different between conditions (p > 0.05). The in-
warm-up was effective in offsetting the negative crease in core temperature was blunted following
effects of cold exposure on CMVJ power. There cooling, with a lower core temperature through-
was a significant main effect for Time (PRE > PT out the cooling session (38.8 ± 0.3 vs. 39.3 ±
> IT), and there was a significant (p ≤ 0.05) main 0.4[degrees]C; p < 0.05). However, there were no
effect for Trial (AMB = AMBWU > COLDWU > differences in heart rate, RPE, TSS, IL-6, IGF-1,
COLD). Because athletic competitions happen in or IGF-BP3 between conditions (p > 0.05). Ac-
various colder climates, it is important to make cordingly, the use of a mixed-method, part-body
sure that a proper warm-up be completed to cooling intervention prior to an intermittent-sprint
maximize the athlete’s power output. The results training session in the heat can assist in reducing
of this study demonstrate that when athletes are thermoregulatory load and improve aspects of
exposed to cold conditions, it is recommended training performance for team sports.
that before practice or play, a dynamic warm-up
be employed to optimize performance. Faigenbaum, A. D.; Bellucci, M.; Bernieri, A.;
Bakker, B.; Hoorens, K.
Duffield, R.; Steinbacher, G.; Fairchild, T. J. Acute effects of different warm-up proto-
The use of mixed-method, part-body pre- cols on fitness performance in children
cooling procedures for team-sport athletes Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
training in the heat Colorado Springs, 19, (2005), 2, pp. 376-381
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, The purpose of this study was to compare the
Colorado Springs, 23, (2009), 9, pp. 2524-2532 acute effects on youth fitness of 3 different warm-
The current study investigated the effects of a up protocols utilizing static stretching or dynamic
pre-cooling intervention on physiological and exercise performance. Sixty children (mean age
performance responses to team-sport training 11.3 ± 0.7 years) performed 3 different warm-up
in the heat. Seven male lacrosse players per- routines in random order on nonconsecutive days.
formed a familiarization session and 2 random- The warm-up protocols consisted of 5 minutes of
ized, counterbalanced sessions consisting of a walking and 5 minutes of static stretching (SS), 10
30-minute intermittent-sprint conditioning ses- minutes of dynamic exercise (DY), or 10 minutes
sion. Prior to the sessions, players performed of dynamic exercise plus 3 drop jumps from 15-
a 20-minute mixed-method, part-body cooling cm boxes (DYJ). Following each warm-up session,
intervention (consisting of cooling vests, cold subjects were tested on the vertical jump, long
towels to the neck, and ice packs to the quad- jump, shuttle run, and v-sit flexibility. Analysis of
riceps) or no cooling intervention. Performance the data revealed that vertical-jump and shuttle-
was determined from collection of 1 Hz global run performance declined significantly following
positioning system (GPS) data and analyzed for SS as compared to DY and DYJ, and long-jump
distance and speed. Prior to, during, and follow- performance was significantly reduced following
ing the sessions, core temperature, heart rate, SS as compared to DYJ (p < 0.05). There were

100 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 No. 99: Warm-Up

no significant differences in flexibility following the compared with SS (160.4 ± 20.8 cm) ( P ≤ .05).
3 warm-up treatments. The results of this study No significant differences between trials were
suggest that it may be desirable for children to observed for the seated medicine ball toss or
perform moderate-to high-intensity dynamic ex- 10-yard sprint. Conclusions: A dynamic warm-
ercises prior to the performance of activities that up performed with a vest weighted with 2% of
require a high power output. body mass may be the most effective warm-up
protocol for enhancing jumping performance in
Faigenbaum, A. D.; McFarland, J. E.; Schw- high school female athletes.
erdtman, J. A.; Ratamess, N. A.; Kang, J.;
Hoffman, J. R. Favero, J.-P.; Midgley, A. W.; Bentley, D. J.
Dynamic warm-up protocols, with and Effects of an acute bout of static stretch-
without a weighted vest, and fitness per- ing on 40 m sprint performance: influence
formance in high school female athletes of baseline flexibility
Journal of Athletic Training, Dallas (Tex), 41, (2006), Research in Sports Medicine, Philadelphia (Penns.),
4, pp. 357-363, URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ 17, (2009), 1, pp. 50-60
pmc/articles/PMC1748418/, http://www.ncbi.nlm. This study investigated the effect of stretching
nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1748418/pdf/i1062-6050- on sprint performance. Ten trained male sub-
41-4-357.pdf jects (age 22 ± 2.3 yrs; body mass 77.1 ± 6.9 kg;
Context: Recent authors have not found sub- height 179 ± 5.5 cm) were randomly assigned to
stantial evidence to support the use of static “Rest” and “Stretch” conditions. A low intensity
stretching for improving performance, so interest 5 min running warm-up was followed by either
in dynamic warm-up procedures has risen. Our 12 min of inactivity (Rest) or lower-limb stretches
findings may improve the understanding of the (Stretch). Subjects walked for 60s before com-
acute effects of different types of pre-exercise pleting three maximal effort 40m sprint trials.
protocols on performance and may help clini- There were no statistically significant differences
cians develop effective warm-up protocols for in measures of sprint performance between con-
sports practice and competition. Objective: To ditions (p>0.05); however, there was a signifi-
examine the acute effects of 4 warm-up proto- cant correlation between baseline sit-and-reach
cols with and without a weighted vest on anaero- scores and mean change in mean velocity be-
bic performance in female high school athletes. tween conditions (r=-0.68; p=0.03). There was a
Design: Randomized, counterbalanced, repeat- tendency for stretching to negatively effect sprint
ed-measures design. Setting: High school fit- performance in subjects with comparatively high
ness center. Patients or Other Participants: Eigh- baseline flexibility. An acute bout of stretching
teen healthy high school female athletes (age = did not exert a significant effect on sprint perfor-
15.3 ± 1.2 years, height = 166.3 ± 9.1 cm, mass = mance under prescribed conditions.
61.6 ± 10.4 kg). Intervention(s): After 5 minutes of
jogging, subjects performed 4 randomly ordered Fletcher, I. M.
warm-up protocols: (1) Five static stretches (2 An investigation into the effect of a pre-per-
× 30 seconds) (SS), (2) nine moderate-intensity
formance strategy on jump performance
to high-intensity dynamic exercises (DY), (3) the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
same 9 dynamic exercises performed with a vest Colorado Springs, 27, (2013), 1, pp. 107-115
weighted with 2% of body mass (DY2), and (4) The aim of this study was to explore the effect
the same 9 dynamic exercises performed with that different components, making up a com-
a vest weighted with 6% of body mass (DY6). monly used pre-performance preparation strat-
Main Outcome Measure(s): Vertical jump, long egy, have on jump height performance. Sixteen
jump, seated medicine ball toss, and 10-yard male collegiate athletes (age, 21.38 ± 0.52 years;
sprint. Results: Vertical jump performance was height, 1.79 ± 0.07 m; and body mass, 75.1 ±
significantly greater after DY (41.3 ± 5.4 cm) and 5.26 kg) performed a preparation strategy involv-
DY2 (42.1 ± 5.2 cm) compared with SS (37.1 ± ing a cycle ergometer warm-up, followed by a
5.1 cm), and long jump performance was sig- dynamic stretch component, and finishing with
nificantly greater after DY2 (180.5 ± 20.3 cm) heavy back squats. This intervention was re-

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No. 99: Warm-Up

peated to test countermovement, squat or drop lotendinous unit (MTU) stiffness, possibly due to
jump performance after each component of the a reduction in muscle activation prior to ground
preparation strategy, with electromyographic contact, leading to a decrease in the MTU’s abil-
activity measured during each jump test. Sig- ity to store and transfer elastic energy after the
nificant increases (p < 0.05) in jump height and use of passive static stretch techniques. The
electromyographic activity were noted, with a improved 50-m sprint performance associated
stepwise increase in performance from pre- to with the ADS and DADS interventions was linked
post-warm-up, increased further by the dynamic to the rehearsal of specific movement patterns,
stretch component and again increased after the helping proprioception and preactivation, allow-
back squat. It was also noted that the increases ing a more optimum switch from eccentric to
in performance, attributed to the stretch and lift concentric muscle contraction. It was concluded
components, were significantly greater (p < 0.05) that passive static stretching in a warm-up de-
than the increases in jump height associated with creases sprint performance, despite being com-
the active warm-up. It seems likely that the initial bined with dynamic stretches, when compared
active warm-up raised core temperature, helping to a solely dynamic stretch approach.
to increase the jump performance. The specific
movements employed in the stretch and lift in- Fradkin, A. J.; Gabbe, B. J.; Cameron, P. A.
terventions seemed to potentiate the agonistic Does warming up prevent injury in sport?
muscles involved in jumping, shown by increases The evidence from randomised controlled
in electromyographic activity in the prime movers trials?
for the jumps explored. This could be an example Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Belcon-
of postactivation potentiation, where muscles are nen, 9, (2006), 3, pp. 214-220
primed to increase performance beyond chang- The practice of warming up prior to exercise is
es linked to an active warm-up. advocated in injury prevention programs, but this
is based on limited clinical evidence. It is hypoth-
Fletcher, I. M.; Anness, R. esised that warming up will reduce the number of
The acute effects of combined static and dy- injuries sustained during physical activity. A sys-
namic stretch protocols on fifty-meter sprint tematic review was undertaken. Relevant studies
performance in track-and-field athletes were identified by searching Medline (1966–April
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2005), SPORTDiscus (1966–April 2005) and
Colorado Springs, 21, (2007), 3, 784-787 PubMed (1966–April 2005). This review included
The purpose of this study was to investigate the randomised controlled trials that investigated the
effect of manipulating the static and dynamic effects of warming up on injury risk. Studies were
stretch components associated with a traditional included only if the subjects were human, and
track-and-field warm-up. Eighteen experienced only if they utilised other activities than simply
sprinters were randomly assigned in a repeated- stretching. Studies reported in languages other
measures, within-subject design study with 3 in- than English were not included. The quality of
terventions: active dynamic stretch (ADS), static included studies was assessed independently
passive stretch combined with ADS (SADS), by two assessors. Five studies, all of high quality
and static dynamic stretch combined with ADS (7–9 (mean=8) out of 11) reported sufficient data
(DADS). A standardized 800-m jogged warm-up (quality score >7) on the effects of warming up
was performed before each different stretch in- on reducing injury risk in humans. Three of the
tervention, followed by two 50-m sprints. Results studies found that performing a warm-up prior to
indicated that the SADS intervention yielded sig- performance significantly reduced the injury risk,
nificantly (p <= 0.05) slower 50-m sprint times and the other two studies found that warming
then either the ADS or DADS intervention. The up was not effective in significantly reducing the
decrease in sprint time observed after the ADS number of injuries. There is insufficient evidence
intervention compared to the DADS intervention to endorse or discontinue routine warm-up prior
was found to be nonsignificant (p > 0.05). The to physical activity to prevent injury among sports
decrease in performance post-SADS interven- participants. However, the weight of evidence is
tion was attributed to a decrease in the muscu- in favour of a decreased risk of injury. Further

102 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 No. 99: Warm-Up

well-conducted randomised controlled trials are and static warm-ups on lower body explosive-
needed to determine the role of warming up prior ness as measured by stationary vertical jump (VJ)
to exercise in relation to injury prevention. and standing long jump (LJ) among collegiate
baseball players. Participants (n = 17; age = 19.59
Fradkin, A. J.; Zazryn, T. R.; Smoliga, J. M. ± 1.37 years) progressed through 3 different
Effects of warming-up on physical per- warm-ups on weekly testing dates over a 7-week
formance: a systematic review with meta- period. After the warm-up routines, participants
analysis were measured for VJ height and LJ distance in
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, centimeters. The mean jump heights for VJ were
Colorado Springs, 24, (2010), 1, pp. 140-148 66.49 ± 8.28 cm for dynamic, 61.42 ± 7.51 cm for
The value of warming-up is a worthy research static, and 62.72 ± 7.84 cm for the control condi-
problem because it is not known whether warm- tion. The mean jump distances for LJ were 231.99
ing-up benefits, harms, or has no effect on indi- ± 20.69 cm for dynamic, 219.69 ± 20.96 cm for
viduals. The purpose of this study was to review static, and 226.46 ± 20.60 cm for the control. Re-
the evidence relating to performance improve- sults indicated that the participants jumped sig-
ment using a warm-up. A systematic review and nificantly higher in both experimental conditions
meta-analysis were undertaken. Relevant studies while under the influence of the dynamic warm-
were identified by searching Medline, SPORT- up (VJ-F = 22.08; df = 1.33, 21.345; p < 0.00 and
Discus, and PubMed (1966-April 2008). Stud- LJ-F = 32.20; df = 2, 32; p < 0.01). Additional LJ
ies investigating the effects of warming-up on analysis determined that individuals jumped sig-
performance improvement in physical activities nificantly further after no warm-up compared to
were included. Studies were included only if the after a static warm-up (-6.78, p < 0.05). Lower
subjects were human and only if the warm-up in- body explosiveness is critical in baseball and
cluded activities other than stretching. The qual- many other sports as well. The results show that
ity of included studies was assessed indepen- dynamic warm-up increases both VJ height and
dently by 2 assessors using the Physiotherapy LJ distance. Specifically, these findings indicate
Evidence Database scale. Thirty-two studies, all that athletes could gain nearly 2 in. on his or her
of high quality (6.5-9 [mean = 7.6] of 10) reported vertical jump by simply switching from a static
sufficient data (quality score >6) on the effects warm-up routine to a dynamic routine.
of warming-up on performance improvement.
Warm-up was shown to improve performance Gelen, E.
in 79% of the criterions examined. This analysis Acute effects of different warm-up meth-
has shown that performance improvements can ods on jump performance in children
be demonstrated after completion of adequate Biology of sport, Warschau, 28, (2011), 2, S.133-138,
warm-up activities, and there is little evidence URL: http://biolsport.com/fulltxt.php?ICID=947456
to suggest that warming-up is detrimental to The aim of this study was to determine the acute
sports participants. Because there were few effects of static stretching and dynamic warm-up
well-conducted, randomized, controlled trials exercises on vertical jump performance. Sixty-
undertaken, more of these are needed to further four children (mean age 13.3 ± 0.5 years) were
determine the role of warming-up in relation to assigned randomly to 3 different warm-up rou-
performance improvement. tines on non-consecutive days. The warm-up
methods used were 5 minutes of jogging and 5
Frantz, T. L.; Ruiz, M. D. minutes of static stretching (SS), 5 minutes of jog-
Effects of dynamic warm-up on lower body ging and 10 minutes of dynamic exercises (DYN),
explosiveness among collegiate baseball and finally only 5 minutes of jogging as the control
players
(NS). After each warm-up session, all the children
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, were made to undertake a vertical jump test.
Colorado Springs, 25, (2011), 11, pp. 2985-2990 Data were analysed using repeated measures
Debate exists between the benefits and effective- analyses of variance (ANOVA), and a statistically
ness of a dynamic warm-up vs. a static warm-up. significant difference between the NS, SS and
This study was conducted to compare dynamic DYN groups with regards to vertical jump perfor-

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mance was established (p<0.05). Based on these It is generally accepted that increasing the flex-
results, static stretching performed after aerobic ibility of a muscletendon unit allows a better per-
exercises of mild intensity was found to hinder formance and decreases the number of injuries.
vertical jump performance, while dynamic warm- Stretching is regularly included in warm-up and
up was found to have a positive effect. in cooling-down exercises. However, contradic-
tory findings have been reported in the literature.
Gray, S.; Nimmo, M. Since 1980, several authors have suggested that
Effects of active, passive or no warm-up on stretching has a beneficial effect on injury pre-
metabolism and performance during high- vention. In contrast, since 1990, clinical evidence
intensity exercise
suggests that stretching not only does not pre-
Journal of Sports Sciences, London, 19, (2001), 9, vent injuries, but can also decrease the level of
pp. 693-700 performance. Some part of these contradictions
The aim of this study was to determine the in- can be explained by the various sports activities
fluence of type of warm-up on metabolism and and the eclectic group of athletes studied. Sports
performance during high-intensity exercise. Eight activities requesting an increased flexibility, such
males performed 30 s of intense exercise at as gymnastic, dancing, ice skating or diving, ne-
120% of their maximal power output followed, 1 cessitate pre-exercise stretching to optimize the
min later, by a performance cycle to exhaustion, level of performance. In contrary, for sports with
again at 120% of maximal power output. Exercise slow stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) such as jog-
was preceded by active, passive or no warm- ging or cycling, there is no scientific data show-
up (control). Muscle temperature, immediately ing a positive effect of stretching on performance,
before exercise, was significantly elevated after injury prevention and recovery. On the basis of
active and passive warm-ups compared to the the literature this article reviews the interest of the
control condition (36.9 ± 0.18°C, 36.8 ± 0.18°C pre- and post-exercise stretching on the different
and 33.6 ± 0.25°C respectively; mean ± sx ) ( P < modalities such as range of motion improvement,
0.05). Total oxygen consumption during the 30 s injury prevention and capacity of recovery.
exercise bout was significantly greater in the ac-
tive and passive warm-up trials than in the control Hayes, P. R.; Walker, A.
trial (1017 ± 22, 943 ± 53 and 838 ± 45 ml O 2 re- Pre-exercise stretching does not impact
spectively). Active warm-up resulted in a blunted upon running economy
blood lactate response during high-intensity ex- Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
ercise compared to the passive and control trials Colorado Springs, 21, (2007), 4, pp. 1227-1232
(change = 5.53 ± 0.52, 8.09 ± 0.57 and 7.90 ± Pre-exercise stretching has been widely reported
0.38 mmol/l respectively) ( P < 0.05). There was to reduce performance in tasks requiring maximal
no difference in exercise time to exhaustion be- or near-maximal force or torque. The purpose of
tween the active, passive and control trials (43.9 this study was to compare the effects of 3 dif-
± 4.1, 48.3 ± 2.7 and 46.9 ± 6.2 s respectively) ( ferent pre-exercise stretching routines on running
P = 0.69). These results indicate that, although economy. Seven competitive male middle and
the mechanism by which muscle temperature is long-distance runners (mean ± SD) age: 32.5 ±
elevated influences certain metabolic responses 7.7 years; height: 175.0 ± 8.8 cm; mass: 67.8 ±
during subsequent high-intensity exercise, cy- 8.6 kg; [Latin small letter v with dot above]O2max:
cling performance is not significantly affected. 66.8 ± 7.0 ml[middle dot]kg-1[middle dot]min-1)
volunteered to participate in this study. Each par-
Gremion, G. ticipant completed 4 different pre-exercise condi-
The effect of stretching on sports perfor- tions: (a) a control condition, (b) static stretching,
mance and the risk of sports injury: a re-
(c) progressive static stretching, and (d) dynamic
view of the literature
stretching. Each stretching routine consisted of
Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Sportmedizin und 2 - 30-second stretches for each of 5 exercis-
Sporttraumatologie, Bern, 53, (2005), 1, pp. 6-10, es. Dependent variables measured were sit and
URL:http://www.sgsm.ch/ssms_publication/file/ reach test before and after each pre-exercise rou-
195/3-2005-1.pdf tine, running economy (ml[middle dot]kg-1[middle

104 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 No. 99: Warm-Up

dot]km-1), and steady-state oxygen uptake running is an explosive activity. Like Olympic-
(ml[middle dot]kg-1[middle dot]min-1), which were style weight lifting, shooting a pullup jumper, or
measured during the final 3 minutes of a 10-min- throwing the javelin, you are asking your muscles
ute run below lactate threshold. All 3 stretching to contract very fast and generate a lot of power.
routines resulted in an increase in the range of The interesting thing about this is that a short,
movement (p = 0.008). There was no change in tight muscle contains a lot of potential energy:
either running economy (p = 0.915) or steady- your visual here should be of your muscles as
state [Latin small letter v with dot above]O2 (p = big elastic bands. But, like elastic bands, mus-
0.943). The lack of change in running economy cles have an optimum length and strength that
was most likely because it was assessed after a is developed (or allowed to atrophy) over time.
period of submaximal running, which may have To consider the extremes of this example, think
masked any effects from the stretching protocols. of putting a rubber band in the freezer for a few
Previously reported reductions in performance hours. When you pull it out and try to stretch it
have been attributed to reduced motor unit acti- very quickly, what do you think happens? It will
vation, presumably IIX. In this study, these motor break after only a short stretch cycle, as its fibers
units were likely not to have been recruited; this are not very elastic when cold. What about the
may explain the unimpaired performance. This converse? Think of putting a rubber band in a
study suggests that pre-exercise stretching has 200-degree (not so hot that it melts) oven for a
no impact upon running economy or submaximal while. When you pull it out and try to stretch it
exercise oxygen cost. very quickly, what happens now? It will stretch
like crazy; but, will have virtually no potential en-
Holdeman, J. ergy because the fibers are all lax and long, un-
Minimizing injury and maximizing perfor- able to provide that “pop” we associate with a
mance in fast running: Warming up and rubber band. When you’re doing speed work, you
warming down need that pop! That pop is what gets you quickly
Track coach, Mountain View, (2004), 167, pp. 5336- off the line and sprinting. Therefore, in order to
5341 optimize your pre-workout and prerace routines,
Speed and sprint work are essential ingredients I recommend you do what many strength/power
to any well-balanced training recipe for runners, athletes (including elite weightlifters, powerlift-
irrespective of event distance. Prior to engaging ers, track and field throwers, etc.) do: stretch
in speed or sprint training, most runners tend to dynamically before activity and statically after.
follow the same basic routine just prior to rolling Here’s what to do before a workout or race: 1.
out their repeat: 1. They run easily for a couple Jog easily for 10-20 minutes to get your muscles
of miles to warm up. 2. Next, they stretch out. 3. and limbs nice and lubricated – the tempera-
Then, if they have them, they lace on the spikes ture of your training environment will influence
or flats and do a few strides. Once the up-tempo the length of this warm-up period. A good rule
portion of the session is over, the majority of ath- of thumb is that if you’ve broken a good sweat,
letes tend to engage in an abbreviated period of you’re warm. 2. Change into whatever footwear
jogging and perhaps a few light stretches before you’ll be using to conduct the workout, so that
jumping in the car to head home. But, in order when the warm-up has concluded, you will be
to maximize performance and minimize injury, is ready to immediately begin the session. Note:
this the best path to follow? Stretching, specifi- after each of the next 8 exercises, stride out 50-
cally, and flexibility training, generally, have long 60m, making each one progressively faster as
been part of athletic warm-up routines. The use you go along. This will provide your body with
of stretching as part of the warm-up comes from additional neuromuscular stimulation necessary
the belief that stretching will aid in subsequent to prepare for the bout of intense exercise to fol-
performance and help to prevent injury. Howev- low. 3. Conduct 30m of walking forward lunges.
er, recent studies show that stretching is not the Make sure your forward shin is perpendicular to
best way to prepare one’s muscles for the de- the ground when you reach the lowest point in
mands of fast running. So, how should one warm the lunge: this will optimize the stretch and keep
up before a session on the track or a race? Fast you from putting unwanted pressure on the con-

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nective tissues of the knee. 4. Conduct 30m of of stretching methods and techniques have been
backward lunges. As above, just realize these advocated for eliciting improvements in flexibility
will be more awkward and will take longer, as and performance in addition to reducing injury
there are balance considerations to make. 5. Do risk during training and competition. Although
30m of side sweeps. Turn sideways and crouch the scientific literature surrounding the effects of
slightly; then, take a long step out to the right stretching is quite meagre, there have been an
with your right foot, keeping your hips low and increasing number of reports in recent years. This
your weight on the left foot. Slide your butt low article considers current knowledge of the effects
and slow to the right and come to a full standing of stretching in light of its importance in the warm-
Position. Repeat for the full 30m. Then, face the up. Specifically, the efficacy of stretching regimes
other direction and repeat while leading with the in the context of flexibility, performance, and in-
left foot. 6. Perform 30m of side shuffles. Just jury prevention is considered. Simple, practical
like they sound, simply turn sideways (lead with key points are illuminated for the coach. The au-
your right foot) and quickly shuffle your feet from thors arrive at the following conclusion: Coaches
side-to-side over the course of the 30m distance. should critically evaluate the stretching practices
Pause briefly and return, this time, leading with of their athletes to ensure their efforts are worth-
your left foot. 7. Do 30m of high knees. Just as it while. Just as training methods must be specific
sounds, you jog along very springily, driving your o the physical demands of the event stretching,
knees up as you go. Keep your up- per torso should also be contextualised rather than simply
upright with a slight forward lean. 8. Do 30m of being ‘attached’ to a training session. lt may be
butt kick-throughs. Unlike the “traditional” butt- that stretching immediately prior to activity has lit-
kick, which tends to emphasize a more vertical tle impact on injury risk and a potentially negative
flicking of the heels, this more functional version impact on performance, however, routines that
requires that you maintain a slightly forward lean improve flexibility over time, whether undertaken
in the up- per torso with an emphasis on a more during a warm-up or otherwise, may indirectly ex-
horizontal “driving” of the heels past the butt and ert their influence on injury risk and performance.
along the upper part of the hamstring. This en-
courages higher knee lift and better forward ex- Huang, J. S.; Pietrosimone, B. G.; Ingersoll, C.
tension of the lower leg, which produces a much D.; Weltman, A. L.; Saliba, S. A.
more functional movement. 9. Do 30m of skip- Sling exercise and traditional warm-up
ping striving to achieve a mix between horizontal have similar effects on the velocity and ac-
and vertical movement. 10. Do 30m of straight-
curacy of throwing
leg running. Again, just as it sounds, run with Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
no bend in your knees, leaning slightly forward, Colorado Springs, 25, (2011), 6, pp. 1673-1679
extending your feet out as far in front of you as Throwing is a complex motion that involves the
you can manage gracefully. 11. End your warm- entire body and often puts an inordinate amount
up session with a couple of 100m accelerations: of stress on the shoulder and the arm. Warm-up
accelerate up to high speed over the first 40m, prepares the body for work and can enhance
maintain that speed for 40m, then decelerate for performance. Sling-based exercise (SE) has
20m. Minimize the time between the end of the been theorized to activate muscles, particularly
warm-up and the actual workout. You will want to the stabilizers, in a manner beneficial for preac-
preserve the neural stimulus created during the tivity warm-up, yet this hypothesis has not been
warm-up to optimize the effect of your workout. tested. Our purpose was to determine if a warm-
up using SE would increase throwing velocity and
Horan, S. A.; Weeks, B. K. accuracy compared to a traditional, thrower’s 10
Stretching during warm up: How ‘tight’ is warm-up program. Division I baseball players
the evidence? (nonpitchers) (16 men, age: 19.6 ± 1.3, height:
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide, 46, (2008), 1, 184.2 ± 6.2 cm, mass: 76.9 ± 19.2 kg) volun-
pp. 17-19 teered to participate in this crossover study. All
Traditionally, stretching has been practiced as a subjects underwent both a warm-up routine us-
means of preparing the body for activity. A variety ing a traditional method (Thrower’s 10 exercises)

106 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

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and a warm-up routine using closed kinetic chain Division I cross-country team who participated
SE methods (RedCord) on different days separat- in either the Big Wave Invitational or the Great
ed by 72 hours. Ball velocity and accuracy mea- American Race. Intervention(s): Four hours be-
sures were obtained on 10 throws after either the fore the start of the race, the athletes ingested
traditional and SE warm-up regimens. Velocity radiotelemetry temperature sensors. One hour
was recorded using a standard Juggs radar gun before the start of the race, Tc was recorded, and
(JUGS; Tualatin, OR, USA). Accuracy was record- half of the athletes donned a Nike Ice-Vest, which
ed using a custom accuracy target. An Analysis was removed immediately before the race. Main
of covariance was performed, with the number Outcome Measure(s): Additional Tc readings
of throws recorded before the testing was used were taken at 10 minutes and 1 minute before
as a covariate and p < 0.05 was set a priori. the start of the race and immediately after the
There were no statistical differences between race. Results: Ten minutes before the start of the
the SE warm-up and Thrower’s 10 warm-up for race, Tc was elevated by 0.84°C ± 0.37°C in the
throwing velocity (SE: 74.7 ± 7.5 mph, Thrower’s no-vest group, compared with 0.29°C ± 0.56°C
10: 74.6 ± 7.3 mph p = 0.874) or accuracy (SE: in the ice-vest group ( P < .01). This difference in
115.6 ± 53.7 cm, Thrower’s 10: 91.8 ± 55 cm, p = Tc persisted at 1 minute before the start. Immedi-
0.136). Warming up with SE produced equivalent ately after the finish, the increase in Tc averaged
throwing velocity and accuracy compared to the 2.75°C ± 0.62°C in the no-vest group and 2.12°C
Thrower’s 10 warm-up method. Thus, SE pro- ± 0.62°C in the ice-vest group ( P < .01). Conclu-
vides an alternative to traditional warm-up. sions: Wearing an ice vest before cross-country
performance in warm, humid conditions allowed
Hunter, I.; Hopkins, J. T.; Casa, D. J. athletes to start and finish the competition with a
Warming up with an ice vest: core body lower Tc than did those who did not wear a vest.
temperature before and after cross-coun-
try racing
Judge, L. W.; Craig, B.; Bellar, D.; Wanless, E.
Journal of Athletic Training, Dallas (Tex), 41, (2006), Preactivity stretching research and current
4, pp. 371-374, URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ coaching practices: why the disconnect?
pmc/articles/PMC1748408/ Strength and Conditioning Journal, Colorado
Context: Athletes running in a hot, humid envi- Springs, 34, (2012), 5, pp. 74-77
ronment may have an increased risk of heat ill- Preactivity warm-up and stretching recommen-
ness. In the 2004 Olympic Games, American dations are well established in the research lit-
and Australian athletes were provided with ice erature, but many coaches do not use them.
vests designed to cool their bodies before per- Although certification programs exist to guide
formance. The vest appeared to be effective in coaches through the wide variety of available
keeping body temperatures down and improving knowledge to help them develop evidence-based
the performance of the marathoners. However, practices, questions remain as to what extent
body temperatures have not been reported when certification actually impacts coaching practices.
the vest was used before an actual competition.
Objective: To determine if wearing the Nike Ice- Judge, L. W.; Wildeman, J. N.; Bellar, D. M.
Vest decreased core temperature (Tc) before Designing an effective preactivity warm-up
and during athletic performance in warm (26°C routine for the 1 repetition maximum back
to 27°C), humid (relative humidity = 50% to 75%) squat
conditions. Design: A 2 × 3 mixed-model design Strength and Conditioning Journal, Colorado
was used to compare groups (ice vest, no ice Springs, 33, (2011), 1, pp. 88-90
vest) across changes in temperature from base- Collegiate and high school strength and condi-
line (10 minutes and 1 minute before the race and tioning coaches throughout the nation often use
immediately after the race). Setting: 2005 Big a 1 repetition maximum (1 RM) back squat to test
Wave Invitational 4-km race in Hawaii and 2005 lower extremity strength. Three scientifically sup-
Great American 5-km race in North Carolina. ported warm-up variations are discussed for the
Patients or Other Participants: Eighteen women professional strength coach to consider when
from a National Collegiate Athletic Association planning for their athletes 1RM squat warm-up.

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Kallerud, H.; Gleeson, N. tors that may have contributed to contradictory

Effects of stretching on performances in- findings between studies. Limitations: Consider-
volving stretch-shortening cycles able heterogeneity in study design and methods
Sports medicine, Auckland, 43, (2013), 8, pp. 733- makes comparison between studies challenging.
750 No regression analysis of the contribution of dif-
Background: Alongside its role in athletic condi- ferent predictors to variation between trials had
tioning, stretching has commonly been integrated previously been performed. Hence, predictors
in warm-up routines prior to athletic performance. had to be selected on the basis of a qualitative
Numerous studies have reported detrimental analysis of the predictors that seemed most in-
acute effects on strength following stretching. fluential, as well as being identified in previous
Consequently, athletes have been recommended narrative reviews. Conclusion: Different types
to discontinue stretching as part of warm-ups. In of stretching have differential acute effects on
contrast, studies indicate that chronic stretching SSC performances. The recommended volume
performed as a separate bout from training or of static stretching required to increase flexibility
competition may enhance performance. Howev- might induce a negative acute effect on perfor-
er, the influence of stretching on complex perfor- mances involving rapid SSCs, but the effect sizes
mances has received relatively little attention. Ob- of these decrements are commonly low, indicat-
jective: The purpose of this study was to review ing that the acute effect on performance might
both the acute and chronic effects of stretching be limited in practice. No negative acute effects
on performances involving the stretch-shortening of dynamic stretching were reported. For athletes
cycle (SSC). Methods: A systematic search for lit- that require great range of motion (ROM) and
erature was undertaken (January 2006–Decem- speed in their sport, long-term stretching suc-
ber 2012) in which only randomized controlled cessfully enhances flexibility without negatively
trials (RCTs) or studies with repeated measures affecting performance. Acute dynamic stretching
designs were included. The Physiotherapy Evi- may also be effective in inducing smaller gains in
dence Database (PEDro) rating scale was used ROM prior to performance without any negative
for quality assessment of the evidence. Results: effects being observed.
The review included 43 studies, from which con-
flicting evidence emerged. Approximately half of Kistler, B. M.; Walsh, M. S.; Horn, T. S.; Cox,
the studies assessing the acute effect of static R. H.
stretching reported a detrimental effect on per- The acute effects of static stretching on the
formance, while the remainder found no effect. In sprint performance of collegiate men in the
60- and 100-m dash after a dynamic warm-
contrast, dynamic stretching showed no negative
up
effects and improved performance in half of the
trials. The effect size associated with static and Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
dynamic stretching interventions was commonly Colorado Springs, 24, (2010), 9, pp. 2280-2284
low to moderate, indicating that the effect on per- Previous research has shown that static stretch-
formance might be limited in practice. Factors ing has an inhibitory effect on sprinting perfor-
were identified that might have contributed to the mances up to 50 m. The purpose of this study
conflicting results reported across studies, such was to see what would happen to these effects
as type of SSC performance and carrying out dy- at longer distances such as those seen in com-
namic activity between the stretching bout and petition. This study used a within-subjects de-
performance. Few studies since 2006 have ad- sign to investigate the effects of passive static
dressed the chronic effect of stretching on func- stretching vs. no stretching on the 60- and 100-
tional and sports performance. Although nega- m sprint performance of college track athletes
tive effects were not reported, robust evidence after a dynamic warm-up. Eighteen male sub-
of the overall beneficial effects within current jects completed both the static stretching and
bibliographic databases remains elusive. Plau- the no stretching conditions in counterbalanced
sible mechanisms for the observed effects from order across 2 days of testing. On each day, all
stretching are discussed, as well as possible fac- subjects first completed a generalized dynamic
warm-up routine that included a self-paced 800-

108 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 No. 99: Warm-Up

m run, followed by a series of dynamic move- Kof, B.; Strojnik, V.

ments, sprint, and hurdle drills. At the end of this The effect of two warm-up protocols on
generalized warm-up, athletes were assigned to some biomechanical parameters of the
either a static stretching or a no-stretching con- neuromuscular system of middle distance
dition. They then immediately performed 2 100-
runners
m trials with timing gates set up at 20, 40, 60, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
and 100 m. Results revealed a significant slowing Colorado Springs, 21, (2007), 2, 394-399
in performance with static stretching (p < 0.039) The objective of this study was to determine the
in the second 20 (20-40) m of the sprint trials. effect of 2 different warm-up protocols on the
After the first 40 m, static stretching exhibited no neuromuscular system of well-trained middle
additional inhibition of performance in a 100-m distance runners. Seven runners performed 2
sprint. However, although there was no addition- different warm-up protocols, one of which includ-
al time loss, athletes never gained back the time ed slow running, stretching, and bounding and
that was originally lost in the first portion of the sprinting exercises, while the other consisted of
trials. Therefore, in strict terms of performance, it slow running and stretching only. Before and af-
seems harmful to include static stretching in the ter warm-up, contractile properties of the vastus
warm-up protocol of collegiate male sprinters in lateralis and quadriceps femoris were monitored
distances up to 100 m. with a single twitch test, maximal torque, and the
level of muscle activation during maximal volun-
Koch, A. J.; O’Bryant, H. S.; Stone, M. E.; San- tary extension. The 2 types of warm-up proto-
born, K.; Proulx, C.; Hruby, J.; Shannonhouse, cols showed statistically significant differences in
E.; Boros, R.; Stone, M. H. the increase of peak knee extension torque and
Effect of warm-up on the standing broad muscle activation level. After warm-up 1 maximal
jump in trained and untrained men and twitch torque was increased and twitch con-
women traction time (CT) was shortened. Both maximal
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, torque and the level of activation were increased.
Colorado Springs, 17, (2003), 4, pp. 710-714, URL: Parameter changes after warm-up 2 were similar
http://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Ab- to those after warm-up 1 but not statistically sig-
stract/2003/11000/Effect_of_Warm_Up_on_the_ nificant. Sprinting and bounding as part of ath-
Standing_Broad_Jump_in.14.aspx letes’ warm-up improve muscle activation.
The effect of 3 warm-up routines on standing
broad jump (SBJ) performance was investigated. Kwon, Y. S.; Robergs, R. A.; Schneider, S. M.
Thirty-two men and women participated as sub- Effect of local cooling on short-term, in-
jects. Following the determination of 1-repetition tense exercise
maximum (1RM) squat, subjects completed warm- Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
up routines and broad jumps on 4 occasions in Colorado Springs, 27, (2013), 7, pp. 2046-2054
a randomized order. Subjects performed SBJ im- The widespread belief that local cooling impairs
mediately (POST) and 15 min following (POST15) short-term, strenuous exercise performance is
the given warm-up routine. The routines were high controversial. Eighteen original investigations
force, consisting of high % 1RM, low repetition involving cooling before and intermittent cooling
squats; high power, consisting of low % 1RM, low during short-term, intensive exercise are summa-
repetition speed squats; stretching, consisting of rized in this review. Previous literature examining
static stretches; and no activity, a control condi- short-term intensive exercise and local cooling
tion. Repeated measures analysis of covariance primarily has been limited to the effects on mus-
(ANCOVA) revealed no differences among broad cle performance immediately or within minutes
jump performance following any of the warm- following cold application. Most previous cooling
up routines (p = 0.157). A strong correlation (R = studies used equal and longer than 10 minutes
0.805) was found between 1RM squat and SBJ. of pre-cooling, and found that cooling reduced
These data indicate that warm-up of any type has strength, performance and endurance. Because
little effect on jump performance and that maxi- short duration, high intensity exercise requires
mum strength is strongly related to jumping ability. adequate warm-up to prepare for optimal per-

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 109

No. 99: Warm-Up

formance, prolonged pre-cooling is not an effec- Matthews, M. J.; Matthews, H. P.; Snook, B.
tive method to prepare for this type of exercise. The acute effects of a resistance training
The literature related to the effect of acute local warmup on sprint performance
cooling immediately before short duration, high Research in Sports Medicine, Philadelphia (Penns.),
intensity isotonic exercise such as weight lifting is 12, (2004), 2, pp. 151-159
limited. However, local intermittent cooling dur- Twenty male rugby union players were tested to
ing short-term, high intense exercise may provide determine the acute effect of a resistance train-
possible beneficial effects; first, by pain reduc- ing warmup on subsequent 20-m sprint perfor-
tion, caused by an “irritation effect” from hand mance. The study consisted of a repeated mea-
thermal receptors which block pain sensation, or sures design with two experimental conditions.
second, by a cooling effect, whereby stimulation During the control (C) condition, the participants
of hand thermal receptors or a slight lowering of performed a 20-m sprint, rested for 10min, and
blood temperature might alter central fatigue. then repeated the 20-m sprint. During the ex-
perimental (E) condition, the second sprint was
Marquez, G. J.; Mon, J.; Acero, R. M.; San- preceded by five repetitions of a back-squat with
chez, J. A.; Fernandez-del-Olmo, M. a load equal to each participant’s five repetition
Low-intensity cycling affects the muscle maximum (5RM). Sprint times were recorded us-
activation pattern of consequent counter- ing New Test digital recording equipment. The
movement jumps
results showed a mean improvement of 0.098s
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, (p<0.0001) when the second sprint was pre-
Colorado Springs, 23, (2009), 5, pp. 1470-1476 ceded by the back squats. This amounted to a
Players (eg, basketball, soccer, and football) of- 3.3%improvement on the precondition time. Dur-
ten use a static bicycle during a game to maintain ing the control condition, no improvement was
warming. However, the effectiveness of this pro- observed between the first and second sprint.
cedure has not been addressed in the literature. The improved sprint times observed during the
Thus, it remains unknown whether low-intensity E condition probably were due to a temporary
cycling movement can affect explosive move- increase in the efficiency of neuromuscular ac-
ment performance. In this study, 10 male sub- tivation following the performance of heavy-load
jects performed countermovement jumps before back squats.
and after a 15-minutes cycling bout at 35% of
their maximal power output. Three sessions were McHugh, M. P.; Cosgrave, C. H.
tested for 3 different cadences of cycling: freely To stretch or not to stretch: the role of
chosen cadence, 20% lower than freely chosen stretching in injury prevention and perfor-
cadence (FCC-20%), and 20% higher than freely mance
chosen cadence (FCC+20%). Jump height, ki- Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in
nematics, and electromyogram were recorded Sports, Oxford, 20, (2010), 2, pp. 169-181, URL:
simultaneously during the countermovement http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/
jumps. The results showed a significant decreas- doi/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.01058.x/pdf
ing in the height of countermovement jump after Stretching is commonly practiced before sports
cycling at freely chosen cadence and FCC-20% participation; however, effects on subsequent
(p = 0.03 and p = 0.04, respectively), but not for performance and injury prevention are not well
FCC+20% cadences. The electromyographic understood. There is an abundance of literature
parameters suggest that changes in the counter- demonstrating that a single bout of stretching
movement jump after cycling can be attributed acutely impairs muscle strength, with a lesser
to alteration of the pattern of activation and may effect on power. The extent to which these ef-
be modulated by the preceding cycling cadence. fects are apparent when stretching is combined
Our study indicates that to avoid a possible neg- with other aspects of a pre-participation warm-
ative effect of the cycling in the subsequent ex- up, such as practice drills and low intensity dy-
plosive movements, a cadence 20% higher than namic exercises, is not known. With respect to
the preferred cadence must be used. the effect of pre-participation stretching on injury
prevention a limited number of studies of varying

110 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 No. 99: Warm-Up

quality have shown mixed results. A general con- The use of active dynamic warm-ups (ADWUs)
sensus is that stretching in addition to warm-up before exercise has become increasingly popu-
does not affect the incidence of overuse injuries. lar for athletes and coaches before sport activity.
There is evidence that pre-participation stretch- Dynamic warm-ups prepare the body for exer-
ing reduces the incidence of muscle strains but cise and have been shown to help prevent in-
there is clearly a need for further work. Future jury and improve performance. Many warm-ups,
prospective randomized studies should use however, neglect the extensive use of the upper
stretching interventions that are effective at de- body and trunk that are inherent to many sports.
creasing passive resistance to stretch and as- This article explains the importance of including
sess effects on subsequent injury incidence in upper-body warm-up exercises and proposes an
sports with a high prevalence of muscle strains. upper extremity adwu protocol for individuals be-
fore sport participation.
McMillian, D. J.; Moore, J. H.; Hatler, B. S.; Tay-
lor, D. C. Nelson, A. G.; Driscoll, N. M.; Landin, D. K.;
Dynamic vs. static-stretching warm up: the Schexnayder, I. C.; Young, M. A.
effect on power and agility performance Acute effects of passive muscle stretching
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, on sprint performance
Colorado Springs, 20, (2006), 3, pp. 492-499 Journal of Sports Sciences, London, 23, (2005), 5,
The purpose of this study was to compare the pp. 449-454
effect of a dynamic warm-up (DWU) with a stat- The results of previous research have shown that
ic-stretching warm-up (SWU) on selected mea- passive muscle stretching can diminish the peak
sures of power and agility. Thirty cadets at the force output of subsequent maximal isometric,
United States Military Academy completed the concentric and stretch-shortening contractions.
study (14 women and 16 men, ages 18-24 years). The aim of this study was to establish whether
On 3 consecutive days, subjects performed 1 of the deleterious effects of passive stretching seen
the 2 warm-up routines (DWU or SWU) or per- in laboratory settings would be manifest in a per-
formed no warm-up (NWU). The 3 warm-up pro- formance setting. Sixteen members (11 males,
tocols lasted 10 minutes each and were coun- 5 females) of a Division I NCAA track athletics
terbalanced to avoid carryover effects. After 1-2 team performed electronically timed 20 m sprints
minutes of recovery, subjects performed 3 tests with and without prior stretching of the legs. The
of power or agility. The order of the performance experiment was done as part of each athlete’s
tests (T-shuttle run, underhand medicine ball Monday work-out programme. Four different
throw for distance, and 5-step jump) also was stretch protocols were used, with each protocol
counterbalanced. Repeated measures analysis completed on a different day. Hence, the test
of variance revealed better performance scores period lasted 4 weeks. The four stretching proto-
after the DWU for all 3 performance tests (p < cols were no-stretch of either leg (NS), both legs
0.01), relative to the SWU and NWU. There were stretched (BS), forward leg in the starting position
no significant differences between the SWU and stretched (FS) and rear leg in the starting position
NWU for the medicine ball throw and the T-shut- stretched (RS). Three stretching exercises (ham-
tle run, but the SWU was associated with better string stretch, quadriceps stretch, calf stretch)
scores on the 5-step jump (p < 0.01). Because were used for the BS, FS and RS protocols.
the results of this study indicate a relative perfor- Each stretching exercise was performed four
mance enhancement with the DWU, the utility of times, and each time the stretch was maintained
warm-up routines that use static stretching as a for 30 s. The BS, FS and RS protocols induced a
stand-alone activity should be reassessed. significant (P  < 0.05) increase (0.04 s) in the 20 m
time. Thus, it appears that pre-event stretch-
Naperalsky, M. E.; Anderson, J.-H. ing might negatively impact the performance of
An upper extremity active dynamic warm- high-power short-term exercise.
up for sport participation
Strength and Conditioning Journal, Colorado Nunn-Cearns, G.
Springs, 34, (2012), 1, pp. 51-54 Question of the continuous warm up

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 111

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Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide, 50, (2012), 1, Ogura, Y.; Miyahara, Y.; Naito, H.; Katamoto,
pp. 12-13 S.; Aoki, J.
In the past it was advised for athletes to firstly Duration of static stretching influences
raise their body temperature with 5-10 minutes muscle force production in hamstring mus-
of gentle cardiovascular work. Slow paced run- cles
ning is, after all, a very specific way to warm up Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
your muscles for faster paced efforts. lt is pos- Colorado Springs, 21, (2007), 3, 788-792
sible to incorporate many of the drills listed into a The purpose of the present study was to inves-
type of seamless warm-up – ie by interspersing tigate whether duration of static stretching could
them with periods of jogging. But it is probably affect the maximal voluntary contraction (MVC).
best to move gradually towards this goal over Volunteer male subjects (n = 10) underwent 2
time – especially if you have always used the different durations of static stretching of their
traditional warm-up approach. In saying there hamstring muscles in the dominant leg: 30 and
are many coaches who practice a continuous 60 seconds. No static stretching condition was
warm-up (ie a 20-30 minutes uninterrupted ex- used as a control condition. Before and after
ercise program), it is essential that the athletes each stretching trial, hamstring flexibility was
correctly perform exercises to ensure injury does measured by a sit and reach test. MVC was then
not result. There are a few laws of training essen- measured using the maximal effort of knee flex-
tial when undertaking this form of warm-up: 1. ion. The hamstring flexibility was significantly in-
Specificity – exercises need to focus on the joints creased by 30 and 60 seconds of static stretch-
involved and demands of training. 2. Overload – ing (control: 0.5 ± 1.1 cm; 30 seconds: 2.1 ± 1.8
Improvements in flexibility will occur when exist- cm; 60 seconds: 3.0 ± 1.6 cm); however, there
ing range of movements are regularly reached was no significant difference between 30 and
and extended. 3. Reversibility – as in all training 60 seconds of static stretching conditions. The
– you don’t use it, you lose it!’ Should the athlete MVC was significantly lowered with 60 seconds
not continue to undertake flexibility work, levels of static stretching compared to the control and
will decrease. The ‘new’ theory about warm- 30 seconds of the stretching conditions (control:
ups is that we should replace the old generalist 287.6 ± 24.0 N; 30 seconds: 281.8 ± 24.2 N; 60
approach with a much more dynamic, focused seconds: 262.4 ± 36.2 N). However, there was
routine, specifically tailored to our chosen sport. no significant difference between control and 30
The various drills employed need to warm up our seconds of static stretching conditions. There-
muscles specifically for the movements that will fore, it was concluded that the short duration (30
be required of them in the activity to follow. In seconds) of static stretching did not have a nega-
this way specific neuromuscular patterning will tive effect on the muscle force production.
be switched on and specific, functional range of
movement developed. The continuous warm-up Pope, R. P.; Herbert, R. D.; Kirwan, J. D.; Gra-
can vary during the year whether the athlete is ham, B. J.
in general, specific or competition season. The A randomized trial of preexercise stretch-
continuous movement (jogging) along with the ki- ing for prevention of lower-limb injury
netic flexibility exercises allows the body to adjust Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, India-
mentally and physically for the session they are napolis (Ind.), 32, (2000), 2, pp. 271-277
preparing for. The warm-up should vary from be- Purpose: This study investigated the effect of
tween 20-30 minutes depending on the weather muscle stretching during warm-up on the risk
and specific part of the preparation. Research of exercise-related injury. Methods: 1538 male
work by McNair (2000) (1) and Knudson (2001) army recruits were randomly allocated to stretch
(2) suggests that the use of dynamic stretches - or control groups. During the ensuing 12 wk of
movements through the full range of motion - are training, both groups performed active warm-up
the most appropriate exercises for the warm-up. exercises before physical training sessions. In
By contrast, static stretches are more appropri- addition, the stretch group performed one 20-s
ate for the cool-down where the athlete can take static stretch under supervision for each of six
time and go through range of motion. major leg muscle groups during every warm-

112 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 No. 99: Warm-Up

up. The control group did not stretch. Results: augment the production of power performance
333 lower-limb injuries were recorded during the in high school football players.
training period, including 214 soft-tissue injuries.
There were 158 injuries in the stretch group and Richendollar, M. L.; Darby, L. A.; Brown, T. M.
175 in the control group. There was no significant Ice bag application, active warm-up, and
effect of preexercise stretching on all-injuries risk
3 measures of maximal functional perfor-
mance
(hazard ratio (HR) = 0.95, 95%CI 0.77-1.18), soft-
tissue injury risk (HR = 0.83, 95%CI 0.63-1.09), Journal of Athletic Training, Dallas (Tex), 41, (2006),
or bone injury risk (HR = 1.22, 95%Cl 0.86-1.76). 4, pp. 357-363, URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
Fitness (20-m progressive shuttle run test score), pmc/articles/PMC1748415/
age, and enlistment date all significantly pre- Context: Research into the effects of ice on neu-
dicted injury risk (P<0.01 for each), but height, romuscular performance is limited, and the re-
weight, and body mass index did not. Conclu- sults sometimes conflict. Objective: To examine
sion: A typical muscle stretching protocol per- the effects of ice bag application to the anterior
formed during preexercise warm-ups does not thigh and active warm-up on 3 maximal func-
produce clinically meaningful reductions in risk tional performance tests. Design: A 2 × 2 repeat-
of exercise-related injury in army recruits. Fitness ed-measures design with 4 randomly assigned
may be an important, modifiable risk factor. treatment conditions: (1) no ice/no warm-up, (2)
ice/ no warm-up, (3) no ice/warm-up, and (4) ice/
Reiman, M. P.; Peintner, A. M.; Boehner, A. L.; warm-up. Setting: Gymnasium with a wooden
Cameron, C. N.; Murphy, J. R.; Carter, J. W. floor. Patients or Other Participants: Twenty-four
Effects of dynamic warm-up with and with- active, uninjured men, 18 to 24 years of age.
out a weighted vest on lower extremity pow- Intervention(s): For the ice application, we applied
er performance of high school male athletes an ice bag with compression to the anterior thigh
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, for 20 minutes. Warm-up (6.5 minutes) consisted
Colorado Springs, 24, (2010), 12, pp. 3387-3395 of 3 minutes of jogging, 3 minutes of stretching,
This study examined lower extremity power per- and ten 2-legged vertical jumps. Main Outcome
formance, using the Margaria-Kalamen Power Measure(s): Maximal performance of 3 functional
Test, after a dynamic warm-up with (resisted) and fitness tests: single-leg vertical jump height,
without (nonresisted) a weighted vest. Sixteen shuttle run time, and 40-yd (36.58-m) sprint time.
(n = 16) high school male football players, ages Results: Significant main effects were noted for
14-18 years, participated in 2 randomly ordered both ice and warm-up for all functional tests, with
testing sessions. One session involved perform- a significant interaction (ice × warm-up) for the
ing the team’s standard dynamic warm-up while 40-yd sprint test. Ice bag application negatively
wearing a vest weighted at 5% of the individual affected performance on all 3 functional tests;
athlete’s body weight before performing 3 trials warm-up significantly improved posticing perfor-
of the Margaria-Kalamen Power Test. The sec- mance. High-intensity maximal performance af-
ond session involved performing the same dy- ter ice bag application almost returned to the no
namic warm-up without wearing a weighted vest ice/no warm-up pretreatment levels with the ad-
before performing 3 trials of the Margaria-Ka- dition of active warm-up and time. Conclusions:
lamen Power Test. The warm-up performed by Ice bag application negatively affected perfor-
the athletes consisted of various lower extremity mance of maximal high-intensity functional tests.
dynamic movements over a 5-minute period. No Active warm-up and time for muscle warming af-
significant difference was found in power perfor- ter ice bag application decreased the detrimental
mance between the resisted and nonresisted dy- effects of icing on functional performance.
namic warm-up protocols (p > 0.05). The use of a
dynamic warm-up with a vest weighted at 5% of Rønnestad, B. R.; Ellefsen, S.
the athlete’s body weight was not advantageous The effects of adding different whole-body
for increasing lower extremity power output in
vibration frequencies to precondition-
ing exercise on subsequent sprint perfor-
this study. The results of this study suggest that
mance
resisted dynamic warm-up protocols may not

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 113

No. 99: Warm-Up

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, ing, 3) general and specific warm-up with static
Colorado Springs, 25, (2011), 12, pp. 3306-3310 stretching and 4) general and specific warm-up
The phenomenon postactivation potentiation with dynamic stretching. Following all conditions,
can possibly be used to acutely improve sprint subjects were tested for movement time (kicking
performance. The purpose of this study was to movement of leg over 0.5 m distance), counter-
investigate the effect of adding whole-body vi- movement jump height, sit and reach flexibility
bration (WBV) to body-loaded half-squats, per- and 6 repetitions of 20 metre sprints. Results in-
formed as preconditioning activity to the 40-m dicated that when a sport specific warm-up was
sprint test. Nine male amateur soccer play- included, there was an 0.94% improvement (p
ers performed 1 familiarization session and 6 = 0.0013) in 20 meter sprint time with both the
separate test sessions. Each session included dynamic and static stretch groups. No such dif-
a standardized warm-up followed by 1 of the ference in sprint performance between dynamic
after preconditioning exercises: 30-seconds of and static stretch groups existed in the absence
half-squats with WBV at either 50 or 30 Hz or of the sport specific warm-up. The static stretch
half-squats without WBV. The 40-m sprint was condition increased sit and reach range of mo-
performed 1 minute after the preconditioning tion (ROM) by 2.8% more (p = 0.0083) than the
exercise. For each subject, each of the 3 proto- dynamic condition. These results would support
cols was repeated twice on separate days in a the use of static stretching within an activity spe-
randomized order. Mean values were used in the cific warm-up to ensure maximal ROM along with
statistical analysis. Performing the precondition- an enhancement in sprint performance.
ing exercise with WBV at a frequency of 50 Hz
resulted in a superior 40-m sprint performance Sander, A.; Keiner, M.; Schlumberger, A.;
compared to preconditioning exercise without Wirth, K.; Schmidtbleicher, D.
WBV (5.48 ± 0.19 vs. 5.52 ± 0.21 seconds, re- Effects of functional exercises in the warm-
spectively, p < 0.05). There was no difference
up on sprint performances
between preconditioning exercise with WBV at a Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
frequency of 30 Hz and the no-WBV condition. In Colorado Springs, 27, (2013), 4, pp. 995-1001
conclusion, preconditioning exercise performed The process of warming up prepares athletes for
with WBV at 50 Hz seems to enhance 40-m subsequent stress and increases their level of
sprint performance in recreationally trained soc- performance. Functional exercises are often in-
cer players. The present findings suggest that cluded in warm-up programs for power sports,
coaches can incorporate such exercise into the although a positive effect of functional exercises
warm-up to improve sprint performance or the has not been confirmed. The aim of this study
quality of the sprint training. was to measure a possible effect of functional
exercises on sprint performance included in
Samson, M.; Button, D. C.; Chaouachi, A.; a warm-up program. A total of 121 elite youth
Behm, D. G. soccer players between 13 and 18 years of age
Effects of dynamic and static stretching participated in this study and performed 2 differ-
within general and activity specific warm- ent warm-up programs. The first program (NWP)
up protocols consisted of 5 minutes of nonspecific running,
Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, Bursa, 11, coordination exercises, stretching, and accelera-
(2012), 2, pp. 279-285, URL:http://www.jssm.org/ tion runs. The second program (WPS) was the
vol11/n2/11/v11n2-11text.php, http://www.jssm.org/ same with additional functional exercises. The
vol11/n2/11/v11n2-11pdf.pdf subjects were tested performing linear sprints
The purpose of the study was to determine the of approximately 30 m and change-of-direction
effects of static and dynamic stretching protocols sprints of approximately 10 m. The t-test for de-
within general and activity specific warm-ups. pendent samples showed significant differences
Nine male and ten female subjects were tested between the groups for each segment of the lin-
under four warm-up conditions including a 1) ear sprint (p < 0.01 for 5 m; p < 0.001 for 10, 15,
general aerobic warm-up with static stretching, 2) 20, 25, and 30 m); however, the effect sizes are
general aerobic warm-up with dynamic stretch- small. Also, in the change-of-direction sprint, the

114 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 No. 99: Warm-Up

t-test showed significant differences between the Many athletes and coaches also believe that light
groups (p < 0.01 for 10 m left, 10 m right; p < aerobic exercise augments the results of stretch-
0.001 for 5 m right). These effect sizes are also ing. There is little empirical evidence that shows
small. In the change-of-direction sprint time for 5 that warming up by light exercise (i.e., jogging)
m left, the data showed no significant differences before stretching will significantly increase flex-
between the groups. The results show no effects ibility. The purpose of this paper is to examine the
of functional exercises on sprint performance that research considering the acute performance ef-
are implemented in addition to a general warm- fects of stretching.
up. It appears that a general warm-up program,
such as the NWP, generates sufficient activation Schipani, D.
of the performance-limiting muscles for sprint Inside moves. To avoid injury on chilly out-
performance. Functional exercises did not lead door runs, warm up indoor first
to a supplemental activation with a positive effect Runner’s World, Emmaus, 48, (2013), 2, pp. 46
on sprint performance. Therefore, a warm-up for Starting a run at cold outside temperatures with
sprint performance should contain nonspecific cold and stiff muscles can lead to injuries. Warm-
running, coordination exercises, stretching ex- ing-up before the run increases the heart rate,
ercises, and acceleration runs. These compo- the core temperature, and the muscle blood flow.
nents lead to sufficient activation of the muscles This in turn reduces the strain on the organism
involved in sprint performance. Coaches should during hard work under unfavourable environ-
use the limited time available for warm-up to work mental conditions. Ideally, the warm-up should
efficiently. The recommendation for warm-up is take place indoors, for example in the form of ten
to pass on functional exercises that have no ad- minutes of dynamic Yoga exercises. Six of these
ditional effect in enhancing performance. exercises are presented in this article.

Schilling, B. K. Sekir, U.; Arabaci, R.; Akova, B.; Kadagan, S.

Stretching: acute effects on strength and M.
power performance Acute effects of static and dynamic stretch-
ing on leg flexor and extensor isokinetic
Strength and Conditioning Journal, Colorado strength in elite women athletes
Springs, 22, (2000), 1, pp. 44-47
Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in
Stretching (flexibility training) has long been part
Sports, Oxford, 20, (2010), 2, pp. 268-281
of the warm-up routine for athletes. The use of
The aim of this study was to explore the effects
stretching as part of the warm-up comes from the
of static and dynamic stretching of the leg flexors
belief that stretching will aid in subsequent per-
and extensors on concentric and eccentric peak
formance and help prevent injury. The type and
torque (PT) and electromyography (EMG) ampli-
degree of stretching used as part of a warm-up
tude of the leg extensors and flexors in women
routine varies among sports. Our observations
athletes. Ten elite women athletes completed
of many strength/power athletes (including elite
the following intervention protocol in a random-
weightlifters, powerlifters, track and field throw-
ized order on separate days: (a) non-stretching
ers, etc.) suggest that many of these athletes do
(control), (b) static stretching, and (c) dynamic
little in the way of general stretching (especially
stretching. Stretched muscles were the quadri-
the agonist muscle groups) or general warm-up.
ceps and hamstring muscles. Before and after
The pre-event and prepractice routines of these
the stretching or control intervention, concentric
athletes consist more of sport-specific exercises
and eccentric isokinetic PT and EMG activity of
done with light resistance and/or low velocity,
the leg extensors and flexors were measured at
slowly building up to full effort. This contradicts
60 and 180°/s. Concentric and eccentric quadri-
the suggestions of Arnheim, who states, "general
ceps and hamstring muscle strength at both test
warm-up procedures should consist of jogging
speeds displayed a significant decrease following
or easy running, gradual stretching, and general
static stretching (P < 0.01–0.001). In contrast, a
exercises. These procedures should mobilize the
significant increase was observed after dynamic
body for action and make it supple and free."
stretching for these strength parameters (P <

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 115

No. 99: Warm-Up

0.05–0.001). Parallel to this, normalized EMG compromised when static stretching is conduct-
amplitude parameters exhibited significant de- ed after dynamic activities and immediately prior
creases following static (P < 0.05–0.001) and sig- to performance (D-S).
nificant increases following dynamic stretching (P
< 0.05–0.001) during quadriceps and hamstring Skurvydas, A.; Kamandulis, S.; Stanislovaitis,
muscle actions at both concentric and eccentric A.; Streckis, V.; Mamkus, G.; Drazdauskas, A.
testing modes. Our findings suggest that dynam- Leg immersion in warm water, stretch-
ic stretching, as opposed to static or no stretch- shortening exercise, and exercise-induced
ing, may be an effective technique for enhancing
muscle damage
muscle performance during the pre-competition Journal of Athletic Training, Dallas (Tex), 43, (2008),
warm-up routine in elite women athletes. 6, pp. 592-599, URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC2582551/pdf/attr-43-06-592.pdf
Sim, A. Y.; Dawson, B. T.; Guelfi, K. J.; Wall- Context: Whether muscle warming protects
man, K. E.; Young, W. B. against exercise-induced muscle damage is un-
Effects of static stretching in warm-up on known.Objective: To determine the effect of leg
repeated sprint performance immersion in warm water before stretch-short-
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, ening exercise on the time course of indirect
Colorado Springs, 23, (2009), 7, 2155-2162 markers of exercise-induced muscle damage.
The aim of this study was to examine the effects Design: Crossover trial. Setting: Human kinetics
of static stretching during warm-up on repeated laboratory. Patients or Other Participants: Eleven
sprint performance and also to assess any in- healthy, untrained men (age = 21.5 ± 1.7 years).
fluence of the order in which dynamic activities Intervention(s): Participants’ legs were immersed
(i.e., run-throughs and drills) and static stretch- in a water bath at 44 ± 1°C for 45 minutes. Main
ing are conducted. Thirteen male team sport Outcome Measure(s): Creatine kinase changes
players completed a repeated sprint ability test in the blood, muscle soreness, prolonged (with-
consisting of three sets of maximal 6 x 20-m in 72 hours) impairment in maximal voluntary
sprints (going every 25 seconds) after perform- contraction force and height of drop jump, and
ing one of three different warm-up protocols in electrically evoked muscle force at low and high
a within-subjects counterbalanced design. Each stimulation frequencies at short and long muscle
warm-up protocol involved an initial 1000-m jog, lengths. Results: Leg immersion in warm water
followed by either dynamic activities only (D), before stretch-shortening exercise reduced most
static stretching followed by dynamic activities of the indirect markers of exercise-induced mus-
(S-D), or dynamic activities followed by static cle damage, including creatine kinase activity in
stretching (D-S). First (FST), best (BST) and to- the blood, muscle soreness, maximal voluntary
tal (TST) 20-m sprint times were determined for contraction force, and jump height. The values
each individual set of the repeated sprint ability for maximal voluntary contraction force and jump
test and overall (3 sets combined). Although con- height, however, were higher during prewarming
sistent significant differences were not observed than for the control condition at 48 hours after
between trials for TST, BST, and FST, the mean stretch-shortening exercise, but this difference
values for TST in all individual sets and overall was only minor at other time points. Muscle pre-
were generally slowest in the D-S condition (D = warming did not bring about any changes in the
60.264 ± 1.127 seconds; S-D = 60.347 ± 1.774 dynamics of low-frequency fatigue, registered
seconds; D-S = 60.830 ± 1.786 seconds). This at either short or long muscle length, within 72
trend was supported by moderate to large effect hours of stretch-shortening exercise. Conclu-
sizes and qualitative indications of “possible” or sions: Leg immersion in warm water before
“likely” benefits for TST, BST, and FST for the D stretch-shortening exercise reduced most of
and S-D warm-ups compared to D-S. No signifi- the indirect markers of exercise-induced mus-
cant differences or large effect sizes were noted cle damage. However, the clinical application
between D and S-D, indicating similar repeated of muscle prewarming may be limited, because
sprint ability performance. Overall, these results decreasing muscle damage did not necessarily
suggest that 20-m repeated sprint ability may be lead to improved voluntary performance.

116 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

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Small, K.; MacNaughton, L.; Matthews, M. up. During the warm-up of the experimental TTs,
A systematic review into the efficacy of runners wore either a t-shirt (control [C]) or a cool-
static stretching as part of a warm-up for ing vest (V), the order of which was randomized.
the prevention of exercise-related injury No differences were found between the C and V
Research in Sports Medicine, Philadelphia (Penns.), conditions for the 10-km TT times (2,533 ± 144
16, (2008), 3, pp. 213-231, URL: http://pdfserve.in- and 2,543 ± 149 seconds, respectively) (p = 0.746)
formaworld.com/859502__902387146.pdf, http:// or any of the 2-km split times. Heart rate (HR) at
www.informaworld.com/smpp/section?content=a9 the start of the TT equaled 90 ± 17 b•min−1 for C
02387146&fulltext=713240928 and 94 ± 16 b•min−1 for V. The HR peaked at 184
A systematic review of the literature was under- ± 20 b•min−1 in C and 181 ± 19 b•min−1 in V. At
taken to assess the efficacy of static stretching as the start of the TT Tc was 37.65 ± .72°C in C and
part of the warm-up for the prevention of exercise- 37.29 ± .73°C in V (p = 0.067). In C, Tc gradually in-
related injuries. Computer-aided literature search creased until 39.34 ± 0.43°C while in V is reached
for articles post-1990 and pre-January 2008 re- 39.18 ± 0.72°C (p = 0.621). Although rating of per-
lated to static stretching and injury prevention us- ceived exertion (RPE) and Thermal sensation (TS)
ing MEDLINE, SPORT Discus, PubMed, and Sci- increased during both experimental TTs, there
enceDirect databases. All relevant randomised were no differences between V and C. Findings
clinical trials (RCTs) and controlled clinical trials suggest wearing a cooling vest during a warm-up
(CCTs) satisfying inclusion/exclusion criteria were does not improve 10-km performance. The use of
evaluated by methodological assessment to cooling vests during the warm-up did not produce
score the studies using accredited criteria. Seven any physiological (HR and Tc) or psychological
out of 364 studies met the inclusion/exclusion cri- (RPE and TS) benefit, perhaps accounting for the
teria. All four RCTs concluded that static stretch- lack of improvement.
ing was ineffective in reducing the incidence of
exercise-related injury, and only one of the three Stewart, M.; Adams, R.; Alonso, A.; Koesveld,
CCTs concluded that static stretching did reduce B. van; Campbell, S.
the incidence of exercise-related injury. Three out Warm-up or stretch as preparation for
of the seven studies noted significant reductions sprint performance?
in musculotendinous and ligament injuries follow- Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Belcon-
ing a static stretching protocol despite nonsig- nen, 10, (2007), 6, pp. 403-410
nificant reductions in the all-injury risk. All RCTs Warm-up and stretching are widely used as tech-
scored over 50 points (maximum possible score niques in preparation for intense physical activity,
= 100), whereas all CCTs scored under 45 points. yet there is little information available to compare
There is moderate to strong evidence that routine their effectiveness in relation to athletic perfor-
application of static stretching does not reduce mance. Fourteen elite Under-19 year old rugby
overall injury rates. There is preliminary evidence, league footballers undertook each of four prepa-
however, that static stretching may reduce mus- ration protocols (no preparation, stretching only,
culotendinous injuries. warm-up only, warm-up and stretching) in four
successive testing sessions. Protocols were ran-
Stannard, A. B.; Brandenburg, J. P.; Pitney, W. domly allocated to players in a counterbalanced
A.; Lukaszuk, J. M. design so that each type of preparation occurred
Effects of wearing a cooling vest during the equally on each day of testing. During each ses-
warm-up on 10-km run performance sion, athletes performed three solo sprint trials at
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, maximum speed. Sprints were of 40-m distance
Philadelphia (Penns.), 25, (2011), 7, pp. 2018-2024 and were electronically timed with wind speed and
The purpose of this study was to examine whether direction recorded. Preparation involving warm-up
wearing a cooling vest during an active warm-up resulted in significantly faster sprint times com-
would improve the 10-km time trial (TT) perfor- pared to preparations having no warm-up, with
mance of endurance runners. Seven male runners a diminishing effect over the three trials. On the
completed 3 10-km TTs (1 familiarization and 2 ex- first trial, warm-up resulted in a mean advantage
perimental) on a treadmill after a 30-minute warm- of 0.97 m over 40 m. Stretching resulted in a mean

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 117

No. 99: Warm-Up

disadvantage of 0.18 m on the first trial, and no Takizawa, K.; Soma, T.; Nosaka, K.; Ishikawa, T.;
significant effect overall despite significant wind Ishii, K.
assistance. Warm-up was effective at improv- Effect of warm-up exercise on delayed-on-
ing immediate sprint performance, whereas an set muscle soreness
equivalent duration of lower limb stretching had no European Journal of Sport Science, Abingdon, 12,
effect. (2012), 6, pp. 455-461
In this study, we wished to determine whether a
Takizawa, K.; Ishii, K. warm-up exercise consisting of 100 submaximal
The effects of different warm-up loads concentric contractions would attenuate de-
[routines] at equal total workload for high layed-onset muscle soreness and decreases in
intensity exercise performance
muscle strength associated with eccentric exer-
International Journal of Sport and Health Science, cise-induced muscle damage. Ten male students
Tokyo, 4, (2006), pp. 1-9, URL: http://www.shobix. performed two bouts of an elbow flexor exercise
co.jp/ijshs/tempfiles/journal/5/20040078.pdf consisting of 12 maximal eccentric contractions
It is well known that warm-up (W-up) routines im- with a warm-up exercise for one arm (warm-up)
prove exercise performance and that the dura- and without warm-up for the other arm (control)
tion and intensity of W-up affects high intensity in a randomized, counterbalanced order sepa-
aerobic exercise performance. Previous studies rated by 4 weeks. Muscle temperature of the bi-
have suggested that intensity and/or duration of ceps brachii prior to the exercise was compared
W-up affect high intensity aerobic exercise per- between the arms, and muscle activity of the bi-
formance, but the total workloads used in those ceps brachii during the exercise was assessed
studies were different. In this study, the effects by surface integral electromyogram (iEMG).
of W-ups of different intensities upon the equal Changes in visual analogue scale for muscle
total workloads of high intensity aerobic exercise soreness and maximal voluntary isometric con-
performance were investigated. Subjects per- traction strength (MVC) of the elbow flexors were
formed three exercise tests under differing W-up assessed before, immediately after, and every 24
conditions. These conditions were firstly W-up h for 5 days following exercise, and compared
at lactate threshold (LT), secondly at 50%LT and between the warm-up and control conditions by
thirdly, at the onset of blood lactate accumulation a two-way repeated-measures analysis of vari-
(OBLA). The total workload of each W-up was ance. The pre-exercise biceps brachii muscle
the equal as 15 minutes at LT. Following a 5-min temperature was significantly (P < 0.01) higher for
rest period after completion of W-up, each sub- the warm-up (35.8±0.2°C) than the control con-
ject performed a cycling exercise test at 100% dition (34.4±0.2°C), but no significant differences
V02peak until experiencing exhaustion. The dura- in iEMG and torque produced during exercise
tion of the exercise test was used as an index of were evident between conditions. Changes in
exercise performance. Vastus lateralis and rectal muscle soreness and MVC were not significantly
temperatures of each subject were measured. No different between conditions, although these
significant differences were observed at vastus variables showed significant (P < 0.05) changes
lateralis (50%LT; 36.8 ± 0.4 °C, LT; 37.2 ± 0.5 °C, over time. It was concluded that the warm-up ex-
OBLA; 37.4 ± 0.3 °C, p>0.05) or rectal (50%LT; ercise was not effective in mitigating delayed-on-
37.0 ± 0.3 °C, LT; 37.2 ± 0.4 °C, OBLA; 37.4 ± 0.4 set muscle soreness and loss of muscle strength
°C, p>0.05) temperatures after performing W-up following maximal eccentric exercise.
at any of the three different intensities. Similarly,
significant differences were observed at exercise Taylor, J. M.; Weston, M.; Portas, M. D.
test duration between W-up conditions (50%LT; The effect of a short practical warm-up
214.1 ± 84.4 sec, LT; 306.7 ± 125.5 sec, OBLA; protocol on repeated sprint performance
274.4 ± 118.0 sec, p>0.05). These results suggest Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
that if total workloads are the equal and rises in Colorado Springs, 27, (2013), 7, pp. 2034-2038
body temperature are similar, W-ups of different The aim of our study was to investigate the ef-
intensities have the same effect on high intensity fect of a short, practical, 2-phase warm-up on
aerobic exercise performance. repeated sprint performance when compared

118 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 No. 99: Warm-Up

with more traditional warm-up protocols that lowed the same design; however, the static
contain stretching activities. Eleven subelite male stretching was replaced with a 15 min dynamic
soccer players completed a warm-up protocol warm-up routine to allow for a direct compari-
that commenced with 5 minutes jogging at ap- son between the static stretching and dynamic
proximately 65% of maximal heart rate, followed warm-up effects. Participants performed a coun-
by no stretching, static stretching, or dynamic termovement vertical jump and 20 m sprint after
stretching and finishing with a task-specific high- the first warm-up intervention (static or dynamic)
intensity activity. Using a crossover design, the 3 and also after the netball specific skill warm-up.
warm-up protocols were performed in a counter- The static stretching condition resulted in sig-
balanced order with at least 48 hours between nificantly worse performance than the dynamic
sessions. Repeated sprint performance was warm-up in vertical jump height (−4.2%, 0.40 ES)
measured using a repeated sprint test that con- and 20 m sprint time (1.4%, 0.34 ES) (p < 0.05).
sisted of 6 × 40-m maximal sprints interspersed However, no significant differences in either per-
with a 20-second recovery. There were trivial dif- formance variable were evident when the skill-
ferences in mean sprint time (0.2%) and posttest based warm-up was preceded by static stretch-
blood lactate (3.1%) between the 2-phase warm- ing or a dynamic warm-up routine. This suggests
up and the 3-phase warm-up that included dy- that the practice of a subsequent high-intensity
namic stretching, whereas the short warm-up skill based warm-up restored the differences be-
had a possibly detrimental effect on fastest sprint tween the two warm-up interventions. Hence, if
time (0.7%). Fastest (−1.1%) and mean (−1.2%) static stretching is to be included in the warm-up
sprint times were quicker and posttest blood period, it is recommended that a period of high-
lactates were higher (13.2%) after the 2-phase intensity sport-specific skills based activity is in-
warm-up when compared with the 3-phase cluded prior to the on-court/field performance.
warm-up that included static stretching. Although
it is not harmful to complete a traditional 3-phase Terzis, G.; Karampatsos, G.; Kyriazis, T.;
warm-up that includes dynamic stretching, it ap- Kavouras, S. A.; Georgiadis, G.
pears practical for athletes preparing for activities Acute effects of countermovement jumping
dependent on repeated sprint ability to complete and sprinting on shot put performance
a 2-phase warm-up consisting of a cardiovascu- Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
lar and specific high-intensity activity. Colorado Springs, 26, (2012), 3, pp. 684-690
The purpose of this study was to investigate the
Taylor, K.-L.; Sheppard, J. M.; Lee, H.; acute effects of countermovement jumping and
Plummer, N. sprinting on shot put performance in experienced
Negative effect of static stretching re- shot putters. Ten shot putters (best performance
stored when combined with a sport spe- 13.16-20.36 m) participated in the study. After a
cific warm-up component standard warm-up including jogging, stretching,
Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Belcon- and 4-6 submaximal puts, they performed 3 shot
nen, 12, (2009), 6, pp. 657-661 put attempts with maximum effort, separated with
There is substantial evidence that static stretch- 1.5-minute interval. Three minutes later, they per-
ing may inhibit performance in strength and pow- formed 3 maximal consecutive countermovement
er activities. However, most of this research has jumps (CMJs). Immediately after jumping, they
involved stretching routines dissimilar to those performed 3 shot put attempts with maximum
practiced by athletes. The purpose of this study effort, separated with a 1.5-minute interval. One
was to evaluate whether the decline in perfor- week later, they carried out a similar protocol, at
mance normally associated with static stretching similar external conditions, but they performed a
pervades when the static stretching is conducted bout of 20-m sprinting instead of the CMJs, to po-
prior to a sport specific warm-up. Thirteen netball tentiate shot put performance. Muscular strength
players completed two experimental warm-up (1 repetition maximum in squat, snatch, bench
conditions. Day 1 warm-up involved a submaxi- press, incline bench press) and body composition
mal run followed by 15 min of static stretching (dual x-ray absorptiometry) were measured dur-
and a netball specific skill warm-up. Day 2 fol- ing the same training period (±10 days from the

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 119

No. 99: Warm-Up

jumping and sprinting protocols). Shot put perfor- the last 4 exercises (DYV). Analysis of the data
mance was significantly increased after the CMJs revealed that VJ performance was significantly
(15.45 ± 2.36 vs. 15.85 ± 2.41 m, p = 0.0003). greater (p < 0.05) following DYV (43.9 ± 6.7 cm)
Similarly, shot put performance was significantly and DY (43.6 ± 6.5 cm) as compared to SS (41.7
increased after sprinting (15.34 ± 2.41 vs. 15.90 ± ± 6.0 cm). Long jump performance was signifi-
2.46 m, p = 0.0007). The increase in performance cantly greater (p < 0.05) following DYV (186.8 ±
after sprinting was significantly higher compared 19.5 cm) as compared to DY (182.2 ± 19.1 cm),
with the increase after jumping (2.64 ± 1.59 vs. which in turn was significantly greater (p < 0.05)
3.74 ± 1.88%, p = 0.02). In conclusion, the results than performance following SS (177.2 ± 18.8
of this study indicate that a standard warm-up cm). Warm-up protocols that include dynamic
protocol followed by 3 maximal bouts of shot exercise may be a viable method of enhancing
put and either 3 consecutive countermovement jumping performance in athletic women as com-
jumps or a bout of 20-m sprinting induce an acute pared to stationary cycling and static stretching.
increase in shot put performance in experienced In addition, these data suggest that it may be
shot putters. desirable for athletic women to perform dynamic
exercises with a weighted vest on some move-
Thomas, M. ments prior to the performance of the long jump.
The functional warm-up
National Strength and Conditioning Association Tsolakis, C.; Bogdanis, G. C.
Journal, Lincoln (Nebr.), 22, (2000), 2, pp. 51-53 Acute effects of two different warm-up pro-
The warm-up is generally designed to prepare
tocols on flexibility and lower limb explo-
sive performance in male and female high
the cardiorespiratory and musculoskeletal sys-
level athletes
tems to meet the demands of exercise. It also
Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, Bursa, 11,
mentally prepares the individual for the activity
(2012), 4, pp. 669-675, URL:http://www.jssm.org/
that he or she is about to perform. When most
vol11/n4/13/v11n4-13pdf.pdf
people think about warming up, there are 3 ideas
This study examined the effects of two differ-
that typically come to mind: stretching, the basic
ent warm-up protocols on lower limb power and
warm-up, and the specific warm-up.
flexibility in high level athletes. Twenty interna-
tional level fencers (10 males and 10 females)
Thompson, A. G.; Kackley, T.; Palumbo, M. A.;
performed two warm-up protocols that included
Faigenbaum, A. D.
Acute effects of different warm-up proto- 5-min light jogging and either short (15s) or long
cols with and without a weighted vest on (45s) static stretching exercises for each of the
jumping performance in athletic women main leg muscle groups (quadriceps, hamstrings
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, and triceps surae), followed by either 3 sets of 3
Colorado Springs, 21, (2007), 1, 52-56 (short stretching treatment), or 3 sets of 5 tuck
The purpose of this study was to examine the jumps (long stretching treatment), in a random-
acute effects of 3 different warm-up protocols ized crossover design with one week between
with and without a weighted vest on vertical jump treatments. Hip joint flexion was measured with a
(VJ) and long jump (LJ) performance in athletic Lafayette goniometer before and after the 5-min
women. Sixteen subjects (19.7 ± 1.4 years, 67.0 warm-up, after stretching and 8 min after the tuck
± 10.7 kg, 165.7 ± 11.4 cm) participated in 3 test- jumps, while counter movement jump (CMJ) per-
ing sessions in random order on 3 nonconsecu- formance was evaluated by an Ergojump contact
tive days. Prior to the testing of the VJ and LJ, the platform, before and after the stretching treat-
subjects performed 1 of the following 10-minute ment, as well as immediately after and 8 minutes
warm-up protocols: (a) low- to moderate-inten- after the tuck jumps. Three way ANOVA (condi-
sity stationary cycling followed by 4 lower-body tion, time, gender) revealed significant time (p <
static stretches (SS) (3 x 20 seconds); (b) 12 0.001) and gender (p < 0.001) main effects for hip
moderate- to high-intensity dynamic exercises joint flexion, with no interaction between factors.
(DY); and (c) the same 12 dynamic exercises with Flexibility increased by 6. 8 ± 1.1% (p < 0.01) after
a weighted vest (10% of body mass) worn for warm-up and by another 5.8 ± 1.6% (p < 0.01) af-

120 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 No. 99: Warm-Up

ter stretching, while it remained increased 8 min the 3 postintervention measures of 10- to 20-m
after the tuck jumps. Women had greater ROM sprints. There were no significant time, condition,
compared with men at all time points (125 ± 8° and interaction effects over the 10-m sprint time.
vs. 94 ± 4° p<0.01 at baseline), but the pattern of For the 0- to 20-m sprint time, a significant main
change in hip flexibility was not different between effect for the pre-post measurement (F = 10.81;
genders. CMJ performance was greater in men p < 0.002), the dynamic stretching condition (F =
compared with women at all time points (38.2 ± 6.23; p = 0.004) and an interaction effect (F = 41.19;
1.9 cm vs. 29.8 ± 1.2 cm p < 0.01 at baseline), p = 0.0001) were observed. A significant decrease
but the percentage of change CMJ performance in sprint time (improvement in sprint performance)
was not different between genders. CMJ per- post-ADS1 (2.56%, p = 0.001) and post-ADS2
formance remained unchanged throughout the (2.61%, p = 0.001) was observed. Conversely, the
short stretching protocol, while it decreased by results indicated a significant increase in sprint
5.5 ± 0.9% (p < 0.01) after stretching in the long time (sprint performance impairment) post-ADS3
stretching protocol However, 8 min after the tuck condition (2.58%, p = 0.001). Data indicate that
jumps, CMJ performance was not different from performing 1–2 sets of 20 m of active dynamic
the baseline value (p = 0.075). In conclusion, low- stretches in a warm-up can enhance 20-m sprint
er limb power may be decreased after long peri- performance. The results delineated that 3 sets
ods of stretching, but performance of explosive of ADS repetitions could induce acute fatigue and
exercises may reverse this phenomenon. impair sprint performance within 5 minutes of the
warm-up.
Turki, O.; Chaouachi, A.; Behm, D. G.; Chtara,
H.; Chtara, M.; Bishop, D.; Chamari, K.; Amri, M. Ückert, S.; Joch, W.
The effect of warm-ups incorporating dif- The effects of warm-up and pre-cooling on
ferent volumes of dynamic stretching on endurance performance in high ambient
temperatures
10- and 20-m sprint performance in highly
trained male athletes New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 22, (2007), 1, pp.
33-38
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
lt is well established that warm conditions have
Colorado Springs, 26, (2012), 1, pp. 63-72
a detrimental effect an endurance performance.
Recently, athletes have transitioned from tradi-
If skin temperature is exceeded by the ambi-
tional static stretching during warm-ups to incor-
ent temperature, heat dissipation is impaired
porating dynamic stretching routines. However,
and heat storage is likely to occur. A warm-up,
the optimal volume of dynamic drills is yet to be
which by definition entails increasing body tem-
identified. The aim of this repeated-measures
perature, is generally considered a vital part of
study was to examine varying volumes (1, 2, and 3
the preparation for competition – including en-
sets) of active dynamic stretching (ADS) in a warm-
durance performances in hot weather. On this
up on 10- and 20-m sprint performance. With a
understanding, the question arises if cooling
within-subject design, 16 highly trained male par-
prior to competition (pre-cooling) might be a
ticipants (age: 20.9 ± 1.3 years; height: 179.7 ± 5.7
better alternative. Twenty subjects performed
cm; body mass: 72.7 ± 7.9 kg; % body fat: 10.9 ±
two laboratory endurance tests in conditions of
2.4) completed a 5-minute general running warm-
high ambient temperature and relative humidity.
up before performing 3 preintervention measures
One test followed a 20- minute warm-up and the
of 10- to 20-m sprint. The interventions included
other o 20-minute pre-cooling procedure. The
1, 2, and 3 sets of active dynamic stretches of the
comparison of results shows that pre-cooling
lower-body musculature (gastrocnemius, gluteals,
significantly extends the time to exhaustion and
hamstrings, quadriceps, and hip flexors) per-
slows the increase in both body core tempera-
formed approximately 14 times for each exercise
ture and heart rate. The authors conclude that
while walking (ADS1, ADS2, and ADS3). The ac-
pre-cooling, as opposed to warm-up, optimises
tive dynamic warm-ups were randomly allocated
thermoregulatory processes before physical ef-
before performing a sprint-specific warm-up. Five
fort in warm conditions.
minutes separated the end of the warm-up and

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 121

No. 99: Warm-Up

Vetter, R. E. known about the potential mechanisms of WU

Effects of six warm-up protocols on sprint on performance and on the lactate distribution
and jump performance in the blood compartment. The purpose of the
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, present study was to investigate whether differ-
Colorado Springs, 21, (2007), 3, 819-823 ent WU procedures affect performance and lac-
The purpose of this study was to compare the tate distribution between plasma and red blood
effects of 6 warm-up protocols, with and with- cells (RBCs) after maximal exercise. At three dif-
out stretches, on 2 different power maneuvers: ferent occasions eleven subjects performed one
a 30-m sprint run and a vertical counter- move- 30 s maximal effort exercise on a cycle ergom-
ment jump (CJ). The 6 protocols were: (a) walk eter. Before each exercise, subjects warmed up
plus run (WR); (b) WR plus exercises including at different intensities: 1. no WU (NWU); 2. ex-
small jumps (EJ); (c) WR plus dynamic active tensive WU (EWU); 3. intensive WU (IWU). Blood
stretch plus exercises with small jumps (DAEJ); samples were taken under resting conditions,
(d) WR plus dynamic active stretch (DA); (e) WR after WU, and in 1 minute intervals during recov-
plus static stretch plus exercises with small ery to determine lactate concentrations [LA] in
jumps (SSEJ); and (f) WR plus static stretch (SS). whole blood ([LA]WB), plasma ([LA]plasma) and
Twenty-six college-age men (n = 14) and women erythrocytes ([LA]RBC). Mean power output was
(n = 12) performed each of 6 randomly ordered +58 Watt (EWU) and +60 Watt (IWU) higher com-
exercise routines prior to randomly ordered pared to NWU. For each WU condition [LA]plas-
sprint and vertical jump field tests; each routine ma and [LA]RBC differed significantly at any time
and subsequent tests were performed on sepa- point, showing greater [LA]plasma compared to
rate days. A 2 X 6 repeated measures analysis of [LA]RBC. The maximal effort exercise caused a
variance revealed a significant overall linear trend rapid decrease of the [LA]RBC/[LA]plasma ratio.
(p <= 0.05) with a general tendency toward re- [LA]RBC reached the peak 3-5 minutes later than
duction in jump height when examined in the fol- [LA]plasma depending on the WU condition. The
lowing analysis entry order: WR, EJ, DAEJ, DA, initial increments in [LA]RBC were 10-16% low-
SSEJ, and SS. The post hoc analysis pairwise er after IWU compared to NWU and EWU. The
comparisons showed the WR protocol produced lower increment of [LA]RBC after IWU might be
higher jumps than did SS (p = 0.003 <= 0.05), due to a "higher preloading" with lactate before
and DAEJ produced higher jumps than did SS exercise, causing a smaller initial [LA] gradient
(p = 0.009 <= 0.05). There were no significant between plasma and RBCs. It seems that the in-
differences among the 6 protocols on sprint run flux decreases with increasing intracellular [LA].
performance (p >= 0.05). No significant inter- Another possibility one could speculate about
action occurred between gender and protocol. is, that the extracellular increase in [LA] inhibits
There were significant differences between men the outflux of lactate produced by the RBC itself.
and women on CJ and sprint trials; as expected, This inhibited export of lactate from RBCs may
in general men ran faster and jumped higher than lead to an intracellular lactate accumulation. But
the women did. The data indicate that a warm-up the relatively fast increase in [LA]RBC and other
including static stretching may negatively impact investigations partly contradicts this possibility.
jump performance, but not sprint time.
Wensor, D.
Wahl, P.; Zinner, C.; Yue, Z.; Bloch, W.; Mester, J. Warming up the crowd: ideas for warming
Warming-up affects performance and lac- up groups of young athletes
tate distribution between plasma and red Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide, 50, (2012), 3,
blood cells
p. 7
Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, Bursa, 9, The warm-up that a coach uses with young ath-
(2010), 3, pp. 499-507, URL: http://www.jssm.org/ letes at the beginning of a practice session should
vol9/n3/20/v9n3-20text.php, http://www.jssm.org/ be different to what is used for older, more ex-
vol9/n3/20/v9n3-20pdf.pdf perienced athletes. This is because the coach’s
Warming-up (WU) is a widely used preparation intent when conducting a warm-up for young
for training and competition. However, little is athletes can be different to that of the coach who

122 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 No. 99: Warm-Up

is directing a warm-up for older athletes. Whilst petition takes a long time stretching his thigh
a warm-up for young athletes certainly has value muscles. When doing some warm-up jumps he
in achieving the often-cited goals of raising body feels some muscle stiffness in his left quadriceps
temperature and heart rate, preparing the mus- (assume the right leg is his take-off leg). Fear-
cles and joints for the activity to follow, and help- ing he may not have stretched intensely enough,
ing to prevent injury, the most important role of and thinking of the advice from both his coach,
the warm-up for this age group is to set the mood and physiotherapist of how to get rid of muscle
and pace for the session that is to follow and to stiffness, he does additional stretching for the
enthuse the athletes. The coach wants to capture quadriceps, in order to be well prepared for his
the participants’ attention and to get the partici- first competition jump. However, during the take-
pants “on side”. The warm-up is also an ideal time off phase of his first competition jump disaster
to develop general movement skills and athletic strikes. As he swings his left leg up, the athlete
qualities in young athletes. Therefore the coach feels a sharp pain in his left quad, which forces
should plan and conduct a warm-up that: 1. Is him to abandon the jump and the competition.
fun, 2. is very active, 3. contains a wide range of The authors then describe in great detail the ef-
movements and physical challenges. This can be fects of stretching, and the cause/s of injuries
achieved in a variety of ways but games and fun similar to that described above. In reaching their
activities should dominate the warm-up of young conclusions, they draw on new knowledge about
athletes. The time the warm-up takes can be ad- the anatomy of muscle fibers, as well as research
justed to suit the circumstances. that has examined the role of stretching in prepar-
ing to participate in vigorous physical activity. The
Wiemann, K.; Klee, A.; Probst, J. important conclusion that comes from muscle
The significance of stretching in the warm structure research is that the amount of passive
up before maximum performance tension the elastic elements of the muscle have
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide, 41, (2003), 4, to bear is by no means smaller during extreme
pp. 3-5 stretching than during active tension in voluntary
According to the authors, the perceived benefits maximal isometric contractions. Indeed, the pas-
of intense static stretching before a maximum sive tension from stretching can be much higher.
performance have not been proven. On the con- Consequently, the forces applied during contrac-
trary, intense static stretching prior to vigorous tions and stretching in training should have the
physical activity is responsible for a reduced per- same or similar effects. In the discussion on the
formance in addition to producing a higher risk effects of stretching, the authors emphasize the
of injury. This is not to say that regular stretch distinction between short-term and long-term
training will not improve performance by an in- stretch training programs. A short-term stretch
crease in joint flexibility. The issue is when to par- training program consists of 10-20 minutes
ticipate in static stretching sessions. The authors stretching with 3-5 sets of 3-10 repetitions, as it
argue that static stretching should be performed is often employed in the warm-up or cool-down
in separate training sessions. In the warm-up of a training session, or in the warm-up to a com-
phase immediately before maximal performanc- petition. A long-term stretch training program on
es only submaximal stretching should be used. the other hand is a series of short-term stretching
Five light, but dynamic, stretches are sufficient to programs carried out several times a week over a
prepare the body for action. period of several weeks or months. The authors
are concerned only with the short-term pro-
Wiemann, K.; Klee, A. grams. The distinction between intensive stretch-
The significance of stretching in the warm ing (e.g. stretching to the maximal tolerable ten-
up before maximum performance sion) and light, submaximal stretching is made.
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide, 42, (2004), 1, The benefits of stretching on the range of motion
24-26 at the joints (movement amplitude) are not ques-
In the introduction, the authors describe the fol- tioned. Short-term stretching has been found
lowing fictitious but familiar scenario: An athlete to increase the amplitude by at least 8%. The
(e.g. a long jumper), in his warm-up for a com- authors refer to a review on stretching research

New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014 123

No. 99: Warm-Up

conducted by Wydra (1997) who found that the Winchester, J. B.; Nelson, A. G.; Kokkonen, J.
conventional rhythmical-ballistic stretching (out of A single 30-s stretch is sufficient to inhibit
vogue for some time) has at least the same, and maximal voluntary strength
in some cases a superior effect on joint amplitude Research quarterly for exercise and sport, Philadel-
compared with that of static stretching. What is phia (Penns.), 80, (2009), 2, pp. 257-261
interesting is that the most gains in movement While it has been well established that an acute
amplitude are reached in the first 3-5 repetitions, stretching program can inhibit maximal muscle
with only slight increases with additional repeti- performance, the amount of stretching needed
tions. In a short-term stretch training session the to produce the deleterious response is un-
tension on the passive structures of the muscles known. Therefore this study examined the dose-
fibers increase. In stretching the muscle, the ath- response relationship between acute stretching
lete becomes accustomed to the stretch pain, and strength inhibition. Eighteen college students
which allows an increased tolerance of higher performed a one repetition maximum (1-RM) test
movement amplitudes. Consequently, the athlete of knee-flexion following 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 30-s
can reach or exceed the load limit of the passive bouts of hamstring stretching held at the limit of
structures of the muscle fibers without knowing toleration. All seven dose variations were done
it. To date it is not known which of the passive by each subject, with each variation done on a
structures are the weakest links. The adapta- separate day. One week separated each test,
tions occur at a neural (centraI-nervous system) and the order of the stretch variations was bal-
level, and subsequently a higher psychological anced across the seven testing days. Stretching
stress might increase the pain adaptation fur- significantly (p<.05) reduced 1-RM after one 30-s
ther. This may occur before competitions where stretch (5.4 percent), and continued to decrease
an athlete through stretching exceeds the limits 1-RM up to and including six 30-s stretches (12.4
of the passive structures of the muscles causing percent). A single 30-s stretch, if held at the limit
micro-trauma. The authors return to the fictitious of toleration, is sufficient to cause an inhibition in
long jumper and explain his injury as follows: The a person’s 1-RM. Additional bouts of stretching
athlete may have over-stretched in the warm-up, will further decrease the 1-RM, suggesting that
which caused micro-trauma in his rectus femoris. multiple mechanisms may be involved in stretch-
At the moment the right leg plants on the take-off induced strength inhibition.
board the rectus femoris of the take-off leg is in
an extremely stretched position, which produces Wittekind, A. L.; Beneke, R.
high passive tension. What follows is a high active Effect of warm-up on run time to exhaustion
tension as the leg swings up, adding to the pas- Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Belcon-
sive tension and causing the injury. The authors nen, 12, (2009), 4, pp. 480-484
conclude that the perceived benefits of intense It is not known whether warm-up protocols typi-
static stretching before a maximum performance cally employed by athletes are beneficial to per-
have not been proven. On the contrary, intense formance. The aim of this study was to investi-
static stretching prior to vigorous physical activ- gate the effect of warm-up on a perimaximal run
ity is responsible for a reduced performance in to exhaustion, VO2 kinetics, energy metabolism
addition to producing a higher risk of injury. This and running economy. Nine male distance run-
is not to say that regular stretch training will not ners ran to exhaustion at a speed correspond-
improve performance by an increase in joint flex- ing to 105% maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max)
ibility. The issue is when to participate in static after each of three different warm-up protocols:
stretching sessions. The authors argue that static no warm-up (NW), jog warm-up (WM), or jog with
stretching should be performed in separate train- strides (WH). Warm-up did not affect pre-run
ing sessions. In the warm-up phase immediately blood lactate concentration (BLC), BLC-increase
before maximal performances only submaximal (ΔBLC), net oxygen consumption, or running
stretching should be used. Five light, but dynam- economy. WH increased the amplitude of the pri-
ic, stretches are sufficient to prepare the body for mary VO2 response (mean (confidence intervals
action. of difference); 4083 ml min−1 vs. 3763 ml min−1
(−638, −2)), with no change in the time constant;

124 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014

 No. 99: Warm-Up

reduced the rate of BLC-increase (ΔBLC-rate) Yaicharoen, P.; Wallman, K.; Morton, A.;
(0.02 mmol l−1 s−1 vs. 0.03 mmol l−1 s−1 (0.003, Bishop, D.
0.01)); reduced anaerobic lactic power (109 W vs. The effect of warm-up on intermittent
141 W (13, 51)); reduced the relative anaerobic sprint performance and selected thermo-
lactic energy contribution (7.0% vs. 9.1% (0.8,
regulatory parameters
3.4)) compared to NW. The reduction in anaero- Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Belcon-
bic power associated with ΔBLC-rate between nen, 15, (2012), 5, pp. 451-456
NW and WH was significantly correlated with the Objectives: To investigate the effect of various
increase in aerobic power associated with the warm-up intensities based upon individual lac-
primary amplitude (r = 0.674, p < 0.05). Despite tate thresholds on subsequent intermittent sprint
these theoretically beneficial metabolic effects, performance, as well as to determine which tem-
WH did not significantly increase time to exhaus- perature (muscle; Tmu, rectal; Tre or body; Tb)
tion vs. NW (290 s vs.316 s (−77, 43)) but might best correlated with performance (total work,
be considered in events where the winning mar- work and power output of the first sprint, and %
gin is often small. work decrement). Design: Nine male team-sport
participants performed five 10-min warm-up
Yaicharoen, P.; Wallman, K.; Bishop, D.; Morton, protocols consisting of different exercise inten-
A. sities on five separate occasions, separated by
The effect of warm up on single and inter- a week. Methods: Each warm-up protocol was
mittent sprint performance followed by a 6×4-s intermittent sprint test per-
Journal of Sports Sciences, London, 30, (2012), 8, formed on a cycle ergometer with 21-s of re-
pp. 833-840 covery between sprints. Tmu, Tre and Tb were
Lack of benefit of warm-up on prolonged inter- monitored throughout the test. Results: There
mittent-sprint performance has been proposed were no differences between warm-up condi-
to be due to use of a pacing strategy by par- tions for total work (Jkg−1; P=0.442), first sprint
ticipants. To investigate this, twelve participants work (Jkg−1; P=0.769), power output of the first
performed four cycle trials that consisted of ei- sprint (Wkg−1; P=0.189), or % work decrement
ther prolonged intermittent-sprint performance (P=0.136), respectively. Moderate to large effect
(80 min) or single-sprint performance (4 s), with sizes (>0.5; Cohen’s d) suggested a tendency
or without a warm-up. The first-sprint of inter- for improvement in every performance variable
mittent-sprint performance was also assessed. assessed following a warm-up performed at an
No interaction effects (P40.05) were found be- intensity midway between lactate inflection and
tween trials for intermittent-sprint performance lactate threshold. While Tmu, Tre, Tb, heart rate,
for total work, or percentage work and power ratings of perceived exertion and plasma lactate
decrement. Work done during the first-sprint of increased significantly during the exercise proto-
intermittent-sprint performance (no warm-up) cols (P<0.05), there were no significant correla-
was less (P50.001) than the first-sprint of inter- tions between Tmu, Tre, and Tb assessed im-
mittent-sprint performance (warm-up; effect size mediately after each warm-up condition and any
(ES)=0.59) and both single-sprint trials (warm-up performance variable assessed. Conclusions:
and no warm-up; ES=0.91, 0.75, respectively). Warm-up performed at an intensity midway be-
Peak power for single-sprint (warm-up) was tween lactate inflection and lactate threshold re-
greater (P50.05) than single-sprint (no warm-up), sulted in optimal intermittent sprint performance.
and the first-sprint of intermittent-sprint perfor- Significant increases in Tmu, Tre and Tb during
mance (warm-up and no warm-up). Warm-up the sprint test did not affect exercise perfor-
improved single-sprint performance and the first mance between warm-up conditions.
sprint of intermittent-sprint performance. Use
of a pacing strategy probably resulted in similar
intermittent-sprint performance between trials.
These results suggest that team-sport players
should perform a warm-up at the start of a game
or before substitution during a game.

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126 New Studies in Athletics · no. 1.2014
 PReview

Preview
Special Topic

Physiology

including:

} A New Method for NSA-Invasive Estination

of Human Muscle Type Composition
by Andrey Baguet, Tina Bex and Wim Derase

} Interview with Inigo Musika

2 Volume Twenty-nine issue number 2; June 2014

New Studies in Athletics, printed by Druckerei H. Heenemann GmbH & Co. KG Berlin, Germany '14

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128 New Studies in Athletics ·no. 1.2014