CLASS: SS 2

SUBJECT: PHYSICS
FIRST TERM: E-LEARNING NOTES

FIRST TERM SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK: TOPIC
1. Revision of last year’s work.
2. Position, distance and displacement: (a) concept of position and position coordinate
(b) frame of reference
3. Vectors; (a) concept of vectors (b) vector representation (c) addition of vectors (d)
resolution of vectors
4. Speed, velocity and acceleration: (a) speed as a scalar quantity (b) velocity and
acceleration as vector quantities (c) concept of resultant velocity using a vector
representation. (d) velocity-time graph (e) instantaneous velocity and acceleration.
5. Equation of uniformly accelerated motion; (a) application and interpretation of
equation of motion in simple problems.
6. Equilibrium of forces; (a) resultant and equilibrant forces (b) parallel forces (c)
moment of a force (torque) (d) centre of gravity and equilibrium (e) equilibrium of
forces in a liquids (f) Archimedes’ principle (g) law of floatation
7. Projectile: (a) concept of projectiles (b) simple problems involving range, height and
time of flight
8. Simple harmonic motion: (a) definition of simple Harmonic Motion (b) speed and
acceleration of simple harmonic motion
9. Simple harmonic motion: (c) period, frequency and amplitude of simple harmonic
motion (d) energy in simple harmonic motion (e) force vibration in simple harmonic
motion.
10. Revision
11. examination

REFERENCES:
1. new school Physics by MW Anyakoha
2. New system PHYYSICS for senior secondary schools. Dr. Charles Chew.
3. Comprehensive Certificate Physics by Olumuyiwa Awe
4. Senior School Physics BY PN Okeke, SF Akande
5. STAN Physics.

WEEK ONE: DATE…………………………………………….

Revision of last year’s work.

WEEK TWO. DATE………………………………….

TOPIC: Position, Distance and Displacement

CONTENT:
 - Concept of position
- Location of point on a Cartesian plane
- Distance
- Estimation of distance between two point on a Cartesian plane
- Displacement
- Difference between distance and displacement
- Frame of reference

PERIOD ONE: POSITION

This is the location of a point/object with respect to areference point. The position of a
point in space is defined in terms of the distance of the point from the reference point
(which is sometimes called ORIGIN). In physics, the position of an object in space is
represented in a coordinate system. There are three main types of coordinate system for
representing the position of an object in space:

1. Cartesian coordinate system

2. Spherical coordinate system
3. Cylindrical coordinate system

Of all these, the Cartesian coordinate system is the most commonly used.

Cartesian coordinate system:

This is also called the rectangular coordinate system. This consists of two (or three)
mutually perpendicular axes. The Cartesian plane in two dimensions consists of two
mutually perpendicular axes:

- the horizontal axis (also called the X axis or the abscissa)

- the vertical axis (also called the Y axis or the ordinate).

The position of a point in this coordinate system is define in terms of it perpendicular

distance from these axes. Y-axis
(0,0) is the origin.

(0,0)
X-axis

For instance the position of a point P define as (a,b) is represented as shown.

 b . (a,b)

This is similar to the location of point on a graph sheet when plotting points.

CLASS ACTIVITY: locate the following point onthe graph sheet below. A(2,3) B(1,-1) C( 2,-3)
D(-2,1) E(0, 2)

A (2.3)

D (-2,1)

Locate the remaining points.

EVALUATION: On a graph sheet, locate the following points

1. (2, -5)
2. (-3, -2)
3. (2.6, -3.4)
4. (-5.1, 6.3)
5. (2.76, 1.92)

PERIOD TWO:DISTANCE.
This can be defined as the actual length measured along the path moved by an object.
Distance is a scalar quantity and it S.I unit is metre (m). If an object moved along a straight
line, the distance moved is the length of the straight line. If the path is a curve, then the
distance moved is the length of the curve.

Estimation of distance between two points on the Cartesian plane

Consider the point P and Q on a Cartesian plane. If the coordinate of P and Q is given as:
P(x1,y1) and Q(x2,y2), then the distance between P and Q on the Cartesian plane is given as

D= √ ( x 2−x1 )2+( y 2− y1 )2

Example: Calculate the distance between the two points: P(4,2) and Q(1, 6)

Solution: P (x1,y1) Q (x2, y2)

P(4,2) Q(1,6)

X1 = 4, Y1 = 2 X2 = 1, Y2 = 6

D= √ ( x 2−x1 )2+( y 2− y1 )2

D= √ (1−4)2+(6−2)2

D= √(−3)2+(4 )2

D= √ 9+ 16= √ 25=5units

DISPLACEMENT:

This is the distance moved in a specified direction. Displacement is a vector quantity and its
S.I unit is metre.

Differences between distance and displacement

Distance Displacement
It is the actual length of the path moved by an object.
It is the distance moved in a specified direction.
It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity

EVALUATION;
 1. Calculate the distance between the following set of points.
(i) (2, 5) and (-4, -3)
(ii) (8, 7) and (0, -8)
(iii) (6, 6) and (-6, 1)
(iv) ( -4, 14) and (8, 6)
2. The distance between the points (p, -2) and (3, -8) is 10units. What is the value of p?

PERIOD THREE: frame of reference

This is a set of axes used to specify the position of object in space at any instant of time. For
practical purposes, the frame of reference of the earthis taken to be at rest (i.e an inertia
frame of reference). However, this is never so. In two dimensional continuums, the frame of
reference consists of two axes.
z

This is a three dimensional frame of reference to specify the position of an object at any time in space.
x

In four dimensional continuums, the time coordinate is added to the space coordinate (x, y,
z). Hence for three dimensional frames of reference position is defined as (x,y,z). But for
four dimensional frame of reference, position is define as (x,y,z,t) – (space-time)

When an event in a frame of reference is observed in two frame of reference moving

relatively with respect to each other, their observations will be different. This leads to the
concept of relativity. (see Einstein theory of special relativity)

However, all frames of reference moving at a constant velocity with respect to each other
are equivalent. All frames of reference at rest or moving with uniform velocity are called
Galilean frames and that are equivalent for describing the dynamics of moving bodies.

EVALUATION

1. What is an inertia frame of reference?

2. What is a Galilean frame of reference?
GENERAL EVALUATION

1. The following are types of coordinate system except …. (a) rectangular coordinate
system (b) cubical coordinate system (c) cylindrical coordinate system (d) spherical
coordinate system
2. Another name for the horizontal axis of a Cartesian coordinate system is …. (a) Y-axis
(b) ordinate (c) abscissa (d) coordinate
3. An ant on a graph page moved starting from the origin to another point (-6, 8). What
is the displacement of the ant? (a) 4units (b) 7units (c) 9units (d) 10units
4. A rat on a horizontal frame of reference moved from (13, 7) metres to another point
(x, 0) metres. For what value of x will the displacement of the rat be 25m? (a) 16 (b)
21 (c) 37 (d) 43
5. ---- is the distance moved in a specified direction. (a) vector (b) displacement (c)
distance (d) scalar
6. A body moving with uniform acceleration a is represented by points (10, 30) and (25,
65) on a velocity-time graph. Calculate the magnitude of a. (a) 0.47ms-2 (b) 0.50ms-2
(c) 0.60ms-2 (d) 1.67ms-2 (e) 2.33ms-2

Essay

1. Differentiate between distance and differences

2. Sketch a Cartesian plane and locate the following points on it.
(i) (-3, 4)
(ii) (5, -2)
(iii) (4, 0)
(iv) (1.2, -4.6)
(v) (5.72, 3.31)

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT: what is the difference between an inertia frame of reference and
a non-inertia frame of reference?

READING ASSIGNMENT: read pages 111-116 of the New School Physics by MW Anyakoha

WEEK THREE: VECTORS DATE -------------------

CONTENT:
 - Concept of vectors
- Examples of vectors
- Representation of vectors
- Addition of vectors
- Resolution of vectors

PERIOD ONE:CONCEPT OF VECTORS

A vector is a quantity which has magnitude and direction. Also, the unit of the magnitude
and direction of the vector must be stated.

Scalar quantities unlike vectors have only magnitude. Example; distance, speed, length,
area, volume, density, mass, time, temperature, work, energy, power, mechanical
advantage, velocity ratio, efficiency, surface tension, … Scalar quantities of the same unit
can be added or subtracted like ordinary numbers. Vectors quantities of the same unit
cannot be treated like that except when their lines of action are parallel.

Examples of vector quantities include: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, pressure,

friction, tension, electric field intensity, magnetic field intensity, momentum, moment of
forces, impulse, torque, upthrust, …

Types of vectors

1. Position vectors; these are vectors whose starting point is fixed to a position
2. Free vectors; these are vector whose starting point could be anywhere in space.
3. Unit vector; this is a vector whose magnitude is one. It is often represented as â.
4. Orthogonal vectors; these are vectors whose lines of action are mutually
perpendicular to each other
5. Collinear vectors; these are vector whose lines of action are parallel to one another.
6. Coplanar vectors; these are vectors whose lines of action lies on the same plane.
7. Resultant vector; this is a single vector that has the same effect as a system of
vectors.
8. Null vector: this is a vector whose magnitude is zero.

Representation of vectors

Vectors can be represented by a directed line segment whose length is proportional to the
magnitude of the vector and its direction is pointing in the direction of action of the vector.
a

Vectors are represented with bold face letters a, a, orâ.

EVALUATION:
 1. A measurable quantity that has both magnitude and direction is called ---- (a) vector
(b) scalar (c) displacement (d) distance
2. The following are example of vectors except ---- (a) moment (b) pressure in gas (c)
tension (d) viscosity
3. A vector whose magnitude is one is called ----- (a) collinear vector (b) orthogonal
vector (c) unit vector (d) free vector
4. A set of vector whose line of action lies on the same plane is called ---- (a) collinear
vectors (b) concurrent vectors (c) coplanar vectors (d) coordinate vectors
5. Which of the following groups of quantities is NOT all vectors? (a) (a) momentum,
velocity, force (b) acceleration, force, momentum (c) momentum, kinetic energy,
force (d) magnetic field, acceleration, displacement

PERIOD TWO:Addition of vector

The addition of two or more vector produces a single vector call the resultant vector.

A resultant is a single vector which has the same effect as a system of vectors put together.
It is the vector that will bring a system of vector to equilibrium when added to the system. It
has the same magnitude as the equilibrant of the system but acting in the opposite direction
to the equilibrant.

Consider two vectors a and b, the addition of these vector can be obtained by joining the
head of one to the tail of the previous one. The resultant is the vector that joins the
beginning to the end.
b
b

c
a
a
c=b+a

Case 1. Parallel vectors acting in the same direction

For two
V1parallel vectors acting in the same direction, the angle between the vectors
V2
Resultant R = V1 + V2

Example 1: Three men pushed a car out ofa muddy ground by applying the following forces
450N, 600N and 920N. What is the resultant force on the car?
 R=V 1+V 2+V 3

R=450+600+ 920=1970 N

Case 2. Parallel vectors acting in opposite direction

For two parallel vectors acting in opposite direction, the angle between the vectors
V1 V2

Resultant R = V2 - V1

Example 2: during a tug of war game, team A pull in the positive x direction with a force of
900N and team B pull in the negative X – direction with a force of 1200N. what is the
resultant of the train?

V1 = 900N V2 = 1200N

R=V 2−V 1= 1200 – 900 = 300N

Case 3. Two perpendicular vectors acting at a point.

V1
R

V2

The angle made by the resultant with the direction of V2 is given as

θ=tan
−1
( )
V1
V2

Example 3: two force 8N and 15N acting along the vertical and the horizontal axis
respectively acts on a body of mass 3kg. What is the acceleration of the body?

Solution:
8N

15N

Resultant R= √ V 12 +V 22

R=√ 8 + 15
2 2

R=√ 64 +225
 R=√ 289=17 N

Force = mass x acceleration

F = ma F = R = 17N m = 3kg a =?

17 = 3 X a

17 −2
a= =5.7 m s
3

Case 4. Two vector acting at a point and at angle to each other.

V1

Ø
V2

This case can be solved by using the parallelogram law of vectors.

Parallelogram law of vectors state that:

Parallelogram law of vectors state that when two vectors acting at a

point are represented in magnitude and direction by the adjacent
sides of a parallelogram, the resultant of the two vectors can also be
represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the
parallelogram drawn from the common point of the two vectors.

V1

Ø 180 - Ø

V2

Ø is the angle between the two vectors. The direction of the resultant force can be obtained
using the sin rule. This is given as

V 1 sin (180−∅ )=R sin θ

w h ereθist h eanglet h evectormadewit h t h edirectionof V 2

Example: two forces F1 and F2 act on a particle. F1 has magnitude 5N and in direction 0300,
and F2 has a magnitude of 8N and in the direction 0900. Find the magnitude and direction of
the resultant.

Solution:

5N

300
900
8N

5N

300 R
1200
ϴ
8N

The angle between the two forces is 0900 – 0300 = 600

2 2 2
R =V 1 +V 2 −2 V 1 V 2 cos ∅
2 2 2
R =5 + 8 −2 ( 5 )( 8 ) cos ( 180−60 )
2
R =25+ 64−80 ×cos 120
2
R =89−80 (−0.500 )
2
R =89+40

R=√ 129=11.4 N

(b) direction of the resultant

1200
ϴ

don’t forget

- 1200 is obtained from (1800 – 600) in the diagram

- we use V1 because we are looking for the angle between R and V2.

V 1 sin (180−∅ )=R sin θ

 5 sin ( 120 )=11.4 sinθ

5 × 0.866 4.33
sinθ= =
11.4 11.4
−1 0
θ=sin 0.3798=22.3

So the direction of the resultant in three digits ( 90 – 22) = 068 0

EXPERIMENT 1:

- Educator should carry out an experiment to verify the parallelogram law of vectors
- using the force board

CASE 5. Three vectors acting at a point and in equilibrium.

Consider a metal ball suspended from a ceiling by a string. If is pulled by an horizontal force
as shown below, the triangular law of vector may be applied as shown below.

F T

W
F
int are in equilibrium, the vectors can be represented in magnitude and direction by the adjacent sides of

Example: a 15 kg mass suspended from a ceiling is pulled asides with a horizontal force, F,
as shown in the diagram above. Calculate the value of the tension T (g= 10m/s 2)

Solution:

600
T
600 T
150 N

150 N We applied the Lami’s theorem to get the triangle

Using the trigonometric ratio;

150
cosθ=
T

150
cos 60=
T

150
T=
cos 60

150
T=
0 .500

T =300 N

EXPERIMENT 2:

- An experiment to verify the Lami’s theorem using the force board.

N.B. note that the resultant of a system in equilibrium is ZERO.

The triangular law of vectors is also called the Lami’s theorem

EVALUATION

1. The angle between two parallel vectors acting in opposite direction is ---- (a) 0 0 (b)
450 (c) 900 (d) 1800
2. The resultant of a system of forces is equilibrium is ---- vector. (a) unit (b) free (c)
orthogonal (d) null
3. What is the resultant of the forces 6N and 8N acting act an angle 60 0 to each other?
(a) 9.0N (b) 10.1 N (c) 11.1N (d) 13.5N
4. Two vectors a and b act on a body. What will be the angel between a and b for the
resultant to be maximum. (a) 00 (b) 450 (c) 900 (d) 1800

PERIOD THREE: Resolution of vectors

Any position vector can be resolved into two components which are perpendicular to each
other. Consider the vector P acting at angleϴ to the horizontal as shown below,

P
Px

Py
For a system which consist of several vectors, each vectors in the system can be revolved
into two components as shown above. V1
V2
Consider a system of vectors as shown below,

V3

V4

If θ1 , θ2 , θ3 , andθ4 are the angles made the vectors V 1 ,V 2 , V 3∧V 4respectively, then the
component of the resultant along the horizontal is given as:
4
R x =∑ V n cos θn
n=1

R x =V 1 cos θ1 +V 2 cos θ2+ V 3 cos θ3 +¿ V 4 cos θ 4 ¿

And the vertical component of the resultant vector is given as:

4
R y =∑ V n sinθ n
n=1

R y =V 1 sin θ1 +V 2 sin θ2 +V 3 sinθ 3+V 4 sin θ4

N.B θ1 , θ2 ,θ3 , θ4 refers ¿the angles the vectors V1, V2, V3, and V4 makes with the positive x
direction

The magnitude resultant R is given as:

R=√ R x + R y
2 2

The direction of the resultant with respect to the positive x direction is given as

θ=tan −1
[ ]
Ry
Rx

Example: a boy pull a nail from the wall with a string tied to the nail. The string is inclined to
the wall at angle 600. If the tension in the string is 4N. What is the effective force used in
pulling the nail?
Solution;
nail Tx = T sin 60

600
T
Ty = T cos60
rope 600

The tension has two componentsTx and Ty. note that the value of Tx and Ty were obtained
using the trigonometric ratio.

The component of T to extract the nail is Tx.

T x =Tsin 60

T x =4 ×0.866=3.464 N

EXAMPLE: four forces act at appoint as shown below. Calculate the magnitude and direction
of the resultant force.
12N
10N
400 300
600
9N

15N

Solution:

Vector F Fi Angles ϴ with +ve x direction Fx = Fcos ϴ Fy=Fsin ϴ

F1 10N 300 10cos30 = 8.66 10sin30= 5.00
F2 12N (180 – 40) = 1400 12cos140= - 9.192 12sin140= 7.713
F3 9N (180 + 90) = 2700 9cos 270= -0.000 9sin270= -9.00
F4 15N (360 – 60) = 3000 15cos300= 7.50 15sin300= -12.99
∑ F x=¿ 25.35¿ ∑ F y =−9.277

OR
F x =F 1 cos θ 1+ F 2 cos θ2 + F3 cos θ 3+ F 4 cos θ 4
 F x =10 cos 30+12 cos 140+ 9 cos 270+15 cos 300

F x =10 × 0.866+12×−0.766+9 ×0+ 15× 0.500

F x =8.66−9.192+0+ 7.500=25.35 N

Vertical components

F y =F 1 sin θ1 + F 2 sin θ2 + F 3 sin θ3 + F 4 sin θ4

F y =10 sin 30+12 sin140+ 9 sin270+ 15sin 300

F y =10 ×0.500+12 ×0.6428+ 9 ×−1+ 15×−0.866

F y =5.00+7.713−9−12.99=−9.277

R=√ F x 2 + F y 2

R=√ 25.35 2+¿ ¿

R=√ 642.6 +86.06= √ 728.66

R=27 N

Direction of the resultant force

θ=tan −1
[ ]
Ry
Rx

−1 −9.277
θ=tan ⌈ ⌉
25.35

θ=tan −1 [−0.366¿]¿
0
θ=20.1

ϴ is negative. Tan ϴ is negative in the 2nd and the 4th quadrant. Looking at the geometry of
the forces, R will be in the 4th quadrant.

∴ θ=360−θ=360−20.1
0
θ=339. 9

This is the angle made by the resultant with the positive x –axis.

EVALUATION.

1. The component of a force along the vertical and the horizontal axis is given as 24N
and 7N respectively. What is the magnitude and direction of the resultant force?
 2. The resultant of two forces 12N and 5N is 13N. what is the angle between the two
forces? (a) 00 (b) 450 (c) 900 (d) 1800
3. Two uniform velocities are represented by V1 and V2. If the angle between them is θ .
Where 00≤ θ ≤90 0 ,the magnitude of their resultant is -----
1
(a) ( V 1 +V 2 +2 V 1 V 2 sin θ )1/2 (b) ( V 12 +V 22 +2 V 1 V 2 cos θ ) 2
2 2

1 −1
(c) ( V 2 +V 2−2 V V cos θ ) 2 (d) ( V 2 +V 2−2 V V sin θ ) 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

4. Below is the diagram of an experiment to determine the resultant of a system using

a force board, calculate the angle between the 25N and the 35N.

25N 35N

50N

5. The wind velocity is 30ms-1, 300 north of West. Find the component in the north and
West direction
6. A force of 15N acts in the positive x-direction. In what direction to the positive x-
direction will a force of 20N be applied to give a resultant whose component along
the x-direction is zero?

GENERAL EVALUATION:

1. A boy drag a heavy crate along the horizontal ground with a string inclined to the
horizontal at 500.if the tension in the string is 1500N, calculate the effective force
pulling the crate along the ground.
2. A body is in equilibrium under the action three forces. One of the force is 6.0N acting
due East and one is 3.0N in a direction 600 North of East. What is the magnitude and
direction of the third force?
3. Two forces acting at a point makes angles of 250 and 650 respectively with their
resultant which is of the magnitude 15N. find the magnitudes of the two component
forces.
4. Differentiate between scalar and vector
5. The resultant of two forces acting on an object is maximum if the angle between
them is (a) 1800 (b) 900 (c) 450 (d) 00

WEEKEND ASSSIGNEMT
 1. Differentiate between a resultant of force and equilibrant
2. Describe an experiment to determine the resultant of a system of force using the
force board.

READING ASSIGNMENT: Students should read pages 112-118 of New School Physics by MA
Anyakoha
WEEK FOUR: DATE:……………………….

TOPIC: SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

CONTENT

- Motion
- Quantities of describing linear motion and their units
- Distance-time graph and velocity-time graphs.
- Instantaneous velocity and acceleration
- Resultant velocity/relative motion

PERIOD ONE:

MOTION

This is the change in the position of an object with time. Everything in the universe are
moving relative to one another. There are different types of motion;

1. Rectilinear motion: this is the change in the position of a body along a straight line.
An example is when a crate in dragged along a straight track.
2. Translational motion: this is when every part of an object moves in the same
direction.
3. Rotational motion: this is the change in position when an object moves about a fixed
axis. An example is the motion of the blade of a rotating fan.
4. Oscillatory motion: this is the change in position when an object moves in a to and
fro pattern. An example is the motion of a vibrating simple pendulum bob
5. Random motion: this is the change in position of an object when it moves in an
irregular or zig-zag pattern.

N.B in nature, one or more of these motions can be combined at a time by a moving body.
However, the simplest of these is the uniform motion of a body along a straight line.

Quantities for describing linear motion

i. Distance (s); this refers to the length as measured along the path of motion. It is
a scalar quantity and it S.I unit is metre.
ii. Displacement (s); this refers the distance measured in a specified direction. It the
length of the straight line that joins the initial and the final point of the motion. It
is a vector quantity and its S.I unit is metre.
iii. Speed (v); this refers to the rate at which distance is travelled. It is the ratio of
the distance (s) travelled to the time taken (t).
distance
speed=
time
 s
v=
t
iv. Average speed (v); this refers to the ratio of the total distance travelled to the
total time taken.
totaldistance
averagespeed=
totaltimetaken
v. Uniform speed; a body is said to be moving with uniform speed if it ratio distance
to time is constant. Uniform speed is also called constant speed.
vi. Instantaneous speed; this is also referred to as the speed at a particular instant.
It can be define as the rate of change of distance during a very short time interval
around that particular instant.
vii. Velocity (v); this refers to the rate of change of the displacement of a body. It is
the ratio of the displacement moved to the time taken.
displacement
velocity=
time
Velocity is a vector quantity and it S.I unit is ms-1.
viii. Uniform velocity; a body is said to be moving with uniform velocity if it cover
equal distances in the same straight line in equal time interval , no matter how
short these is.
Note that only a body moving along a straight line may have uniform velocity. For
bodies moving along a curve, the direction is constantly changing so also is it
velocity. However, a body moving in along a circular path may have constant
speed but not constant velocity
Constantly changing direction in vcircular motion is what account for the non –uniform velocity of such mo

v
v

ix. Instantaneous velocity; this is the change in displacement with time during a very
short time interval around that instant.
x. Acceleration (a); this refers to the rate of change velocity. Acceleration refers to
increase in velocity. Hence, acceleration is the rate of increase in velocity. It is a
vector quantity and it S.I unit is metre per second square (ms-2).
Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time
c h angeinvelocity
acceleration=
timetaken
v
a=
t
xi. Uniform acceleration; a body is said to be in uniform acceleration if its time rate
of change of velocity is constant.
xii. Deceleration/retardation (-a); this is the rate of decrease in velocity.
xiii. Instantaneous acceleration; this is the rate of change of velocity during a very
short time interval at that particular instant

EVALUATION.

1. Explain the difference between constant speed and constant velocity.

2. State the type of motion given in the table belw.

Motion of bodies Types of motion

Motion of a body at the end of
a vibrating spring
Motion of gas molecules in a
gas jar
Motion of electrons in a
cathode ray tube
Motion of the stirring wheel of
a car during driving.
Motion of liquid molecules
3. Define instantaneous acceleration.

SUB-TOPIC TWO: Distance-time graphs and velocity-time graphs

Distance –time graph is obtained by plotting the distance moved by a body to the time
taken while the velocity –time graph is obtained by plotting the velocity of the body to
time. v
s

t t

i. For a body moving along a straight line with uniform speed

s v

d
t t
(a) (b)
In the above diagram, (a) represent the d-t graph of a body which start it motion at a
distance d from the origin and moves at a constant speed. (b) Shows the constant velocity of
such a motion

ii. For bodies moving with non uniform speed.

s s

t t
The instantaneous velocity can be
obtained by evaluating the
Non- uniform velocity
gradient of the curve

The v-t graph for this is can be obtained by estimating the gradient of the s-t graph to get
the velocity and plotting this against time to get the v- t graph.
v a

t t

Uniform acceleration

For a v-t graph shown above, the acceleration time graph, a-t is given as shown above.
v

Non-uniform acceleration
These graphs are quite simple enough. However, s-t graph, v-t graph and a-t graph may take
varying complex form especially for bodies whose path is not a straight line or for rectilinear
motion under gravity.

Consider the following scenarios.

i. Motion of a bodies released from a height H above the ground (neglecting air
resistance)

s v a
H

9.8ms-2

t t t

ii. Motion of a body thrown vertically upward from the ground. (neglecting air
resistance)

S v a

t t

iii. Motion of a parachutist who stepped off an aircraft without air resistance for 5s,
and then opens his parachute.
s v a

t t
5 t 5 5
N.B. note that in the s-t graph above, the surface of the earth had been taken has the
reference point. The graph might be different if the reference point has been otherwise.

EVALUATION:

1. Sketch the s-t graph, v-t graph and the a-t graph of a ball released from a height
above the ground and it bounces off the ground several times before coming to rest
on the ground.
2. Sketch the s-t graph, v-t graph and the a-t graph for a ball moving with constant
velocity on a table until it fall off it edge to the ground.

SUBTOPIC THREE: Instantaneous velocity and acceleration.

Instantaneous velocity is the rate of change of displacement during a very short time
interval at a particular instant. On a s-t graph, the instantaneous velocity at a time t is the
gradient of the curve at that time.
s

T t

∆s
instantaneousvelocityattimeT =
∆t

Similarly, instantaneous acceleration is the rate of change of velocity during a very short
time interval at a particular instant. On the v-t graph, the instantaneous acceleration at a
time t is the gradient of the curve at that time.
V

T t

∆v
instantaneousaccelerationatt imeT =
∆t

Distance - time (s-t) graph.

1. Gradient of a s-t graph = velocity

 s Velocity = gradient =

Velocity – time v-t graph.

1. Gradient of a v-t graph = acceleration

v Acceleration = gradient =

2. Area under a v-t graph = distance.

e d

0 a c t
b

i. Total distance covered during the motion = area of trapezium 0edc

ii. Distance covered during acceleration = area of triangle 0ea
iii. Distance covered during constant velocity = area of rectangle aedb
iv. Distance covered during deceleration = area of triangle bdc
ae
v. Acceleration ,a=
0a
bd
vi. Deceleration, −a=
bc

Example 1

1. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly to 15ms-1 in 5 s. it then continues at
this velocity for the next 10s before decelerating back to rest in another 8 s.
Use the information to answer the following questions
 i. Sketch the velocity time graph of the motion of the car
ii. Calculate the acceleration of the car
iii. Calculate the deceleration of the car
iv. What is the total distance travelled by the car
v. Estimate the average speed of the car.

15

0 5 t
15 23 ae
ii. Acceleration a=
0a
15 −2
a= =3 m s
5
bd
iii. deceleration –a =−a=
bc
15 15
−a= =
23−15 8

−2
−a=−1.875 m s
iv. total distance = area under the graph
= area of trapezium
1
S ¿ ( a+b ) h
2
1
{ ( 15−5 )+ ( 23−0 ) } 15
2
1
= ( 10+23 ) 15
2
33× 15 495
¿ =
2 2
s=247.5 m
totaldistance
v. average speed v =
totaltime
247.5 −1
v= =10.8 m s
23

Example 2
A body at rest is given an initial uniform acceleration of 8.0ms 2 for 30s after which
the acceleration is reduced to 5.0ms2 for 30s. The body maintains the speed attained for
60s after which it is brought to rest in 20s.
 (a) Draw the velocity-time graph of the motion using the information given
above.
Using the graph, calculate (b) maximum speed attained during the motion. (c)
average retardation as the body is brought to rest. (d) total distance travelled
during the first 60s (e) average speed during the same intervals as in (c)

Solution.
(a) V(m/s)

5ms-2
V
2
8ms – 2
V Stage 1 stage 2 stage 3 stage 4
1 0 30s 60s 120s 140s t (s)

(b)there are two stages of acceleration

Stage 1. Acelecation = gradient a= 8 ms -2
V 1−0
a=
30−0
V
8= 1
30
−1
Cross multiplying V 1=8 x 30=240 m s
Stage 2. A= 5 ms-2
V 2−V 1
a=
60−30
V 2−V 1
5=
30
Cross multiplying
V 2−V 1 =150
But V1=240
V 2−240=150
V 2=150+ 240=390 m s−1
−1
t h emaximumvelocityis 390 m s
(c )
Average retardation is equal to gradient
V 2−0
−a= but V2 = 390ms-1
140−120
390−0
−a=
20
 −¿a = 19.5ms-2
Average retardation = - 19.5ms-2
(d) distance is in the first 60sec = area of triangle + area of the next trapezium
1 1
S= ( time ) V 1 + ( V 1 +V 2 ) time
2 2
1 1
S = ( 30 ) ( 240 ) + ( 240+ 390 ) 30
2 2
S=3600+ 9450=13050 m
totaldistance
(d) average speed V=
totaltime
13050
V= =217.5 m s−1
60
RELATIVE MOTION
This is the motion of a body with respect to another. All motion is relative. The
motion of a car on the road is with respect to the earth or any other frame of
reference in which the motion of the car is being observed.
Resultant velocity of relative motions
 Consider two cars X and Y travelling in the same direction and at the same
speed, a commuter in X will observe that Y is stationary (not moving)
 If car X is to be travelling at a speed Vxwhich is greater than the speed of Vy, a
commuter in car Y will observe the speed of car X to be
V x −V y =relativevelocityofcarXwit h respecttoY
A commuter in X will observed the relative velocity of Y to be
V y −V x
This value will be negative. This means that to an observer in X, the car Y will
appear to be going backward (going the opposite direction with a speed
of /Vy - Vx/

 But is car X and Y were to be travelling in opposite direction, the relative

velocity of X with respect to Y will be
V x −V y =relativevelocityofXwit h respecttoY
Vy – Vx = relative velocity of Y with respect to X

N.B. note that the elative velocity of X with respect to Y, Vxy is equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction to the relative velocity of Y with respect to X, V yx.

Vxy = - Vyx

EXAMPLES

1. Two racing cars A and B travelling in the same direction at 300m/s and 340mls
respectively. What is the relative velocity of A with respect to B?
Solution:
Va= 300 km/h
 Vb=340 km/h
Relative velocity of a with respect to B, Vab = Va -Vb = 300 – 340 = -40 km/h
(note that this is negative. A appears to be travelling in the opposite direction to B)
2. A boat whose speed is 8 km/h sets course on a bearing 0600. If the tide is running at
a speed of 3 km/h from a bearing of 3300, find;
i. The actual speed of the boat(i.e, relative speed of the boat)
ii. The direction of travel
Vt Vb
Vb N.B the angle 900 in the triangle is ob
Direction of tide 600

boat
V rel
Vt

To obtain the relative velocity (actual velocity), draw the component velocity such that the
head of one point to the end of the other. Draw the relative velocity to beginning from end
of the first to the head of the last.

Using Pythagoras theorem

2 2 2
V rel =8 +3
2
V rel =64+ 9=73

V rel =√ 73=8.54 km h−1

Let ϴ be the angle between the relative velocity and the direction of the boat.

Vt 3
tanθ= =
Vb 8

θ=tan −1 [ 0.375 ] =20. 60

EVALUATION
1. A train runs at a constant speed of 20m/s for 300s. and then accelerate uniformly
to a speed of 30m/s over a period of 20s. this speed is maintained for 300s
before the train is brought to rest with uniform deceleration is 30s. draw the
velocity – time graph to represent the journey describe above. From the graph
find,
i. The acceleration while the speed changes from 20m/s to 30m/s.
ii. The total distance travelled in the time described
iii. The average speed over the time described. (J.M.B)
 2. A car travels at a uniform velocity of 20m/s for 4s. if the brakes were applied to
bring the car to rest in the next 8 s. draw the velocity time graph for the motion.
How far does the car travel after the brakes were applied?

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. The planetary motions are examples of ----- motion. (a) rectilinear (a) rotation (c)
vibratory (d) spin
2. The rate of change of velocity is called ---- (a) speed (b) displacement (c) uniform
velocity (d) acceleration
3. Which of these is also referred to as negative acceleration? (a) instantaneous
acceleration (b) uniform acceleration (c) retardation (d) non-uniform acceleration
4. The gradient of a distance –time graph gives ---- (a) velocity (b) acceleration (c)
speed (d) displacement
5. ---- represent the area under a velocity – time graph. (a) distance (b) speed (c)
acceleration (d) none of the above
6. Which of these graphs represent the velocity-time graph of the motion of a
spherical metal ball falling through a fluid until it attain it terminal velocity?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
1. The graph below represent the velocity time graph a body

e d

0 a c t
b
Sketch the corresponding displacement –time graph for this motion.

READING ASSIGNMENT
Students should read page 121-125 of the New School Physics by MA Anyakoha
WEEK 5 DATE………………………………..
TOPIC: EQUATION OF UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION
CONTENT:
- Definition of quantities in terms of equation
- Derivations of equation of uniformly accelerated motion
- Application of equation of uniform motion
- Equation of motion under gravity

PERIOD ONE

Definition of terms using equations

- Speed (v); this is the ratio of the distance moved to time taken.
s
v=
t
Where s is distance and t is time
- Velocity (v); this is the ratio of displacement to time.
s
v=
t
Note that S is used interchangeably for distance and displacement.
- Acceleration (a); this is the ratio of change in velocity to time.
If V is the final velocity
And U is the initial velocity
Then change in velocity = (final velocity – initial velocity)
i.e change in velocity = V – U
V −U
∴ a=
t
crossmultiplyingt h is ,
V −U=at
V =U+ at … … … (i)

- Average velocity; this is the arithmetic mean of the initial and the final velocity. If U
is the initial velocity and V is the final velocity, then
( V +U )
averagevelocity= … … … .(1)
2
- Average speed; this the ratio of the total distance travelled to the total time taken.
 s
-averagespeed= ………..(2)
t
The magnitude of average velocity and average speed are equal
i.e, (1) = (2)
s ( V +U )
=
t 2
( V +U ) t
S= … … … ( ii )
2
EVALUATION
1. Define the following terms (i) average speed (ii) average velocity (iii) uniform
acceleration (iv) constant velocity
2. State the value of the acceleration of a body moving with uniform velocity.

PERIOD TWO
Derivation of equation of uniform motion

Recall that,
Equation (i) ---V =U+ at
( V +U ) t
Equation (ii) --- S=
2
Substituting equation (i) into equation (ii)

S=
[ ( U + at ) +U ] t
2
1
S= [ U + at+U ] t
2
1
S= [ 2 U +at ] t
2
1
S= [ 2 Ut +a t ]
2
2
1 2
S=Ut+ a t … … … ( iii )
2
Again from equation (i),
V =U+ at
V −U=at
Dividing both sides by a,
V −U
=t −−−−−−( 3 )
a
Substituting equation (3) into equation (ii)
( V +U )
(ii) --- S= t
2
becomes
( V +U ) (V −U )
S= ×
2 a
 ( V +U ) ( V −U )
S=
2a
V =U+
Expanding the bracket in the at … … … (i)
numerator,
2 2
V −U( V +U )t
S= S= … … … ( ii )
2a 2
Cross multiplying,
=2 aS1 a t 2 … … …(iii)
2 2
V −U S=Ut+
2
V 2=U 2+2 aS … … … . ( iv )
V 2=U 2+2 aS … … …(iv)

Summarily, the equations of uniformly accelerating bodies are:

.N.B. note that these equations can only be applied to solve problems on bodies
moving with constant acceleration. Problems on bodies moving with non-uniform
acceleration can be solved using differential calculus.

EVALUATION
1. State the equations of uniformly accelerating bodies.
2. Derive the (iv) of uniformly accelerating motion.

PERIOD THREE
Application of the equations of uniform accelerating bodies.

1. A train starts from rest and accelerate until it attains a velocity of 8m/s is 10 s.
calculate the acceleration of the train.
Solution:
For a body at rest velocity is zero.
Initial velocity U=0
Final velocity V= 8m/s
Time t=10 s
Acceleration a= ?
{ you use any of the four equations that has U,V, t, a has identified from the
question}
V = U + at
8 = 0 + ax10
8 = 10a
Dividing both side by 10
a = 0.8m/s2
2. A horse rider moving with constant acceleration covers the distance between two
point 70.0m apart in 7.0 s. if his speed as he passes the second point is 15.0 m/s.
what is its speed at the first point?
Distance S = 70.0m
Time t = 7.0s
Initial speed U = ?
Final speed V = 15.0m/s
(V +U )t
{ the equation containing S, t, U, and V is S = }
2
( V +U ) t
S=
2
( 15+U ) 7
70 =
2
Cross multiplying
(15+U)7 = 140
Dividing both sides by 7
15 +U = 20
U = 20 – 15
U = 5m/s
3. A body starts with an initial velocity of 26m/s and moves down it with uniform
acceleration of 7m/s2 for 25 s. find the total distance moved in metres
Solution: Initial velocity U = 26m/s
Acceleration a = 7m/s2
Time t = 25 s
Distance S = ?
1 2
{the equation containing U, a, t and s is S=Ut+ a t }
2
1 2
S=Ut+ a t
2
1 2
S=26 ×25+ ×7 × 25
2
S=650+3.5 ×625
S=650+2187.5
S=2837.5m

Motion of bodies under gravity

Neglecting air resistance, motion of bodies moving under gravity (either vertical
upward or downward) is an example of uniformly accelerating motion.
1. A body thrown vertically upward in the earth gravitational field.
When a body is thrown vertically upward from the earth surface, it retards
uniformly (with acceleration of a = -g) until it attain it maximum height where its
final velocity is zero. (V = 0)
 If U is the initial velocity with which the body was projected vertically upward
and H=S is the maximum height where it the velocity is zero (i.e, temporarily at
rest before coming down)
g – acceleration due to gravity

V 2=U 2+2 aS
V=0 s = H a = -g is negative (retardation) where g is the acceleration due to gravity
0 = U2 + 2(-g) H
0 = U2 -2gH
2gH = U2
U2
H= H is the maximum height
2g
Again , using V= U + at
V = 0 a = -g
0 = U + (-g)t
0 = U –gt
gt = U
U
t=
g
T is the time to reach the maximum height.
If the body is thrown vertically upward and allowed to return to the point of
projection, the total time of flight is given as
2U
t=
g
2. Motion of a bodies falling freely under gravity
The body was initially at rest, hence the initial velocity is zero. As it falls, it
velocity increase i.e it accelerate, a = g
Using , V 2=U 2+2 aS
V2 = 0 + 2gH
V = √ 2 gH
This is the velocity of the body just as it it about to reach the ground
Again using
1
S=Ut+ a t 2
2
H = 0 x t + ½ g t2
H = ½ gt2

t=
√ 2H
g
t h isist h etimetoreac h t h eground
CLASSWORK; A projectile is fired vertically upward and it reach a height of 78.4 m. find the
velocity of projection and the time it takes to reach the highest point.( take g = 10m/s 2)
Solution: initial velocity U = velocity of projection
 U =?
Maximum height S =H = 78.4 m
Acceleration a = -g = -10m/s2
Final velocity V = 0 m/s ( body is temporarily at rest at the maximum height)
{ U, S, a, V}
V 2=U 2+2 aS
V2 = U2 + 2(-g) H
0 = U2 – 2 x 10 x 78.4
U2 = 1568
U ¿ √ 1568
U = 39.6 m/s

CLASSWORK; A body falls from a height of 80m. what is it velocity just before hitting the
ground
Solution; height H = S = 80m
Initial velocity U = 0 ( body is taken be initially at rest)
Acceleration a = g = 10 m/s2 ( this is positive because the body is coming down)
Final velocity V = ?
{ S, U, a, V}
2 2
V =U +2 aS
2 2
V =0 + 2× 10× 80
2 −1
V =1600=40 m s

A stone is dropped from a height of 196 m. neglecting air resistances; calculate the time to
reach the ground.
Solution
H=S = 196 m
2
a = g = 10 m/s . ( g is positive because the body is moving downward)
U=0m/s ( body is taken to be initially at rest)
t= ?

1 2
S=Ut+ a t
2
196 = 0xt + ½ x 10 t2.
196 = 5 t2.
2 196
t =
5
2
t =39.2
t=√ 39.2
t=6.3 s
EVALUATION:
1. A stone was thrown vertically upward with an initial speed U. If g is the acceleration
of free fall, show that the time taken for the ball to return to its point of projection is
2U
g
2. A ball is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 19.6m/s. what distance does it
travels before coming to rest momentary at the maximum height?
3. With what velocity must a ball be projected vertically upward for it return to it point
of projection in 5s?
4. A vehicle which starts from rest is accelerated uniformly at the rate of 5m/s 2 for 5 s.
It attains a speed which is maintained for 60 s. the vehicle is then brought to rest by
a uniform retardation after another 3 s. determine the total distance covered.

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. Two cars A and B move parallel to each other but in opposite direction. If the velocity
of A is 10m/s and that of B is 15m/s. what is the relative velocity of B with respect to
A?
2. A car travelling with a uniform acceleration of 3m/s2 starts from rest. What time will
it attain a velocity of 15m/s?
3. A ball was thrown vertically upward from the ground with a velocity of 40m/s. a
similar ball was thrown 1 s later from the same spot with the same velocity. At what
time will the two ball meet each other?

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Derive an equation of uniformly acceleration motion that involves only S, V, t and a

READING ASSIGNEMENT

Students should read pages 125, 130-132 of New School Physics. By MA Anyakoha
WEEK SIX DATE ………………………………

TOPIC; equilibrium of forces

CONTENT

- Resultant of force
- Equilibrant force
- Equilibrium, types of equilibrium
- Moment of force
- couple
- Conditions for equilibrium for system of parallel forces
- Centre of gravity (types of equilibrium)
- Centre of mass
- Equilibrium of bodies in liquids
- Archimedes’ principle
- Density and relative density
- Law of floatation

PERIOD ONE;

Resultant force

This can be defining a single force which can produce the same effect as the combined force
on a system. The addition of two or more force produces the resultant force. The resultant
of any system of force can be obtained through any of the process described earlier.

Equilibrant force

This is that force which will give a resultant of zero when added to the system. Equilibrant
has the same magnitude as the resultant force but it always act in a direction opposite to
that of the resultant.
F1 F1

R R

F2 E F2
 resultant ( R )=−equilibrant ( E)

For a system in equilibrium, the resultant force is ZERO.

Types of equilibrium

1. Stable equilibrium; a body is in stable equilibrium if it velocity and it resultant force is

zero. ( v = 0 and R = 0)
2. Dynamic equilibrium: a body is said to dynamic equilibrium if its velocity is constant
or it is rotating with a constant angular velocity. For bodies in dynamic equilibrium,
velocity is not zero but the resultant force on it is zero
(i.e, V ≠ 0 butResultant=0)
3. Translational equilibrium: a body is said to be in translational equilibrium if there is
no net force acting on it though it is at rest or moving with constant velocity.

Thus a body is said to be in equilibrium is it resultant force is zero.

Moment of a force

The turning effect of a force is it moment. Moment of a force about a point can be define
as the product of the force and it perpendicular distance from the point.

CASE 1;
d
O

F
Moment of the force F about the point O = F x d

CASE 2.

d
O

The perpendicular component of F is Fsinθ. So moment of F about O is

Moment ¿ Fdsinθ

CASE 3:
d
F
O
The force F will create a translational motion and not a turning effect. Therefore the
moment of F in this case is ZERO.

N.B note that the moment of a force is maximum when the force is at right angle.

EVALUATION

1. The product of a force and its perpendicular distance force a point called ---- (a)
resultant (b) equilibrant (c) moment of force (d) couple
2. If moment M = Fdsinθ , for what value of θ will the moment of the force F be zero? (a)
00 (b) 900 (c) 1800 (d) 2700.
3. The angle between the resultant and the equilibrant of a system of force is ---- (a) 0 0
(b) 900 (c) 1800 (d) 2700.
4. The type of equilibrium possess by a body falling through a fluid after attaining it
terminal velocity is ---- equilibrium. (a) stable (b) unstable (c) dynamic (d) neutral
5. The resultant force on a body in translational equilibrium is ----
( a )=0 ( b ) <0 ( c ) >0 ( d ) ≈ 0

PERIOD TWO

Principle of moment

This states that for a system in equilibrium, the algebraic sum of moments about any point
is zero.

It can also be stated thus, for a system in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moment
about a point is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moment about the same point.

Consider the system below,

a d
b c
P Q

W
W1
W2
Three downward forces, W, W1, W2.

Reaction act P and Q, constitute the two upward force acting on the body.

Taking moment about P,

clockwise moment Anticlockwise moment

i. Wxb i. Rq x ( b + c)
ii. W2 x (b + c + d) ii. W1 x a
Don’t forget moment of a force is Force x perpendicular distance.

Classwork: following the example above, take moment about the point Q and write out the
clockwise and the anticlockwise moments.

Examples;

1. A 40cm P B

7N

In the diagram above, AB represent a uniform rod of length 1.50m which is in equilibrium
on a pivot at p. if AP = 40cm, calculate the mass of the rod. (g = 10ms -2

Solution:
A 40cm P B
Since the rod is uniform, it weight act at the

centre of the rod

7N W
1.5
the rod is 1.5m long, it centre is =0.75 mof one of ends
2

taking moment about the pivot

clockwise moment = f x d = 7N x 0.4m = 2.8 Nm

Anti clockwise moment = f x d = W x (0.75 – 0.4) = 0.35W

At equilibrium, clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment

0.35W = 2.8

2.8
W= =8.0 N
0.35

The weight of the rod is 8.0N

But weight W = mg

8=m× 10
 8
m= =0.8 Kg
10

Mass of the rod is 0.8 kg

2. A metre rule is found to balance at 48 cm marked. When a body of 60 g is suspended

at 6 cm, the balance point is found to be 30 cm.
i. Calculate the mass of the rule.
ii. What is the new balance point if the 60 g is moved to 13 cm mark.
Solution
0 6 30 48 100

60 g W

W is mass of metre rule

N.B

- a metre rule is 100 cm long

- for uniform metre rule the weight (position of c.g) is 50 cm mark
- for non uniform metre rule, c.g is at the balance point when no load is on the
rod
(i) taking moment about the pivot

clockwise moment fxd = 60 x (30 – 6) = 60 x 24 = 144

at equilibrium clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment

18W = 144

144
W= =8 g
18

The mass of the metre rule is 8 g.

(ii) 0 13 x 48 100

60 g 8g

The 60 g is now at 13 cm mark, the new balance point is x the cg still remains 48 cm.

Taking moment about the pivot

Clockwise moment 60 x (x – 13)

Anticlockwise moment 8 x (48 – x )

At equilibrium, clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment

60 ( x−13 )=8 ( 48−x )

60 x−780=384−8 x

60 x+ 8 x=384+780

68 x=1164

x=17.1 cm

The new balance point is 17.1 cm mark

EXPERIMENT 3:

- An experiment to verify the principle of moment using the metre rule, standard mass
and the spring balance.

Conditions for equilibrium for a system of parallel forces

1. Sum of forces in one direction must equal to the sum of forces in the opposite
direction. Sum of upward forces must equal to the sum of downward forces.
2. Resultant force must be zero
3. The algebraic sum of moment about a point must be equal to zero.

However, for three non parallel co-planar forces to keep a body in equilibrium,

1. The line of action of the three forces must intersect at a point

2. The three forces can be represented in magnitude and direction by the adjacent
sides of a triangle by taking the head of one to the tail of the other.

EVALUATION

1. State the principle of moment

2. State the condition of equilibrium for a system of parallel forces

PERIOD THREE.

Couple

A couple is a system of equal and opposite forces acting at a distance apart and whose lines
of actions do not coincide. A couple will always create a turning effect about a point midway
between the two forces. The forces of a couple create a torque. Couple cause an angular
acceleration.

F
F
d
The moment of a couple = F x d

The perpendicular distance between the two forces is called the arm of the couple. The
moment of a couple about any point in a plane containing the two forces is the same.
Moving the couple from one point to another in the plane does not change the value of the
moment of the couple.

Application of couple

1. Turning of a tap head

2. Turning the stirring wheel of a car with two hands
3. Action of a corkscrew or
4. Use screwdriver to loosen a screw.
5. Action on a circular door knob

CLASSWORK: Two force of 10N each act at the opposite end of ruler 50cm long. Calculate
the resultant force and the moment of the force.

SOLUTION:

(i) Assuming the two forces are parallel

Resultant force R=0N

(ii) The question above is an example of a couple

F= 10N d = 50cm = 0.5m

Moment of a couple M=Fxd

M = 10 x 0.5= 5 Nm

Centre of gravity

This can be defines as a point on a body through which the line of action of the resultant
weight of the body passes through. It is the point on an object where the resultant weight of
the body is acting.
The position of the centre of gravity of an object can be determined through the following
methods:

i. Balancing method
ii. Plumb line methods

EXPERIMENT 4-5:

- an experiment to determine the centre of balance of metre rule using the balancing
method.
- An experiment to determine the centre of gravity of a laminar irregular cardboard
using the plumb line method

Uniform object often have their centre of gravity at their midpoint / centre.

The position of the centre of gravity of an object determines the stability of the object.

TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM / STABILITY

1. Stable equilibrium: bodies in stable equilibrium

i. Have centre of gravity close to their base (low c.g)
ii. Have wide base
iii. Returns to their original position after a slight tilt.

Wide
base
. .
c.g
c.g

Examples of bodies in stable equilibrium; a cone sitting on it base, a funnel set upside down on a table

N.B when bodies in neutral equilibrium are slightly tilted, their potential energy increases
but the line of action remains within the base.

2. Unable equilibrium: bodies in unstable equilibrium

i. Have centre of gravity high above the base.
ii. Have narrow base
iii. Fall away from their original position when they are slightly tilted

.
Example of bodies in unstable equilibrium is cone resting on it ver
 c.g

N.B when bodies in neutral equilibrium are slightly tilted, their potential energy
decreases and the line of action falls outside the base.
3. Neutral equilibrium:For bodies in neutral equilibrium, the potential energy remains
unchanged when they are slightly tilted.

the diagram below typify the types of equilibrium.

Ball in stable equilibrium Ball in unstable equilibrium Ball in neutral equilibrium

(you can easily identify the type of equilibrium by considering how a body will fall off its
equilibrium position when it is slightly tilted)

Centre of mass

This can be defined as the point on an object where the application of a force will produce
accelerationand not a turning effect.

EVALUATION

1. Mention two example each of bodies in (i) stable equilibrium (ii) unstable
equilibrium (iii) neutral equilibrium
2. Define a couple.

EQUILIBRIUM OF BODIES IN LIQUIDS

Boat, ship or a swimmer can float on water. This is as a result of certain forces acting on
these bodies.
U

Consider a cube floating in water as shoe below. For the cube to be in equilibrium U = W

W
The force U is called the upthrust.

Upthrust can be defined as an upward force experience by object in a fluid.

Upthrust can also be define as the loss weight experienced by an object partial or
completely immersed in a fluid.. for object floating in a fliud,

weig h t=upt h rust

W=U

For object partly or wholly immersed in a fluid, (e.g bucket of water inside the water in a
well weight lighter than )

U = weight loss

Consider a bucket of water of weight W in a well which is held by a string whose tension
is T. When the bucket is above the water in the well, the tension in the string equals the
weight of the bucket. (W = T)

When the bucket is inside the well, it experiences a weight loss which equal to the
difference (W – T)

upt h rustU =W −T … … … …(i)

Where W is the weight of the bucket in air and T is the bucket in the well/fluid.

EXPERIMENT 6

- To measure the upthrust experienced by s body immersed in water using the spring
balance, eureka can and a beaker.

Archimedes’ principle

This states that when a body is partly or completely immersed in a fluid, it experiences
an upthrust which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

upt h rustU =weig h toffluiddisplaced

Weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity

Weight of fluid displaced W = mg

 m
But density of the fluid, ρ , ρ=
v

Where v – volume is fluid displaced.

m=ρv

Weight of fluid displaced W =W =mg=( ρv ) g

∴ upt h rustU =ρvg … . … . … ..(ii)

ρ−densityoft h efluid

v−volumeoft h efluiddisplaced

g - acceleration due to gravity

Density of a body

This can be define as the ratio of the mass of body to its volume or mass per unit
volume. In the laboratory the density of a substance can simply be determine by
measuring the mass of the substance using a triple balance and measuring the volume.
With the mass and volume of the substance known, the density can be determined.

m
densityρ= … … … … ..(iii)
v

Density is a scalar quantity and it S.I unit is kgm-3. Another unit for density is gcm-3.

1000 kg m−3=1 g cm−3

Relative density

The relative density of a substance is the ratio of the density of the substance to the
density of water. This has no unit. It can also be easily determine by estimating the
density of the substance in kgm-3 and dividing it by 1000 kgm-3(the density of water or in
g/cm3 and dividing by 1gcm-3)

densityoft h esubstance
relativedensityofasubstance=
densityofwater

ρs
R . D=
ρw

Relative density of a substance can also be defined as the ratio of the mass of the
substance to the mass of equal volume of water.

massofsubstance
R . D=
massofequalvolumeofwater
The relative density of a liquid can be define as the ratio of the upthrust experience by
an object in the liquid to the upthrust experienced by the object in water.

upt h rustexperiencedbyabodyinliquid
R . Dofliquid=
upt h rustexperiencedbyt h esamebodyinwater

EXPERIMENTS 7-11

- Experiment to determine the relative density of a liquid using the relative density
bottle
- Experiment to measure the density of regular solid
- Experiment to measure the density of irregular solid using the eureka can
- Experiment to measure the density of liquids using the measuring cylinder and triple
balance
- Experiment to demonstrate weight loss by an object immersed in a fluid using the
spring balance.

PRINCIPLE OF FLOATATION

The law of floatation states that for a body to float in a fluid, it must displace an
amount of fluid equal to it own weight.

Weight of object = weight of fluid displaced.

weig h tofobject , W o =ρvg … … … … .(iii)

Application of the principle of floatation

1. hydrometer
2. Submarine
3. Ship/boat
4. Hot air balloon
5. Floating iceberg

CLASSWORK

1. A body of mass 20g appears to have a mass of 13g in oil and 12g in water. What is
the relative density of oil?
SOLUTION
massofobject m0 =20 g
massofobjectinoil m1=13g
massofobject ∈ water mw =12 g
upt h rust ∈oil=m 0−m1=20−13=7 g
upt h rust ∈water =m 0−mw =20−12=8 g
 upt h rust ∈oil 7
relative density of oil= =
upt h rust ∈water 8
R.D of oil = 7/8
2. A metal block of density 900kgm-3 weighs 60N in air. find its weight when it is
completely immersed in paraffin wax of density 800kgm-3 (g=10ms-2)
Solution:
m −3
Density of the object ρo = ρ0=900 kg m
v
Cross multiplying,
Mass of object mo= ρo v … …. …. …. I
weig h t of object W o =mo g W o=60 N
W
Mass of object mo= o … …. …. …. II
g
Wo
Equating I and II ρ0 v =
g

60
900 × v=
10
9000 × v=60
60 3
v= =0.007 m
9000
Recall, eqn ii
U= ?
upt h rust U= ρl vg … . … . ….. ( ii )
−3
density of liquid ρl=800 kg m
U =800× 0.007 ×10=56 N
But upthrust = weight loss
U = Wo –T
56 = 60 – T
T = 60 – 56
T = 4N
Weight of the block in the paraffin wax = 4N
further examples should be solved as classwork)

EVALUATION:

A piece of wood of mass 60 kg and density 600 kgm-3 float in water of density 100 kgm-3.
Calculate;

(i) Volume of water displaced by the wood

(ii) Fraction of the volume of the wood immersed in water
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Differentiate between a resultant force and a equilibrant.

2. Mention two differences between centre of gravity and centre of mass.
3. A pencil of mass 5 g can be balanced horizontally on a knife edge at a distant of 3 cm
from the plane end when a mass of 2.5 g is hung from this end. Calculate the
distance of the centre of gravity of the pencil from this plane end.
4. Two boys of weigh 400 N and 700N sit at the end of a seesaw 4 m long pivoted at the
centre. What will be the position of a third boy whose weight is 600 N in order to
balance the seesaw?
5. When a mass of 50 g is hung from at the 5 cm marked of a uniform metre rule, the
rule balances on a knife edge place at the 35cm mark. What is the weight of the
metre rule?
6. Differentiate between density and relative density.

READING ASSIGNMENT

Students should read page 150-150 of New School Physics by M A Anyakoha.

WEEK SEVEN DATE: …………………………….

TOPIC; PROJECTILE

CONTENT

- Concept of projectiles
- Example of projectile motion
- Projectile of bodies at angle θ to the horizontal
- Horizontal projection

PERIOD ONE

CONCEPT OF PROJECTILE.

Projectile refers to the motion of a body which travels freely in space but under the
influence of gravity and air resistance. When a ball in kicked into air, it will travels through
space in a plane. The motion in a plane is a combination of upward and horizontal motion.

The path through which a projectile travels is called trajectory.

Example of projectile

In sport,

- Throwing of discus
- Throwing of javelin

In warfare

- Firing of catapult
- Shooting of arrows with bow
- Launching of missiles

Miscellaneous

- Throwing of stones

Projectile of bodies at angle θ to the horizontal

When a body is projected at an angle θ to the horizontal, the trajectory is a parabola.

 hmax

Horizontal range

The motion of this projectile can be splitted into two:

I. The horizontal motion

In the horizontal motion, the body moves with constant velocity. Therefore the
horizontal acceleration is zero. This also implies that the initial and the final
horizontal velocity are equal.
ax = 0Vx = Ux

hmax

θ
Horizontal range
U is the initial velocity with which the body was projected. Resolving U into it vertical and
horizontal components, we have:

Uy

Ux = U cos
Uy = U sin

Ux
 ∴ U x =V x =Ucos θ

the horizontal Range R, is the horizontal distance covered by the projectile.

Since the acceleration along the horizontal is zero,

Horizontal Range R, R=U x t

R=U cosθ ×t

R=Ut cosθ … … … … …(i)

3. Vertical motion
The vertical motion is an example of a uniformly accelerated motion. The equations
of uniform motion are still valid for it.
During the upward motion,
Vertical acceleration ay = -g (where g is the acceleration due to gravity)

Initial vertical velocity Uy = U sin θ

At the maximum height, the body is temporarily at rest. Therefore Vy = 0

Substituting these into V = U + at

Vy = Uy + at

0=Usinθ+ (−g ) t

0=Usinθ−¿

¿=Usinθ

Usinθ
t= … … … … … ( ii )
g

t is the time to reach the maximum height.

The total time of flight is twice the time to reach the maximum height

2U sin θ
Total time of flight T, T= --- --- --- --- (iii)
g
2 2
Using the equation, V =U +2 aS
2 2
V y =U y +2 (−g ) S y
 2
0=( Usinθ ) −2 g H max
2 2
2 g H max=U sin θ
2 2
U sin θ
H max = … … … … (iv )
2g

Summarily
R=Ut cosθ … … … … …(i)

Usinθ
t= … … … … … ( ii )
g

2U sin θ
T= --- --- --- --- (iii)
g
2 2
U sin θ
H max = … … … … (iv )
2g

The horizontal range R can also be expressed as

U 2 sin 2θ
R= … … … …(v )
g

For range to be maximum, 2θ must be equal to 900.

Therefore maximum range occur when θ=450

2
U
Rmax = … … … … ( vi )
g

Vertical Horizontal
component component
Initial velocity Usinθ Ucosθ
Velocity at the any point p Vy Vx
Velocity at the max height 0 Ucosθ
Displacement at any point p Sy Sx =Ut cos θ
acceleration -g 0

CLASSWORK:
 1. a projectile is fired from the ground level with a velocity of 500m/s at 30 0 to the
horizontal. Determine;
- it horizontal range
- the greatest height attained.

SOLUTION:
0
θ=30
−1
U =500 ms

R=?

U 2 sin 2θ
R=
g
2
500 sin ( 2× 30 )
R=
10

250000 sin 60
R=
10

R= 25000 x 0.866

R = 2165m
2 2
U sin θ
(i) H max =
2g
500 sin2 30
2
H max =
2× 10
250000×(sin 30)
H max =
20
H max =12500 ×0.5
Hmax = 6250m
0
2. A bullet is fired at an angle of 45 to the horizontal with a velocity of 450m/s.
calculate (i) time to reach the maximum height (ii) the maximum height reached and
the horizontal distance from the point of projection at this instant.
SOLUTION
( i ) θ=450
−1
U =450 m s
2
g=10 ms t=?
Usinθ
t=
g

450 sin 45
t=
10
 t=45× 0.7071

t = 31.8 s

(Further examples should be solved as classwork)

EVALUATION

3
A particle is projected from the ground level with a velocity of 40m/s at an angle of tanθ= .
4
Calculate the

I. Time of flight
II. Range
III. Ime taken to reach the greatest height
IV. Greatest height

PERIOD TWO

BODIES PROJECTED HORIZONTALLY AT A HEIGHT ABOVE THE GROUND

The motion of such projectile can also be splitted into two: the horizontal and the vertical
motion.

U = Ux

1. Horizontal motion
R
In the horizontal motion, the body moves with constant velocity. Therefore the
horizontal acceleration is zero. This also implies that the initial and the final
horizontal velocity are equal.
Ux = Vx = U
ax= 0.
If t is the time to reach the ground,then
R=Ut … …. … … .(vii)
2. Vertical motion
The vertical motion is an example of a uniformly accelerated motion. The equations
of uniform motion are still valid for it.
During the upward motion,
 Vertical acceleration ay = -g (where g is the acceleration due to gravity)
The body was given an initial horizontal velocity. Since no vector has a perpendicular
component, Uy = 0
Height H = Sy
Substituting these into S = Ut + ½ at2.
1 2
H=0 x t+ g t
2
1 2
H= g t
2
making time the suject of the formulae

t=
√ 2H
g
… …. … … .( viii)
this is the time taken¿ reach theground∨foot ofthe height

CLASSWORK

1. A ball is projected horizontally from the top of building with a velocity of 10m/s. the
height of the building is 45m. determine;
i. Time taken by the ball to reach the ground
ii. Distance of the ball from the building after hitting the ground
iii. The direction of the ball to the horizontal just before it hit the ground.

EVALUATION

1. For a particular value of U, at what θ to the horizontal should a ball be projected in

order to have a maximum range? (a) 150 (b) 300 (c) 450 (d) 600
2. Which of these is not true about the horizontal motion of a projectile? (a) constant
acceleration (b) uniform velocity (c) it is not affected by gravity (d) accelaeration is
zero
3. A coin is pushed from the edge of a laboratory bench with a horizontal velocity of
15m/s of the height of the bench is from the floor is 1.5m. calculate the distance
from the foot of the bench of the point of impact with the floor. (g = 10m/s 2) (a)
0.75m (b) 2.25m (c) 8.22 m (d) 15.00m. (WASSCE 2011)

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Using any of the equation of uniform motion, such that the maximum height
attained by a ball projected at an angle θ to the horizontal with a velocity U is
2 2
U sin θ
H max =
2g
READING ASSIGNMENT.

Students should answer the question on page 134 of New School Physics by MA Anyakoha

WEEK EIGHT DATE ………………………

TOPIC; SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

CONTENT

- CONCEPT of S.H.M
- Example of bodies in S.H.M
- Mathematical description of SHM
- Terms used in describing SHM

PERIOD ONE

CONCEPT OF SHM

Simple harmonic motion is an example of periodic motion. A periodic motion is one whose
pattern of motion is repeated at regular interval of time.

A body is said to be in simple Harmonic Motion if it moves along a fixed path such that it
acceleration is directly proportional to its displacement from a fixed point.

Simple harmonic motion can be defined as the motion of whose acceleration is always
directed towards a fixed point and is proportional to the distance of the bodies from that
point.

Example of bodies in SHM

1. A vibrating simple pendulum

2. A mass at the ended of a vibrating helical spring
3. Oscillation of mercury in a U-tube
4. Motion of the balance wheel of a watch.
5. Motion of prongs of a vibrating tuning fork
6. Motion of a loaded test tube in water

Mathematical definition of SHM

Mathematically, SHM can be defining as;

aα− y
Where a is the acceleration and y is the displacement.

Introducing a constant,
2
a=−ω y

The displacement of bodies in SHM simulate the sinusoidal change describe by the sine
curve.
y

Terms for describing a SHM

1. Amplitude (A). this the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position.

2. Period (T); this is the time taken for the body in SHM to complete one oscillation. If a
body in SHM complete n cycles/oscillations in time t, the period of the SHM is given
as.
t
period T = … … .. … ( i )
n
The S.I unit of period is seconds
3. Frequency (f); this is the number of cycles completed by a body in SHM in one
seconds. The S.I unit of frequency is Hertz (s-1). Frequency can also be define as the
reciprocal of period,
1
frequency f = … … … …(ii)
T
n
f=
t

4. Angular frequency( ω ); this is the ratio of one complete cycle to the period of the
SHM. Angular frequency is sometime referred to as angular speed. It S.I unit is rad/s.
another unit for ω is rev/min
2π
angular frequency ω=
T
ω=2 πf … … … .. … . … .(iii)
5. Displacement (y); the displacement of a body in SHM simulate the sine curve and it is
given as;
 y= Asinϴ
θ is the angular displacement and it is given as θ=ωt
t)

y= Asinωt … … … …(iv)

Where y is the displacement, A is the amplitude, ωis the angular frequency and t is time.

EVALUATION

1. State five example of bodies in SHM

2. Define the following terms (i) amplitude (ii) frequency (iii) period

PERIOD TWO.

SPEED AND ACCELERATION OF BODIES IN SHM

6. Speed (v); this is the rate of change of displacement/distance. Since this is not a
uniform motion, we result to differential calculus
∂y
v=
∂t
∂( A sinωt)
v=
∂t

V = A ω cosωt … … . … … .… (v )

Speed of a body in SHM can also be given as,

v=ω √ A 2−Y 2 −−−−−(vb)

A body in SHM will have it maximum value when sinωt =1

maximum speed V max=ωA … … … .. … ( vi )

7. Acceleration (a); this is the rate of change of velocity.

∂V
a=
∂t
∂( Aω cosωt)
a=
∂t
2
a=− A ω sinωt … . … .… . … .( v)

(students who had not taken lesson in differential calculus should not bother about the
derivation. But they should take note of the result)

EXPERIMENT
 - To determine acceleration due to gravity g using simple pendulum.
- To determine the force constant of a helical spring

CLASSWORK

1. A body executing simple harmonic motion has an angular velocity of 22rads -1. If it has
a maximum displacement of 10cm. what is its maximum linear velocity?
−1
ω=22 rad s
A=10 cm=0.1m
v=ωA
V =22× 0.1
−1
V =2.2m s

Simple pendulum

This consists of a small mass attached to the end of a string.

O

A C

B is the equilibrium position. As the body passes through this position it kinetic energy is
maximum.

At B, speed is maximum kinetic energy is maximum potential energy is zero

At A and C, the bodyis temporarily at rest. Speed is zero as well as kinetic energy. But the
potential energy at this point is maximum.

The period of oscillation of a simple period

1. Is directly proportional to the square root of the length of the string

T α √l
Period increases with length.
T1
T2 √
l
= 1
l2

2. Is independent on the mass of the bob

3. Is inversely proportional to the square root of the acceleration due to gravity.
 1
Tα
√g
T =2 π
√ l
g
… … . … . …..(v )

A body at the end of a vibrating helical spring.

This is another example of a simple a harmonic motion. It consist of a mass attached to the
end of a spring.

The period of the mass vibrating at the end of the heical spring is

1. Directly proportional to the square root of the mass

T α √m
Period increases with mass
T1
T2
m
= 1
√
m2
2. Inversely proportional to the square root of the force constant of the spring.
1
Tα
√k
The period of a vibrating mass at the end of a helical spring is given as

T =2 π
√ m
k

(miscellaneous solution to problem in SHM that involve calculation should be taken in class)

EVALUATION.

1. The number of cycle per seconds completed by a body in SHM is called ---- (a) period
(b) amplitude (c) angular frequency (d) frequency
2. Which of these is not true about bodies in SHM? (a) acceleration is proportional to
displacement (b) acceleration act in opposite direction to the displacement (c)
acceleration is directed toward the fixed point
 3. A simple pendulum has a period of 4.2 s. when the length is shortened by 1m, the
period is 3.7 s. calculate the original length of the string. 9a) 74.5 m (b) 3.2 m (c) 2.7
m (d) 1.8 m (ACEDEX, 2011)

WEEK END ASSIGNMENT

1. Sketch the curve for displacement speed and acceleration and state the phase
difference between them.
2. Beginning from V = Aω cos ωt show that V

V =ω √ A 2− y 2

READING ASSIGNMENT;

Students should read page 163- 171 and answer the question on page 172 of New School
Physics by M A .Anyakoha
WEEK NINE DATE…………………………..

TOPIC; ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

CONTENT

- Energy conversion in SHM

- Damped oscillation
- Forced vibration in SHM
- Resonance

PERIOD ONE

ENERGY IN SHM

A body in simple harmonic motion undergoes displacement as a result of a restoring force

acting on its toward the equilibrium position. Energy is always involved when a body moves
through a distance under the action of a force.

Recall work done = force x distance

Consider a vibrating mass at the end of a helical spring; if an average force of ½F act on the
mass to cause a displacement of y

Work done = energy = average force x distance

E=½Fxy

1
E= Fy … . … .… . … . ( vi )
2

This is equivalent to the elastic potential energy stored in the spring.

But F = Ky

Substituting this into (vi)

 1 1
E= ( ky ) y = k y 2
2 2

1 2
E= k y … … … … … .( vii)
2

The potential energy of the mass is maximum when y = amplitude

1 2
E=PE max= k A … … … … … (viii)
2

The kinetic energy of the mass is given as

1
KE= m v 2
2

But from eqn (vb)

v=ω √ A 2− y 2

Therefore, KE at displacement y is given as

1
KE= m ω2 ( A 2− y 2 ) … . … .. … … … (ix )
2

Maximum kinetic energy will occur at the equilibrium position (i.e when y = 0)

1
KE max = mω 2 A2 … … … … … . ( x )
2

EVALAUTION

1. What is the angular speed of a body vibrating at 50cycles per second? (a) 200∏rads -1
(b) 100∏ rads-1 (b) 50 rads-1 (d) 0.01 rads-1
2. If a body moving with SHM has an angular velocity of 50rad/s and amplitude 10cm,
calculate it linear velocity.
3. A body in SHM has an amplitude of 10 cm and a frequency of 100Hz calculate (i)
acceleration at maximum displacement (b) period of oscillation (c) velocity at the
centre of the motion

PERIOD TWO

Simple pendulum
O

A C

B
The energy of the bob at B is entirely kinetic (equilibrium position)

The energy of the bob at A and C is entirely potential (the bob is temporarily at rest at these
points).

At any point between A and B or C and B, the energy is the sum of the potential and the
kinetic energy of the bob at that position.

Damped oscillation

SHM is an hypothetical motion in which energy has been taking to be constant through the
motion and the amplitude but not change.

In damped harmonic oscillation the amplitude decreases with time until it is zero.

The amplitude of this motion is gradually decreasing

To maintain a oscillation that would have been damped in simple harmonic motion,an
external periodic force is applied. This is called forced vibration

Forced vibration is a vibration resulting from the action of an external periodic force on an
oscillating body.

Resonance; this is a phenomenon in which the frequency of the external oscillator coincide
with the natural frequency of a body there by making is the body to vibrate with a large
amplitude.

Resonance explains why sometime at a radio playing some tunes could make a tumbler on
the same table to shake visibly.

EVALUATION

1. A simple pendulum has a period of 3.0 s. If the value of g =9.9 m/s 2. Calculate the
length of the pendulum.
 2. An object moving with SHM has amplitude 5 cm and frequency 50Hz. Calculate (i)
period of the oscillation (ii) acceleration at the middle and end of the oscillation (iii)
velocity at the middle and at the end of the oscillation
3. Define the following (I) damped oscillation (ii) forced oscillation (iii) resonance

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Describe an experiment to verify the variation of the period of a simple pendulum

with length of the pendulum.
2. The period of a simple pendulum is 3.45 s. when the length of the pendulum is
shortened by 1 m, the period is 2.81 s. calculate (a) the original length of the
pendulum (b) the acceleration due to gravity

READING ASSIGNMENT

Students should read up the above topic in their text books.