UNIT 4

POWER ENGINEERING:
POWER GENERATION & RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Warm-up. Answer and discuss the following:

• How is electricity generated?
• What sources can be used for the generation of electricity?
• What is renewable energy? Why is it important?
• What renewable energy sources are there?
• What are our country’s potentials:
o in terms of the generation of electricity, and
o in terms of generating renewable electricity?

I READING – PART 1. Read a short text on the process of generating electricity13

and answer the questions below:

Electricity Generation

Electricity is produced at an electric power plant. Some fuel source, such as coal, oil, natural gas, or
nuclear energy, produces heat, which is used to boil water to create steam. The steam under high
pressure is then used to spin a turbine that interacts with a system of magnets to produce electricity.
The electricity is transmitted as moving electrons through a series of wires to homes and business.
Introduction
This is a typical electric power plant located in
Shawville, Pennsylvania.
Notice the large pile of coal on the left side of the
plant and the three smokestacks, each one taller than
the previous. The tallest stack was built to cut down
on the local air pollution, where the sulphur oxides
are emitted higher into the atmosphere. This has not
proven to be a solution to the problem. As a result the
sulphur oxides now travel great distances before
coming down in the form of acid rain.
Electric Power Plants
Electric Power Plants have a number of components
in common and are an interesting study in the various
forms and changes of energy necessary to produce
electricity.
• Boiler Unit: Almost all of power plants operate by
heating water in a boiler unit into super-heated steam
at very high pressures. The source of heat from
combustion reactions may vary in fossil fuel plants
from the source of fuels such as coal, oil, or natural
gas. Biomass or waste plant parts may also be used
as a source of fuel. In some areas solid waste
incinerators are also used as a source of heat. All of these sources of fuels result in varying

13
Taken from (CC licence): Electricity Generation. (2020, August 14). Retrieved March 12, 2021, from https://chem.libretexts.org/@go/page/1307
 amounts of air pollution, as well as the carbon dioxide (a gas implicated in global warming
problems).
• Turbine-Generator: The super-heated steam is used to spin the blades of a turbine,
which in turn is used in the generator to turn a coil of wires within a circular arrangements of
magnets. The rotating coil of wire in the magnets results in the generation of electricity.
• Cooling Water: After the steam travels through the turbine, it must be cooled and
condensed back into liquid water to start the cycle over again. Cooling water can be obtained
from a nearby river or lake. The water is returned to the body of water 10-20 °C higher in
temperature than the intake water. Alternate method is to use a very tall cooling tower, where
the evaporation of water falling through the tower provides the cooling effect.
• In a nuclear power plant, the fission chain reaction of splitting nuclei provides the
source of heat.
Creating Electricity using a Generator
If a magnetic field can create a current then we have a means of
generating electricity. Experiments showed that a magnetic just
sitting next to a wire produced no current flow through that wire.
However, if the magnet is moving, a current is induced in the wire.
The faster the magnet moves, the greater the induced current.
This is the principle behind simple electric generators in which a
wire loop is rotated between two stationary magnetics. This
produces a continuously varying voltage which in turn produces
an alternating current.
Diagram of a simple electric generator is shown above. To
generate electricity then, some (mechanical) mechanism is used
to turn a crank that rotates a loop of wire between stationary
magnets. The faster the crank turns, the more current that is
generated. In hydroelectric, the falling water turns the turbine.
The wind can also turn the turbine. In fossil fuel plants and nuclear plants, water is heated to steam,
which turns the turbine.

1. Where is electricity produced?

2. What fuel sources are commonly used for its generation?
3. What moves the turbines?
4. How is electricity distributed from plants to homes?
5. What components do power plants have in common?
6. How is water heated in the boiler unit?
7. What happens in the generator?
8. Why is water cooled down after the process?
9. How is the process of generating electricity in a nuclear power plant different from that in other
plants?
10. What is the principle behind simple electric generators?
11. What technical words from the field of electrical engineering were used in this text? Write them
down in the box below. Be sure you know how they are pronounced.
PART 2. Now read the text about renewable energy sources from Doršner’s book
Essentials of Environmental Science14 and complete the exercises below it.
Renewable Energy Sources
Hydropower
Figure 1. Hoover Power Plant View of Hoover Power Plant on the Colorado River as seen from above. Source:
U.S. Department of the Interior

Hydropower (hydroelectric) relies on water to spin turbines and create

electricity. It is considered a clean and renewable source of energy because it
does not directly produce pollutants and because the source of power is
regenerated. Hydropower provides 35% of the United States’ renewable
energy consumption.
Hydropower dams and the reservoirs they create can have environmental impacts. For example,
migration of fish to their upstream spawning areas can be obstructed by dams. In areas where salmon
must travel upstream to spawn, the dams block their way. This problem can be partially solved by using
“fish ladders” that help salmon get around the dams. Fish traveling downstream, however, can get killed
or injured as water moves through turbines in the dam. Reservoirs and operation of dams can also
affect aquatic habitats due to changes in water temperatures, water depth, chemistry, flow
characteristics, and sediment loads, all of which can lead to significant changes in the ecology and
physical characteristics of the river both upstream and downstream. As reservoirs fill with water it may
cause natural areas, farms, cities, and archaeological sites to be overburdened and force populations
to relocate.
Small hydropower systems
Figure 2. Microhydropower system. Although there are several ways to harness the moving water to produce
energy, run-of-the-river systems, which do not require large storage reservoirs, are often used for microhydro,
and sometimes for small-scale hydro, projects. For run-of-the-river hydro projects, a portion of a river’s water is
diverted to a channel, pipeline, or pressurized pipeline (penstock) that delivers it to a waterwheel or turbine. The
moving water rotates the wheel or turbine, which spins a shaft. The motion of the shaft can be used for
mechanical processes, such as pumping water, or it can be used to power an alternator or generator to generate
electricity.

Large-scale dam hydropower projects are often criticized for their impacts on
wildlife habitat, fish migration, and water flow and quality. However, small run-
of-the-river projects are free from many of the environmental problems
associated with their large-scale relatives because they use the natural flow of the river, and thus
produce relatively little change in the stream channel and flow. The dams built for some run-of-the-river
projects are very small and need little water, and many projects do not require a dam at all. Thus, effects
such as oxygen depletion, increased temperature, decreased flow, and impeded upstream migration
are not problems for many run-of-the-river projects.
Small hydropower projects offer emissions-free power solutions for many remote communities
throughout the world, such as those in Nepal, India, China, and Peru, as well as for highly industrialized
countries like the United States. Small hydropower systems are those that generate between .01 to
30 MW of electricity. Hydropower systems that generate up to 100 kilowatts (kW) of electricity are often
called micro hydropower systems (Figure 2). Most of the systems used by home and small business
owners would qualify as microhydro-power systems. In fact, a 10 kW system generally can provide
enough power for a large home, a small resort, or a hobby farm.
Municipal Solid Waste
Municipal solid waste (MSW) is commonly known as garbage and can create electricity by burning it
directly or by burning the methane produced as it decays. Waste to energy processes are gaining
renewed interest as they can solve two problems at once: disposal of waste and production of energy
from a renewable resource. Many of the environmental impacts are similar to those of a coal plant: air
pollution, ash generation, etc. Because the fuel source is less standardized than coal and hazardous
materials may be present in MSW, incinerators and waste-to-energy power plants need to clean the
gases of harmful materials. The U.S. EPA regulates these plants very strictly and requires anti-pollution
devices to be installed. Also, while incinerating at high temperature many of the toxic chemicals may
break down into less harmful compounds. The ash from these plants may contain high concentrations
of various metals that were present in the original waste. If ash is clean enough it can be “recycled” as
an MSW landfill cover or to build roads.

14
Adapted from (CC): https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/envirobiology/chapter/11-3-renewable-energy-sources/ Essentials of Environmental Science by Kamala Doršner
is licensed under CC BY 4.0. Modified from the original by Matthew R. Fisher.
Biofuel
Figure 3. Woodchips Photograph shows a pile of woodchips, which are a type of biomass. Source: Ulrichulrich

Biomass refers to material made by organisms, such as cells and tissues. In

terms of energy production, biomass is almost always derived from plants, and
to a lesser extent, algae. For biomass to be a sustainable option, it usually
needs to come from waste material, such as lumber mill sawdust, paper mill
sludge, yard waste, or oat hulls from an oatmeal processing plant, material that
would otherwise just rot. Livestock manure and human waste could also be considered biomass. The
use of biomass can help mitigate climate change because when burned it adds no new carbon to the
atmosphere. Thinking back to the carbon cycle, you will recall that photosynthesis removes CO2 through
the process of carbon fixation. When biomass is burnt, CO2 is created, but this is equal to the amount
of CO2 captured during carbon fixation. Thus, biomass is a carbon neutral energy source because it
doesn’t add new CO2 to the carbon cycle. Each type of biomass must be evaluated for its environmental
and social impact in order to determine if it is really increasing sustainability and reducing environmental
impacts. For example, cutting down large swaths of forests just for energy production is not a
sustainable option because our energy demands are so great that we would quickly deforest the world,
destroying critical habitat.
Burning Wood
Using wood, and charcoal made from wood, for heating and cooking can replace fossil fuels and may
result in lower CO2 emissions. If wood is harvested from forests that have to be thinned or from urban
trees that fall down or needed be cut down anyway, then using it for biomass does not impact those
ecosystems. However, wood smoke contains harmful pollutants like carbon monoxide and particulate
matter. For home heating, it is most efficient and least polluting when using a modern wood stove or
fireplace insert that are designed to release small amounts of particulates. However, in places where
wood and charcoal are major cooking and heating fuels such as in undeveloped countries, the wood
may be harvested faster than trees can grow resulting in deforestation.
Landfill Gas or Biogas
Landfill gas (biogas) is a sort of man-made “biogenic” gas. Methane is formed as a result of biological
processes in sewage treatment plants, waste landfills, anaerobic composting, and livestock manure
management systems. This gas is captured and burned to produce heat or electricity. The electricity
may replace electricity produced by burning fossil fuels and result in a net reduction in CO2 emissions.
The only environmental impacts are from the construction of the plant itself, similar to that of a natural
gas plant.
Bioethanol and Biodiesel
Bioethanol and biodiesel are liquid biofuels manufactured from plants, typically crops. Bioethanol can
be easily fermented from sugar cane juice, as is done in Brazil. Bioethanol can also be fermented from
broken down corn starch, as is mainly done in the United States. The economic and social effects of
growing plants for fuels need to be considered, since the land, fertilizers, and energy used to grow
biofuel crops could be used to grow food crops instead. The competition of land for fuel vs. food can
increase the price of food, which has a negative effect on society. It could also decrease the food supply
increasing malnutrition and starvation globally. Also, in some parts of the world, large areas of natural
vegetation and forests have been cut down to grow sugar cane for bioethanol and soybeans and palm-
oil trees to make biodiesel. This is not sustainable land use. Biofuels may be derived from parts of plants
not used for food, thus reducing that impact. Biodiesel can be made from used vegetable oil and has
been produced on a very local basis. Compared to petroleum diesel, biodiesel combustion produces
less sulphur oxides, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, and unburned and other hydrocarbons, but it
produces more nitrogen oxide.
Liquid biofuels typically replace petroleum and are used to power vehicles. Although ethanol-gasoline
mixtures burn cleaner than pure gasoline, they also are more volatile and thus have higher “evaporative
emissions” from fuel tanks and dispensing equipment. These emissions contribute to the formation of
harmful, ground level ozone and smog. Gasoline requires extra processing to reduce evaporative
emissions before it is blended with ethanol.
Geothermal Energy
5% of the United States’ renewable energy comes from geothermal energy: using the heat of Earth’s
subsurface to provide endless energy. Geothermal systems utilize a heat-exchange system that runs
in the subsurface about 20 feet (5 meters) below the surface where the ground is at a constant
temperature. The system uses the earth as a heat source (in the winter) or a heat sink (in the summer).
This reduces the energy consumption required to generate heat from gas, steam, hot water, and
conventional electric air-conditioning systems. The environmental impact of geothermal energy
depends on how it is being used. Direct use and heating applications have almost no negative impact
on the environment.
Geothermal power plants do not burn fuel to generate electricity so their emission levels are very low.
They release less than 1% of the carbon dioxide emissions of a fossil fuel plant. Geothermal plants use
special systems to clean the air of hydrogen sulphide that is naturally found in the steam and hot water.
They emit 97% less acid rain-causing sulphur compounds than are emitted by fossil fuel plants. After
the steam and water from a geothermal reservoir have been used, they are injected back into the earth.
Solar Energy
Figure 4. Rooftop Solar Installations Rooftop solar installation on Douglas Hall at the University of Illinois at Chicago has
no effect on land resources, while producing electricity with zero emissions. Source: Office of Sustainability, UIC

Solar power converts the energy of light into electrical energy and has minimal impact
on the environment, depending on where it is placed. In 2009, 1% of the renewable
energy generated in the United States was from solar power (1646 MW) out of the 8%
of the total electricity generation that was from renewable sources. The manufacturing
of photovoltaic (PV) cells generates some hazardous waste from the chemicals and
solvents used in processing. Often solar panels are placed on roofs of buildings or
over parking lots or integrated into construction in other ways. However, large systems may be placed
on land and particularly in deserts where those fragile ecosystems could be damaged if care is not
taken. Some solar thermal systems use potentially hazardous fluids (to transfer heat) that require proper
handling and disposal. Concentrated solar systems may need to be cleaned regularly with water, which
is also needed for cooling the turbine-generator. Using water from underground wells may affect the
ecosystem in some arid locations.
Wind
Figure 5. Twin Groves Wind Farm, Illinois Wind power is becoming a more popular source of energy in the United States.
Source: Office of Sustainability, UIC

Wind energy is a renewable energy source that is clean and has very few
environmental challenges. Wind turbines are becoming a more prominent sight
across the world, even in regions that are considered to have less wind potential.
Wind turbines (often called windmills) do not release emissions that pollute the air or water (with rare
exceptions), and they do not require water for cooling. According to the American Wind Energy
Association, over 35% of all new electrical generating capacity in the United States since 2006 was due
to wind, surpassed only by natural gas.
Because a wind turbine has a small physical footprint relative to the amount of electricity it produces,
many wind farms are located on crop and pasture land. They contribute to economic sustainability by
providing extra income to farmers and ranchers, allowing them to stay in business and keep their
property from being developed for other uses. Offshore wind turbines on lakes or the ocean may have
smaller environmental impacts than turbines on land.
Wind turbines do have a few environmental challenges. There are aesthetic concerns to some people
when they see them on the landscape. A few wind turbines have caught on fire, and some have leaked
lubricating fluids, though this is relatively rare. Some people do not like the sound that wind turbine
blades make. Turbines have been found to cause bird and bat deaths particularly if they are located
along their migratory path. This is of particular concern if these are threatened or endangered species.
There are ways to mitigate that impact and it is currently being researched. There are some small
impacts from the construction of wind projects or farms, such as the construction of service roads, the
production of the turbines themselves, and the concrete for the foundations. However, overall analysis
has found that turbines make much more energy than the amount used to make and install them.

a) Decide whether the following are true or false.

1. Hydropower is considered a renewable energy.
2. Exploiting hydropower can create a number of ecological problems.
3. According to the text, run-of-the-river projects may be developed with minimal environmental
impacts.
4. Small hydropower projects are not suitable for remote communities.
5. Creating energy from waste creates two problems at once.
6. Waste-to-energy plants need to have anti-pollutant systems.
7. Biomass is primarily produced from dead animals.
8. Biomass is criticized for adding CO2 to the carbon cycle.
9. Burning wood as an energy source is widely used in developed countries.
10. Woodsmoke is typically low in pollutants.
11. The only environmental impact from using biogas is that from building the plant.
12. Liquid biofuels are generally used to power vehicles.
13. Bioethanol is made from crystal sugar.
14. Geothermal energy can be used at a great environmental cost.
15. Using solar energy is not associated with any environmental impacts.
16. Aesthetic concerns have been voiced against the use of wind turbines.
17. Wind turbines can hurt birds.

b) Match the words in the italics with their synonyms or definitions.

dam pollutant shaft impede depletion decay
municipality hazardous incinerate compound derive mitigate
sustainability swath deforestation charcoal harvest sewage

1. to gradually be destroyed ………………………

2. reduce harmful effects or risk ………………………
3. the ability to exist for a long time in the same manner ………………………
4. a wall built across a river ………………………
5. an uncontrolled cutting-down of trees ………………………
6. to collect something, esp. a crop ………………………
7. waste waters and waste products ………………………
8. a substance harmful to the environment ………………………
9. a large area of land ………………………
10. obtain, get ………………………
11. make something more difficult, act as an obstacle ………………………
12. a black substance remaining after wood is burnt ………………………
13. burn ………………………
14. a rod in a machine which turns to pass power ………………………
15. reduction in the amount of something ………………………
16. a town and its local self-government ………………………
17. dangerous ………………………
18. a chemical substance from two or more elements ………………………

crop fertilizer combustion volatility evaporation particulate matter

malnutrition heat sink blend acid rain solvent disposal
arid surpass leak lubricate concrete footprint

1. the process of burning ………………………

2. property of a liquid which can easily change into gas ………………………
3. a medical condition caused by not eating (right) ………………………
4. rain which can damage the environment ………………………
5. the process when a liquid changes into gas ………………………
6. put oil on the parts of a machine ………………………
7. substance added to soil to make plants grow better ………………………
8. plants grown for food ………………………
9. a mixture of solid particles found in air ………………………
10. mix ………………………
11. dry as there is no rain ………………………
12. be greater/better than something else ………………………
13. a component for absorbing unwanted heat ………………………
14. a liquid for changing a solid into a liquid state ………………………
15. a substance from cement, sand, stones, and water ………………………
16. a dirty/polluting mark ………………………
17. an amount of liquid that comes out through a hole ………………………
18. getting rid of something ………………………

c) Which words were used together with these in the text? The first letter of the
missing words is provided.
s………….. turbines h……………….. materials
e……………….. impact w………………. landfill
p……………….. matter m………………. an impact
d……………….. of waste energy c……………………

d) Complete with the missing word forms.

Verb Noun Adjective
evaporative, evaporating,
evaporated
disposal
polluting, polluted
depleting, depleted
decaying, decayed
- municipal
- hazardous
deforest
harvest
fertilizer
blend
leaking, leaked
spin
mitigate
waste

e) Match the sentences’ halves. Try not to look back at the text.
A Wood smoke contains harmful pollutants 1 on how it is being used.
B Our energy demands are so great 2 for their impacts on wildlife habitat.
C The environmental impact of geothermal 3 of biological processes in sewage treatment
energy depends plants.
D Dam hydropower projects are criticized 4 like carbon monoxide and particulate matter.
E Using wood may result 5 on the environment.
 F Methane is formed as a result 6 that we would quickly deforest the world.
G They have almost no negative impact 7 found to cause bird and bat deaths.
H Turbines have been 8 in lower CO2 emissions.

f) Answer the questions below.

1. According to the text, exploitation of which renewable energy sources has the lowest environmental
impact?
2. Among the renewable energy sources, which are currently used the most?
3. Which of the sources do you find the least likely to catch on?
4. What is problematic about the use of hydropower dams?
5. What are the pros and cons of small hydropower systems?
6. How can waste-to-energy processes solve two problems at once?
7. What may be the problem with using waste-to-energy processes?
8. What sources are typically used for creating biomass?
9. Why is biomass energy considered carbon neutral?
10. How is biogas formed?
11. What are the most common biofuels and what are they made from?
12. How do geothermal systems work?
13. What may be some of the problems associated with the use of solar panels?
14. How can windmills provide extra profit to farmers?
15. What environmental challenges are associated with the use of windmills?
16. Can you add any other renewable energy source that was not mentioned in the text?

II SPEAKING. Look at the chart below which shows the most used renewable
energy sources in the world. Discuss the questions below.

• Are you surprised by the facts from

the chart?
• Do you think that some other
renewable energy sources will overtake
the currently leading ones?
• How “green” is the use of hydropower
in your opinion?
• Will we, perhaps, be forced to rely
more on some renewable energy
sources in the future?
• Do you think that our country is
making enough efforts to increase the
share of renewable energy?
• Rank renewable energy sources
according to the environmental footprint
of their exploitation. Which have the
smallest one? Which have the biggest
one? Explain your choices.
III LISTENING. Listen about hydropower15 and answer the questions below.
1. Why is hydropower considered renewable energy?
2. How was hydropower used in the past?
3. What are the two main types of hydroelectricity
production?
4. What do hydrodams utilize?
5. Why do some dams have additional reservoirs?
6. How are run-of-rivers different from dams?
7. According to their
size, what are the three main types of hydroplants?
8. What example of a big hydroplant is given?
9. What are the benefits of using hydropower?
10. What are the cons of using hydropower?

IV WRITING. Writing an academic and professional email.

Even though emails are typically less formal than letters, there are still some expectations for adequate
and successful electronic communication with the university faculty, colleagues from work and other
professionals. Some points to keep in mind:
• Reduce the informal language to minimum.
• Be polite.
• Be concise.
• Don’t send large attachments, unless you are specifically asked to.
• Use your university email account for academic, i.e. your business email account for
professional correspondence.
• Proofread before sending so as to avoid typos and grammar mistakes.

Subject line – don’t leave it empty. In academic emails, first put the (short) name of your course and
then try to summarize your request in it in a concise way, so that your receiver will know what the email
is about (e.g. English for Electrical Engineering – seminar paper submission; Second year English –
additional questions about + topic…; Sociology – request to extend the deadline for the submission of
papers…)
Salutation – the safest way to address people in formal emails is “Dear + (title) + last name” (e.g. “Dear
prof. Petrović“, „Dear Ms. Smith“).
Body of the email – at the beginning of your correspondence always introduce yourself – say who you
are and which course you are attending or where you know your business acquaintance from, etc. It
may be difficult for the professors teaching several courses (sometimes at several departments or
faculties) to remember you immediately.
State your request after that. Remember to be formal and polite.
Complimentary close – at the end, you can use the same complimentary closes as in motivation and
application letters. Also, you should always sign your emails.

Here is a template you can use:

(1) Subject: [Name of the course] + [question about/request for…]
(2) Dear prof./Dr./Mr./Mrs./Ms. + [last name],
(4) I am a student in your [name of the course].
(5) I have a question concerning the lecture you gave on [day], which I could not find the answer to.
[question]
I am looking forward to hearing from you.
(6) Yours sincerely,
[Your name]

15
Taken from (CC): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q8HmRLCgDAI
A sample email is given below:

Dear Prof. Petrović,

I am a second-year student in your English III class. I was hoping that we could meet to discuss some
points regarding my upcoming presentation (which is due next week).
I am planning to give a presentation about Nikola Tesla. I have been attending the lectures and I
have read the instructions for presentations, but I still have a few questions that I would like to ask
before I begin to prepare it. Could you please let me know if you are available for brief consultations
this week and, if so, when and where we could meet?
Thank you for your time.

Best regards,
Ivana Ivanović

Below are some useful phrases and sentences you can use in academic and professional
emails:

I am writing to you in connection with/with regards to/regarding/concerning…

I am writing in order to ask for further information about…
I am writing concerning the meeting which we have arranged…
I am writing regarding the complaint you have made…
I’m writing (in order) to ask/enquire/confirm/check/inform you/let you know/tell you/hank you/invite
you/update you on/announce that/ask for a favour…
With reference to our conversation yesterday, I would like to let you know…
As promised/asked/discussed, I am writing to…
Would you be so kind as to...?
I hope you will be willing to...
When convenient for you, would you please...?
I would be grateful if you could...
I am sending you the presentation for tomorrow in the attachment.
Please find attached the presentation…
Could you please let me know when you are available?
I would appreciate it if you could send me…
Could we arrange a meeting on Monday?
Please let me know if this is possible…
Thank you in advance.
Thank you for your email.
Thank you for your quick reply.
I apologize for my late reply.
I look forward to hearing from you (soon).
Please let me know if that is fine with you/if that is acceptable/if that sounds alright.
If you need any more information,…
If you have any questions,…
…please do not hesitate to contact me/please contact me.
I hope we will have a chance/an opportunity to meet (again) soon.
V LANGUAGE IN USE. GRAMMAR & VOCABULARY: Informal and formal
language. Basic vocabulary for electrical engineering: generators.

GRAMMAR & VOCABULARY: Informal and formal language

In academic and professional emails, you typically use formal language rather than informal. These
are the characteristics of formal language:

Grammar:
Contractions – not used in formal language:
Informal: I’m writing about…
Formal: I am writing about…

Phrasal verbs – not used in formal language:

Informal: I’m writing to fix up a meeting.
Formal: I am writing to arrange a meeting.

Ellipsis – avoid ellipsis and use the full version of a sentence in formal language:
Informal: the girl I met…
Formal: the girl whom/that I met…

Informal: Sorry for writing so late…

Formal: I am sorry/I apologize for writing to you this late but…

Modal verbs – some modal verbs such as may, might, could suggest more politeness:
Informal: Can I see you tomorrow?
Formal: Could/May I see you tomorrow?

Abbreviations – try not to use them in formal language:

Informal: Let me know ASAP.
Formal: Please let me know as soon as possible.

Vocabulary:
Some words are considered more formal. Those are typically words with Latin roots. Some examples
are given below:

Informal or neutral Formal

begin commence
end terminate
buy purchase
OK/okay acceptable
want require
help assistance
get obtain
show demonstrate
find out discover
let permit
look at examine
but however
so therefore
totally completely, entirely
because due to, as
a) Look at the student emails to their professors below. What is wrong with
them? Write the appropriate versions of the emails below.
“Dear professor,
Sorry I missed class. Did you do anything important today?”

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

“Hi Milica,
I couldn’t open the homework document on my computer. What should I do?
Tea”

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

“Hey there,
Sorry for sending my seminar paper late, but my internet was not working properly. It’s fixed now.”

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

“Dear professor,
I sent you the homework yesterday, but there was no reply. I am writing again just in case.
Best,
Dragan”
NOTE: The assignment was sent on a Saturday.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 Basic terms in electrical engineering: generators

Alternator – an electrical generator converting mechanical energy to electrical energy in the form of
alternating current

Brush – a conducting element which maintains a sliding electrical contact between a stationary and
a moving element

Core – the laminations in the generator which make its magnetic structure

Cradle – the metal frame surrounding and protecting the generator/engine

Dynamo /ˈdaɪnəməʊ/ – an electric generator, especially for direct current

Electro-motive force (EMF) – the force causing current to flow in a conductor; the voltage potential

Full power outlet – the outlet enabling you to draw the full power of the generator out of one outlet

Generator – a general name for a machine converting mechanical energy into electrical energy

Idle control /ˈaɪdl kənˈtrəʊl/ – a system controlling the idle speed of the engine in direct relation to
the electrical load

Ignition coil /ɪɡˈnɪʃ(ə)n kɔɪl/ – a device used to supply DC voltage to the spark plugs

Magneto /maɡˈniːtəʊ/ – an alternator with permanent magnets which are used to generate current
for ignition in an internal combustion engine

Phase – the uniform periodic change in amplitude or magnitude of an alternating current

Rated speed – revolutions per minute at which the set is designed to operate

Rated voltage – the voltage at which the set is designed to operate

Rectifier – a device converting AC to DC

Relay – an electrically operated switch typically used in control circuits

Resistance – opposition to the flow of current

Rotor – the rotating part of a generator

Stator – the stationary element of a generator

Voltage regulator – a system which is designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage

Winding /ˈwaɪndɪŋ/ – all the coils of a generator

a) Complete the sentences below using the words from the box:

1. The electrical ……………… of an object is a measure of its opposition to the flow of electric current.
2. The rotating assembly in a turbine is called a …………………………
3. The stationary part of an electric generator or motor is called a ………………………..
4. …………………. …………………… refers to the voltage which the manufacturer specifies for a
machine or a piece of equipment to operate at.
5. An electrical device converting an alternating current into a direct one is a …………………….
6. A generator producing an alternating current is an ……………………….
7. A generator using permanent magnets (PMs) may be called a ………………….
8. A conductive material, which serves to maintain electrical contact between the stationary parts and
rotating parts of a machine is called a ………………
 * Fun facts
How Do Wind Turbines Work?16
Perhaps you’ve seen them while driving through the countryside. Or maybe
you saw them just off the coast, looming large on the horizon with their
spinning blades. Then again, you may have seen them on someone’s roof,
or as part of a small-scale urban operation. Regardless of the location, wind
turbines and wind power are becoming an increasingly common feature in
the modern world. Much of this has to do with the threat of Climate Change,
air pollution, and the desire to get rid of our dependence on fossil fuels. And
when it comes to alternative and renewable energy, wind power is expected
to occupy the second-largest share of the market in the future (after solar).
But just how exactly do wind turbines work?
Air turbines are devices that turn the kinetic energy of wind and changes in
air flow into electrical energy. In general, they consist of the following
components: a rotor, a generator, and a structural support component (which can take the form of either
a tower, a rotor yaw mechanism, or both). A rotor consists of the blades that capture the wind’s energy
and a shaft, which converts the wind energy to low-speed rotational energy. The generator – which is
connected to the shaft – converts the slow rotation to high into electrical energy using a series of magnets
and a conductor (which usually consists of coiled copper wire). When the magnets rotate around with the
copper wire, this produces a difference in electrical potential, creating voltage and an electric current.
Lastly, there is the structural support component, which ensures that the turbine either stands at a high
enough altitude to optimally capture changes in wind pressure, and/or face in the direction of wind flow.
At present, there are two main types of wind turbines – Horizontal Axis
Wind Turbines (HAWT) and Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT). Wind
turbines can also be divided into three general groups based on their
design, which includes the Towered, Savonius, and Darrieus models. The
Towered model is the most conventional form of HAWT, consisting of a
tower and a series of long blades that sit ahead of (and parallel to) the
tower. The Savonis is a VAWT model that relies on contoured blades
(scoops) to capture wind and spin. They are generally of low-efficiency, but
have the benefit of being self-starting. These sorts of turbines are often part
of rooftop wind operations or mounted on sea vessels. The Darrieus model,
also known as an “Eggbeater” turbine, is named after the French inventor
who pioneered the design. They are generally of low efficiency, require an
additional rotor to start turning, produce high-torque, and place high stress
on the tower. Hence, they are considered unreliable as designs go.
Wind power has been used for thousands of years to push sails, power windmills, or to generate pressure
for water pumps. The earliest known examples come from Central Asia, where windmills used in ancient
Persia (Iran) have been dated to between 500 – 900 CE. The technology began to appear in Europe
during the Middle Ages, and became a common feature by the 16th century. By the 19th century, with
the development of electrical power, the first wind turbines capable of generating electricity were built.
The first was installed in 1887 by Scottish academic James Blyth to light his holiday home in Marykirk,
Scotland. In 1888, American inventor Charles F. Brush built the first automated wind turbine to power his
home in Cleveland, Ohio. By the early 20th century, wind turbines began to become a common means
of powering homes in remote areas (such as farmsteads). In 1941, the first megawatt-class wind turbine
was installed in Vermont and attached to the local utility grid. By the 1970s, research and development
into wind turbine technology advanced considerably thanks to the OPEC crisis and protests against
nuclear power. In the ensuing decades, associations and lobbyists dedicated to alternative energy began
to emerge in western European nations and the United States. By the final decade of the 20th century,
similar efforts emerged in India and China due to growing air pollution and rising demand for clean energy.
Compared to other forms of renewable energy, wind power is considered very reliable and steady, as
wind is consistent from year to year and does not diminish during peak hours of demand. Initially, the
construction of wind farms was a costly venture. But thanks to recent improvements, wind power has
begun to set peak prices in wholesale energy markets worldwide and cut into the revenues and profits of
the fossil fuel industry. In 2014, the Global Wind Energy Council and Greenpeace International came
together to publish a report titled “Global Wind Energy Outlook 2014”. This report stated that worldwide,
wind power could provide as much as 25 to 30% of global electricity by 2050. At the time of the report’s
writing, commercial installations in more than 90 countries had a total capacity of 318 gigawatts (GW),
providing about 3.1% of global supply.

16
Adapted from (CC): https://www.universetoday.com/38656/how-does-a-wind-turbine-work/