Contents

• Introduction to GIS
• Applications
• Remote Sensing
• Digital Image Processing
• Photogrammetry
• GPS/DGPS
• GeoReferencing
• Basic Components of Map
• Types of Maps
• Data Models
• Metadata
• Arc Toolbox
• Future GIS Application
Introduction to GIS
What is GIS?
• An “image” with attribute information
• Map in front end and its data on back end
 Components of GIS
GIS is a powerful computer tool that uses following components:

• Satellites
• GPS
• Software
• Hardware
• Plotters

5
Sunsoft Technologies Inc
Applications
Applications of GIS
• Military
• Agriculture
• Urban Planning
• Environmental
• Natural Resource Management
• Natural Hazard Management
• Transportation
• Real Estate
• Forestry
• Power
• Telecom
• Water supply
• Closest Facility
• Energy Exploration
• And Many more……….
Military & Utility
Natural Hazards
Forestry
Transportation and Mining
Transportation
 Real Estate
• Finding a subset of locations
from a set of potential or
candidate locations that best
serve some existing demand so
as minimize some cost
• Locate sites to best serve
allocated demand
• Application areas are warehouse
location, fast food locations, fire
stations, schools
Remote Sensing
 Remote Sensing

"Remote sensing is the science (and to

some extent, art) of acquiring
information about the Earth's surface
without actually being in contact with
it. This is done by sensing and
recording reflected or emitted energy
and processing, analyzing, and
applying that information."
Remote Sensing Process
Remote Sensing Process

1. Energy Source or Illumination (A)

2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B)
3. Interaction with the Target (C)
4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D)
5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E)
6. Interpretation and Analysis (F)
7. Application (G)
Passive And Active Remote Sensing

1) Passive Systems: Passive systems have optical, thermal, and microwave

sensors that receive the naturally emitted or the sun's reflected energy from the
Earth's surface.

(2) Active Systems: Active systems provide their own energy source for
illumination. They transmit pulses of electromagnetic energy in the direction of
interest and record the origin and strength of the backscatter received from
targets.
Electromagnetic radiation (EMR)

Remote Sensing is classified into three types in respect to the

wavelength regions
• Visible and Reflective Infrared Remote Sensing.
• Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing.
• Microwave Remote Sensing.
Resolution
• Resolution is the term used to describe the number of dots, or pixels, used
to display an image.
• Each pixel in an image corresponds to a patch on the Earth‟s surface. We
thus talk about „ground resolution‟.
• Higher resolutions mean that more pixels are used to create the image,
resulting in a crisper, cleaner image.
Types of Resolutions in RS

• Spatial Resolution
• Spectral Resolution
• Temporal Resolution
• Radiometric Resolution
Spatial resolution

Spatial resolution is a measure of the smallest object that can be

resolved by the sensor, or the linear dimension on the ground
represented by each pixel or grid cell in the image
Spectral Resolution
Describes the specific wavelengths that the sensor can record within
the electromagnetic spectrum. For example, the “photographic
infrared” band covers from about 0.7 – 1.0 micrometers.

Infrared image of A Volcano

Temporal resolution
How often a sensor can obtain imagery of a particular area of interest. For
example, the Landsat satellite revisits an area every 16 days as it orbits the
Earth, while the SPOT satellite can image an area every 1 to 4 days.
Radiometric resolution
Refers to the number of possible brightness values in each band of data and is
determined by the number of bits into which the recorded energy is divided. In 8-
bit data, the brightness values can range from 0 to 255 for each pixel (256 total
possible values). In 7-bit data, the values range from 0 to 127, or half as many
possible values.
It is commonly expressed as the number of bits

10 bit Radiometric Resolution

Digital Image Processing
 Introduction
Digital Image Processing is a collection of techniques for the manipulation of
digital images by computers. The raw data received from the imaging sensors on the
satellite platforms contains flaws and deficiencies. To overcome these flaws and
deficiencies in order to get the originality of the data, it needs to undergo several
steps of processing. This will vary from image to image depending on the type of
image format, initial condition of the image and the information of interest and the
composition of the image scene.
Working

Digital Image Processing undergoes three general

steps:
• Pre-processing
• Display and enhancement
• Information extraction
Pre-processing consists of those operations that prepare data for subsequent analysis that attempts to correct or
compensate for systematic errors. The digital imageries are subjected to several corrections such as geometric,
radiometric and atmospheric, though all these correction might not be necessarily be applied in all cases. These
errors are systematic and can be removed before they reach the user. The investigator should decide which pre-
processing techniques are relevant on the basis of the nature of the information to be extracted from remotely
sensed data. After pre-processing is complete, the analyst may use feature extraction to reduce the
dimensionality of the data. Thus feature extraction is the process of isolating the most useful components of the
data for further study while discarding the less useful aspects (errors, noise etc). Feature extraction reduces the
number of variables that must be examined, thereby saving time and resources.

Image Enhancement operations are carried out to improve the interpretability of the image by increasing
apparent contrast among various features in the scene. The enhancement techniques depend upon two factors
mainly
1. The digital data (i.e. with spectral bands and resolution)
2. The objectives of interpretation
As an image enhancement technique often drastically alters the original numeric data, it is normally
used only for visual (manual) interpretation and not for further numeric analysis. Common enhancements
include image reduction, image rectification, image magnification, transect extraction, contrast adjustments,
band ratioing, spatial filtering, Fourier transformations, principal component analysis and texture transformation.

Information Extraction is the last step toward the final output of the image analysis. After pre-processing and
image enhancement the remotely sensed data is subjected to quantitative analysis to assign individual pixels to
specific classes. Classification of the image is based on the known and unknown identity to classify the
remainder of the image consisting of those pixels of unknown identity. After classification is complete, it is
necessary to evaluate its accuracy by comparing the categories on the classified images with the areas of known
identity on the ground. The final result of the analysis consists of maps (or images), data and a report.
Introduction to image processing software

• Displaying images
• Queries for pixel information
• Linking viewers geographically
• Use the Area of Interest (AOI) function
• Use the Raster menu functions (Raster Attribute Editor, Measurements)
What can we do with Erdas..?

• Image classification
• Image enhancement
• Change detection
• Vegetation & mineral indices
• Spatial modeling
• Automated feature extraction
• Intervisibility / Viewshed
• Proximity analysis
• Pan sharpening
 The ERDAS IMAGINE Product Suite
• IMAGINE Essentials: A powerful, low-cost image mapping and visualization
tool that allows different types of geographic data to be combined with imagery
and quickly organized for projects. It provides a robust set of tools for
geocorrection, image analysis, visualization and map output.

• IMAGINE Advantage: A geographic imaging toolset that extends the

capabilities of IMAGINE Essentials by adding more precise mapping and
image processing functions. It includes a complete set of tools to analyze data
from imagery via mosaicking, surface interpolation, advanced image
interpretation and orthorectification.

• IMAGINE Professional: The most sophisticated software for geographic

imaging, it includes complex image analysis, radar analysis and advanced
classification tools. It also includes graphical spatial data modeling, which is a
unique capability for analyzing geographic data.
Photogrammetry
 Introduction
• The art, science, and technology of
obtaining information about physical
objects and the environment by
photographic and electromagnetic images.
• Photogrammetry software is a computer
program that allows a user to take a 2D
image such as a photograph, and then use
that image as the basis for a 3D
representation of what is in the image,
called a 3D model.
• The output of Photogrammetry is typically
a map, drawing or a 3d model of some real-
world object or scene.
 Types of Photogrammetry

• Aerial – series of photographs of an

area of terrain in sequence using a
precision camera.

• Terrestrial – photos taken from a fixed

and usually known position on or near
the ground with the camera axis
horizontal or nearly so.

• Close range – camera close to object

being observed. Most often used when
direct measurement is impractical.
Branches in photogrammetry

• Metric Photogrammetry, deals with the precise measurements and

computations on photographs regarding the size, shape, and position of
photographic features and/or obtaining other information such as relative
locations (coordinates) of features, areas, volumes, These photographs are
taken using a metric camera and is mostly used in the engineering fields
e.g. surveying etc

• Interpretive Photogrammetry, deals with recognition and identification

of the photographic features on a photograph such as shape, size, shadow,
pattern etc.. to add value and intelligence to information seen on the
photograph(annotation)
 Applications

• Photogrammetry allows for the extraction of

three-dimensional features from remotely sensed
data (close-range, aerial, orbital, etc.).
• Aerial photographs are used in many
Phase/Environmental Site Assessments for
property analysis.
• Digital Photogrammetry provides the capability
of stereoscopic viewing and possibility to do
precise 3D measurements.
GPS

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-

based global navigation satellite system (GNSS) that
provides reliable location and time information in all
weather and at all times and anywhere on or near the
Earth when and where there is an unobstructed line of
sight to four or more GPS satellites.
It is maintained by the United States government
and is freely accessible by anyone with a GPS receiver.
 DGPS

Differential Global Positioning

System is an enhancement to Global
Positioning System that uses a
network of fixed, ground-based
reference stations to broadcast the
difference between the positions
indicated by the satellite systems and
the known fixed positions.
Four Basic Functions of GPS

 Position and coordinates.

 The distance and direction between any two waypoints, or a
position and a waypoint.
 Travel progress reports.
 Accurate time measurement.
The Global Positioning System

• 24+ satellites
• 20,200 km altitude
• 55 degrees inclination
• 12 hour orbital period
• 5 ground control stations
• Each satellite passes over a
ground monitoring station
every 12 hours
Ways GPS can be used in GIS…

• Data collection
– Recording something, somewhere
• What do I have?
• What condition is it in?
• Data maintenance
– Verifying something, somewhere
• Is the information I have correct?
• Data use
– Current and accurate data to support
decision making
– Finding the asset to perform
maintenance/repair
Method of Operation

• Global positioning system (GPS)

• Receiver determines location, speed,
direction, and time
• 3 satellite signals are necessary to locate the
receiver in 3D space
• 4th satellite is used for time accuracy
• Position calculated within sub-centimeter
scale
GPS/GIS Applications in Planning
• Urban & Regional Planning
– Data collection/maintenance (rural addresses, fire
hydrant, signpost inventories)
– Cadastral/Land Parcel Delineation
• Emergency Planning & Response
– Emergency response (wildfire, hurricane)
– Pre-event risk assessment
• Forestry
– Data collection/maintenance
• Tree inventory, logging roads, watershed
GeoReferencing
GeoReferencing
GeoReferencing means to define its existence in physical space. That is,
establishing its location in terms of map projections or coordinate systems. The
term is used both when establishing the relation between raster or vector
images and coordinates but also when determining the spatial location of other
geographical features.
Raw Satellite Image (Before Rectification)

Raw digital images often contain serious geometrical

distortions
• Earth curvature
• Platform motion
• Relief displacement
• Non-linearities
Ground Control Points(GCP)

A point on the surface of the earth of known location (i.e. fixed

within an established co-ordinate system (Lat and Long))
which is used to geo-reference Image data sources, such as
remotely sensed images or scanned maps.
GeoReferencing (Geometric Corrections)

All the elements in a map layer have a specific geographic

location and extent that enables them to be located on or near
the earth's surface.
Types of Rectification

• Image to Image
• Lat, Long (GPS Points) to Image
• Vector to Image
• Vector to Vector
Basic Components of Map
Map Scale

•The ratio of size of an object on a map compared to

the actual object on the ground

•Maps are always smaller than the portion of the Earth's

surface
Large and Small Map scale
Measuring a distance on scale on Map
Scale Bars
Latitude and Longitude
Map Graticule (A Geographic Coordinates system)

Map GRID
A grid of lines that intersect at right angles
on map.

India Lies on WGS 84 Datum

North 42 to 47 region
Datum

A datum is a mathematical model that provides

smooth approximation of the earth‟s surface.
Map Projection
It is the method to represent the curved surface of the
earth on a flat surface.
Types of Map Projections
Types of Maps
Topographic Maps
A topographic map is a detailed and accurate graphic representation of cultural
and natural features on the ground.
• Culture: roads, buildings, urban development, boundaries, railways, power
•Natural Water: lakes, rivers, streams, swamps, rapids mountains, valleys,
slopes, depressions
•Vegetation: wooded and cleared areas, vineyards and orchards;
•Toponymy:place names, water feature names, highway names.
•Contours
Large Scale Maps
A map which depicts a small territory is referred to as a large scale map. This is
because the area of land being represented by the map has been scaled down less,
or in other words, the scale is larger. A large scale map only shows a small area,
but it shows it in great detail.
Thematic maps

A thematic map is a type of map especially designed to show

a particular theme connected with a specific geographic
area. These maps "can portray physical, social, political,
cultural, economic, sociological, agricultural, or any other
aspects of a city, state, region,nation , or continent".
Layers of GIS
Data Source and Input Techniques
Data Models
Data Models in GIS

•Spatial Data Model

It is Representation of features on earth surface.

•Non-Spatial Data Model (Attribute data)

It is Information of Spatial features stored in tables.
Spatial Data Model

Vector data model. Discrete

features, such as customer locations
and data summarized by area, are
usually represented using the vector
model.

Raster data model. Continuous

numeric values, such as elevation,
and continuous categories, such as
vegetation types, are represented
using the raster model.
Vector Data Model

• Representation of spatial Features as Point, Line and

Polygon
 Vector Data Model
Point features

Line features

Polygon features
Raster Data Model

A raster data structure represents spatial data using a simple

grid structure of rows and columns

Polygon

Line

Point
Raster v/s Vector
Non-Spatial Data Model
MetaData
Metadata For GIS

Metadata will drive data sharing

ArcCatalog
• All data
• Documented
• Metadata
Repositories
• Catalog Services Search, View, And Edit on the
Internet
XML Standard
Metadata
Using national standards to record and maintain key
information about data creation, scale, projection, and
attributes.
Analysis Tools

The overlay and proximity methods for feature classes

(shapefiles and geodatabases) are arranged within the
Analysis Tools tree within ArcToolbox
Network analysis

Network analysis is used for

identifying the most efficient routes or
paths for allocation of services. This
involves finding the shortest or least-
cost manner in which to visit a location
or a set of locations in a network. The
"cost" in a network analysis is
frequently distance or travel time.
Spatial Analysis

Spatial analysis is the process of

extracting or creating new
information about a set of geographic
features to perform routine
examination, assessment, evaluation,
analysis or modeling of data in a
geographic area based on pre-
established and computerized criteria
and standards.
3D Analysis

3D Analysis provides a set of 3D

visualization and surface analytic
methods, enabling users to input
image, vector or elevation data to
analyze surface change and inquire
the data or calculate the visible range
of a specific point. Furthermore, a
simulation of the real world or a
surface model can be obtained by
overlaying image data, vector data
and surface data.
ArcHydro
Water resource managers use geographic information system
(GIS) technology to visualize and analyze hydrology data for
tasks such as assessing water quality, estimating water
availability, planning flood prevention, understanding the
natural environment, and managing water resources
 FUTURE GIS APPLICATIONS
• Location-based services (LBS) and wireless
technologies will provide "ondemand” GeoSpatial
information.
• Integration of computer video camera FUTURE GIS
APPLICATIONS computer, camera, and GPS referred
to as "video mapping” will be used to document field
inspections:
*TV inspection of sewer pipes.
• The Desktop-oriented network architecture will be
replaced by a Webbd t k 44 based network
*No need to store data on your computer
* Web servers will query and transfer the
information from data servers to desktop clients
 Conclusion

• GIS can display spatial patterns hidden in database and tables.

• GIS allows you to create intelligent and detailed map.
• You may integrate data to reveal trends and relationships that
bring new perspectives to previously held beliefs about places
and events.
• Erdas Imagine is a software which is used for processing of
raster image.
• Research within the humanities often involves questions with a
spatial component that GIS can address.
Thank you