Building 8 bit computers for fun

David Hovemeyer
daveho@cs.jhu.edu
November 5, 2020
Outline
● Background
● Digital logic
● Microprocessors, busses, addresses, peripherals
● Building and testing microcomputer circuits
● Conclusions
Hardware for software people
● In CS, our main concern is software
● We take computing hardware for granted
● How does it work? Is it magic?
● Modern computing hardware: immensely complicated
○ 4th gen Core i7: 1.4 billion transistors! 2000+ pins!
● If you wanted to design and build your own computer, where to start?
8 bit CPUs!
● The microcomputer era began in the mid 1970s with 8 bit CPUs
○ Motorola 6800, 6809
○ Intel 8080, Zilog Z80
○ MOS 6502
● These were used in the first mainstream personal computers!
○ Altair 8800
○ Apple I, Apple II
○ Commodore VIC-20, C64
○ Atari 400, 800
○ TRS-80 Model I, Color Computer
● These CPUs are surprisingly easy to use and understand!
● You can use them to build a complete computer system!
Digital logic
Digital logic
● Computer hardware is based on digital logic
● In a digital circuit, voltages are either high (true, 1) or low (false, 0)
● Logic gates implement boolean operations (AND, OR, NAND, NOR, XOR,
NOT, etc.) on digital signals
○ "Signal" just means a digital voltage at a specific point in the circuit
● Any boolean function (with any number of inputs and outputs) can be
implemented by connecting logic gates
Basic logic gates

Image source: Adafruit

Combining logic gates
E.g., a circuit with 4 inputs that produces a high output if any of the 4 inputs is high

Inputs Output
Sequential logic
● Basic logic gates implement
combinational logic: outputs are a
mathematical function of the inputs
● A sequential logic element has "state"
● Example: D-type flip flop
○ Basically, a 1-bit memory!
○ Two inputs: D (data) and Clk (clock signal)
○ On a low to high transition on Clk, the Q
output is set to the current value of D
○ S and R can be asserted to unconditionally
set or reset Q
○ Q̅ output is always the opposite of Q
Image source: Wikipedia
Logic ICs
● 7400 family logic ICs: wide variety of devices providing logic gates and
sequential logic elements
● Some examples (from the "HCT" sub-family):
○ 74HCT00: quad 2-input NAND
○ 74HCT27: triple 3-input NOR
○ 74HCT74: dual D-type flip flop
○ 74HCT138: 3 to 8 decoder
● There are literally hundreds of these
Rules for building digital circuits
● An output can be connected to any number of inputs
● Two outputs should never be connected
○ Exception: tri-state outputs connected to a bus
● Typically, every input should be connected to an output, or connected to a
constant high or low voltage
○ "Floating" inputs (not driven by any output) can cause the circuit to behave strangely
○ A resistor to VCC (positive) or GND (0V) can provide a nominal high or low voltage that can be
"overridden" by a stronger output
● Moral: there are "design patterns" that you can follow
Example circuit with D-type flip flop
Building circuits!
● One of the most fun things about digital circuits is that you can build them!
● Easiest way: on a solderless breadboard
● Groups of 5 holes are connected electrically
● Use jumper wires to connect circuit nodes
Example circuit construction

Push buttons
(to drive D and
Clk inputs)

LED driven by
Q output
74HC14 used
74HC74 (one flip
for switch
flop used)
debouncing
The point
● Building digital circuits using logic ICs is pretty easy!
Microprocessor circuits
Microprocessors
● Microprocessor (Z80, 6502, 6809, ...)
○ Address bus (16 outputs): specifies a memory address
○ Data bus (8 bidirectional pins): used to transfer 1 byte of data to/from processor
○ Control signals (bus control, interrupts, etc.)
● Peripheral devices are attached to the data bus:
○ ROM (firmware code)
○ RAM
○ UART (serial port)
○ Timer/counter
○ etc...
● Glue logic: "decodes" addresses, generates a chip select for each peripheral
device
○ Only one peripheral device may access the bus at any given time!
6809 CPU
Peripherals
Peripheral chips needed:

● ROM for firmware code (e.g., 28C256 32KB EEPROM)

● RAM for stack, variables, programs loaded at runtime (e.g., 62256 32K static
RAM)
● I/O devices:
○ UART (e.g., HD63B50 ACIA)
○ Timer/counter (e.g., 82C54)
○ Parallel I/O (e.g., 82C55A)
Memory map
● Early 8 bit CPUs used memory-mapped I/O
● Peripheral devices accessed using memory load and store instructions
● Most peripheral devices have a small number of (1 byte) registers
○ E.g., 63B50 ACIA has 2 registers
● The system designer must implement a memory map such that each
peripheral device is selected when an address in a specific range is accessed
● RAM and ROM devices require large blocks of addresses
● Peripheral devices require small blocks of addresses
● Each address generated by the CPU must activate at most one peripheral
device
Example memory map
● $0000-7FFF: RAM
● $8000-$8FFF: I/O area
○ Further subdivided into smaller areas for specific devices
● $9000-$FFFF: ROM
● On 6502 and 6809, high part of address space must be ROM because the
reset vector is at a fixed address in high memory
○ E.g., 6809 reset vector is at $FFFE
● Chip selects (for RAM, ROM, peripherals) are active low
○ Meaning that a low voltage must be generated to "wake up" the selected peripheral chip
Address decoding
● The address decoding logic generates chip select signals for peripherals
● How to implement the example memory map?
● CPU generates address on its A0–A15 outputs
○ I.e., these are the binary representation of the address
● Address decoding logic uses logic gates (and other combinational logic) to
generate the chip selects
● General idea:
○ High address signals decoded to determine which region of the address space is being
accessed (and generate chip select signals)
○ Lower address signals sent directly to peripheral devices to indicate which byte of data is
being accessed
Address decoding logic
Address decoding logic

-RMEM and -WMEM signals

indicate whether the CPU
wants to read or write a byte
of data (not actually part of
address decoding, but
needed by the peripheral
devices when they are
selected)
Address decoding logic

A15 is low for addresses

lower than $8000, so it is the
chip select for the RAM chip
 Address decoding logic

This 3-input NOR gate's

output is high IFF all of
A12-A14 are low (true when
I/O region is accessed)
Address decoding logic

This NOR gate is used as an

inverter: its output is low IFF
all of A12-A14 are low
Address decoding logic

This NAND gate's output is

low IFF at least one of
A12-A14 is high and A15 is
high: this is the ROM chip
select signal
 Address decoding logic

These two signals (A15 and

(A12∨A13∨A14)) are sent to
decoding logic for peripherals
in I/O region
 Peripheral device chip selects

74HCT138 3-to-8 decoders

used to generate chip selects
for peripheral devices (by
further decoding A5–A11
signals)
 Interfacing a peripheral device

Chip select signal (from address

decoding logic): when low,
peripheral chip "wakes up"
 Interfacing a peripheral device

Memory read and write

signals let peripheral device
know whether it is sending
data or receiving data
 Interfacing a peripheral device

Address inputs indicate which

device register the CPU wants
to access (this peripheral has
4 registers)
 Interfacing a peripheral device

Data bus is used for transferring

data

● Shared by CPU and all

peripheral devices!
● When a device's chip select
is not asserted, its
connections to the data bus
are "tri-stated" (electrically
disconnected)
Building a system
We've seen all of the
essentials, the rest is just
deciding what peripherals to
add, building the hardware,
and writing software
Building and testing microprocessor
circuits
How to get started?
Things you will need if you want to try doing this on your own:

● ICs and components

● Prototyping supplies
● Test equipment
● Software
ICs and components
● Logic ICs: expect to pay $0.50 or so each
○ Digi-key, Mouser
○ Specialized businesses (e.g., Unicorn Electronics)
○ eBay also a possibility (but beware of counterfeit chips)
● 8 bit CPUs
○ 6502 is still in production!
○ Widely available as used or New Old Stock on eBay, surplus sites
○ Expect to pay $5-$10?
● Other devices (ROM, RAM, peripheral chips)
● Components (resistors, capacitors, LEDs)
○ Pre-packaged kits with a variety of values are a good option
○ Adafruit, Sparkfun
Prototyping stuff
● Solderless breadboards: really cheap ones ($2) can be ok
● Wire (pre-made jumper kits are helpful)
○ 22 AWG solid core is ideal for breadboard use
● Small hand tools (pliers, wire stippers, wire cutters)
● If you want to construct permanent versions of circuits:
○ Soldering station (cheap ones are surprisingly good), solder
○ Protoboards
○ IC sockets
○ Wire (finer gauge, stranded)
Test equipment
A multimeter is essential for measuring
voltages, resistances, etc.

● Not useful for fast-changing voltages,

though

Inexpensive ones can be surprisingly good!

($15-$25 range, avoid the really cheap ones)
Test equipment
A logic analyzer records digital voltages over
time

The really cheap ones ($8, 8 channel, 24

MHz) are surprisingly good!

● Use with open source Sigrok software

Test equipment
Power supply: for the 1970s-1980s era of
digital logic, 5V was the most common supply
voltage

These are very common as small "wall wart"

switching supplies

Adjustable bench supplies are useful, but not

essential

Image source: Adafruit (this is a product

you can buy from them)
Software
● Assembler (for writing programs to load onto the 8 bit system)
● EDA (Electronic Design Automation) software is useful for creating
schematics, designing PCBs
○ Recommended: KiCad (open source)
● Sigrok (logic analyzer software)
● Serial communications (connect your PC or laptop to the 8 bit system)
Conclusions
Conclusions
● Hardware design is surprisingly accessible
○ Lots of great learning resources
● 8-bit computer era is a sweet spot
○ Simple/accessible, but can do interesting things
● Modern microcontrollers are incredibly similar to 8-bit microcomputer systems
○ Microprocessor+integrated peripherals in a single device
Questions?