Tech Talk contains authentic material excerpts from nonfiction books

and NPR that deal with popular, newsworthy issues in science and
technology. The book also contains related exercises in comprehen-
sion, vocabulary, discussion, grammar, and writing.

In addition to providing reading practice on academic topics, this

textbook aims to:
Teach grammar through examples of real usage.
Provide practice in the writing styles commonly used in
science and engineering: explanation, persuasion, and
critical analysis.
Provide opportunities for verbal practice through class
discussion.
Encourage English learners to read independently and
to learn language through reading.

The readings in the book were selected to appeal to all readers, but
will be especially helpful to English learners who are engineers,
scientists, or university students in technical fields.

An audio CD featuring many of the readings is also available.

Other ESP Titles Available

English for Global Business
Emily Lites and Kathy Thorpe

American Legal English: Using Language in Legal Contexts

Debra S. Lee, J.D., Charles Hall, and Marsha Hurley, J.D.

Selected Readings in Business, Millennium Edition

Myra Shulman

For more information about University of

Michigan Press books, visit our website at
http://www.press.umich.edu/esl/

Ann Arbor
The University of Michigan Press
Tech Talk
Better English through Reading
in Science and Technology

FELIXA ESKEY

Ann Arbor
The University of Michigan Press
 To my mother and father
for their inspiration

Copyright © by the University of Michigan 2005

All rights reserved
ISBN 0-472-03077-9

Published in the United States of America

The University of Michigan Press
Manufactured in the United States of America
® Printed on acid-free paper

2008 2007 2006 2005 4 3 2 1

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,

or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, or otherwise,
without the written permission of the publisher.
Acknowledgments
I am deeply grateful to Professors Steve Molinsky and Marnie Reed of the Boston
University School of Education for their encouragement of this project, their excellence
in teaching, and their dedication to their students. I am also very grateful to Kelly
Sippell of the University of Michigan Press for her patience and perseverance during the
long permission and revision process, as well as for her invaluable suggestions. Many
thanks to my husband for his constant support, his advice and help with all aspects of
this undertaking, and his sense of humor. Finally, thanks to all my students for contin-
uing to challenge me and for fueling my love of language teaching.

Grateful acknowledgment is made to the following individuals, authors, publishers, and

journals for permission to reprint previously published materials.
Copyright Clearance Center for "Caught on Tape" by S. McDonagh, from Science
News, June 7, 2003, copyright © 2003; "Getting a Grip" by K. Cobb, from Science News,
August 31, 2002, copyright © 2002.
FotoSearch for photos of brain, bakery facade, and hot air balloon. Reprinted by
permission.
Green Mountain Power for Wind Turbine image from http://www.greenmountainpower.biz.
Houghton Mifflin for material from The Way Things Work by David Macaulay. Com-
pilation copyright © 1988 by Dorling Kindersley, Ltd. Text copyright © 1988 by David
Macaulay and Neil Ardley. Illustrations copyright © 1988 by David Macaulay. Adapted
and reprinted by permission of Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
"National Academy of Engineering Reveals Top Engineering Impacts of the 20 t h
Century: Electrification Cited as Most Important," press release, February 22, 2000,
copyright © 2000. Reprinted by permission.
National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA) for photo of spacewalker.
Reprinted by permission.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) for photo of marine
diatoms. Reprinted by permission.
National Public Radio, Inc., for material from Science Friday™, www.sciencefriday.
com: "Smell," March 10, 2000; "Global Climate Change," February 18, 2000; "Engineer-
ing Feats," February 25, 2000; "Sounds Like Science: Fun Factoids," 1998-1999; "Sounds
Like Science: Science Quiz," 2000. Science Friday™ © Samanna Productions, Inc.

Ill
iv Acknowledgments

National Space Biomedical Research Institute for text for "Nutritional Supplements
May Combat Muscle Loss," copyright © August 27, 2002.
The New York Times for "Running Late? Researchers Blame Aging Brain" by Sandra
Blakeslee, March 24, 1998, copyright © 1998; and graph "How Time Flies" by Dr. Peter
Mangan, March 24, 1998, copyright © 1998.
New York Times Special Features for "Wind Power for Pennies" by Peter Fairley, from
Technology Review, July/August 2002, copyright © 2002 Technology Review; "Ten
Emerging Technologies that Will Change the World," from Technology Review, February
2003, copyright © 2003 Technology Review.
U.S. Department of Energy for photos of AGGDIS robot and wind turbines.
Reprinted by permission.
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Washington, DC Library, for photo of lizard. Reprinted
by permission.

Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders for permission to reprint
borrowed material. We regret any oversights that may have occurred and will rectify them
in future printings of this book.
Contents
Introduction ix
How to Read xiii

UNIT I Computers and Automation 1

Search Your Knowledge 1
Reading: "Machines with Memories" from The Way Things Work 3
What's the Point? 4
Understanding Words and Phrases 5
Reading: "Binary Code" from The Way Things Work 6
Reading: "Supermarket Checkout" from The Way Things Work 8
What's the Point? 9
Understanding Words and Phrases 10
Grammar Check: The Passive 11
Let's Talk about It 17
What Do You Think? 17

UNITS Flight 18
Search Your Knowledge 18
Reading: "Heavier-than-Air-Flight" from The Way Things Work 20
Reading: "Flying Machines" from The Way Things Work 22
What's the Point? 26
Understanding Words and Phrases 27
Grammar Check: Adverb Clauses 29
Let's Talk about It 33
What Do You Think? 33

UNIT 3 Health Care in Space 34

Search Your Knowledge 34
Reading: "Nutritional Supplements May Combat Muscle Loss"
from the National Space Biomedical Research Institute 37
What's the Point? 39
Understanding Words and Phrases 41

V
vi Contents

Grammar Check: Agent Suffix -er 43

Let's Talk about It 45
What Do You Think? 46

UNIT 4 Wind Power 47

Search Your Knowledge 47
Reading: "Wind Power for Pennies" from Technology Review 49
What's the Point? 56
Understanding Words and Phrases 58
Grammar Check: Adverb Phrases 61
Let's Talk about It 67
What Do You Think? 67

UNIT 5 High-Tech Lizards 68

Search Your Knowledge 68
Reading, Part 1: "Getting a Grip" from Science News 70
What's the Point? 71
Understanding Words and Phrases 72
Grammar Check: Present Perfect and Past Perfect Tenses 74
Reading, Part 2: "Caught on Tape" from Science News 77
What's the Point? 78
Understanding Words and Phrases 79
Grammar Check: The Double Comparative Form 82
Let's Talk about It 84
What Do You Think? 84

UNIT 6 Time and the Brain 86

Search Your Knowledge 86
Reading: "Running Late? Researchers Blame Aging Brain"
from the New York Times 88
What's the Point? 92
Understanding Words and Phrases 93
Grammar Check: Gerunds 95
Let's Talk about It 102
What Do You Think? 102
 Contents vii

UNIT 7 engineering Achievements 104

Search Your Knowledge 104
Reading: "National Academy of Engineering Reveals Top
Engineering Impacts of the 20th Century: Electrification Cited
as Most Important" 106
What's the Point? 111
Understanding Words and Phrases 113
Grammar Check: Quoted Speech and Reported Speech 114
Let's Talk about It 117
What Do You Think? 118

UNIT 8 Science News and Fun 119

Search Your Knowledge 119
Reading: "Smell" from Science Friday™, National Public Radio, Inc. 121
What's the Point? 122
Understanding Words and Phrases 123
Grammar Check: Informal Register 124
Let's Talk about It 126
What Do You Think? 126
Reading: "Global Climate Change" from Science Friday™,
National Public Radio, Inc. 127
What's the Point? 128
Understanding Words and Phrases 129
Grammar Check: Adjective Phrases 130
Let's Talk about It 134
What Do You Think? 135
Reading: "Engineering Feats" from Science Friday™, National
Public Radio, Inc. 135
Reading: "Fun Factoids" from Science Friday™, National
Public Radio, Inc. 136
What's the Point? 138
Understanding Words and Phrases 139
Grammar Check: Infinitives 140
Let's Talk about It 144
What Do You Think? 145
viii Contents

UNIT 9 Our Future 148

Search Your Knowledge 148
Reading: "10 Emerging Technologies That Will Change the
World" from Technology Review 154
What's the Point? Section 1 164
Understanding Words and Phrases: Section 1 165
What's the Point? Section 2 166
Understanding Words and Phrases: Section 2 168
What's the Point? Section 3 170
Understanding Words and Phrases: Section 3 171
What's the Point? Section 4 172
Understanding Words and Phrases: Section 4 173
What's the Point? Section 5 174
Understanding Words and Phrases: Section 5 175
Grammar Check: Compound Adjectives 176
Let's Talk about It 178
What Do You Think? 179

List of Vocabulary Practiced 180

Introduction

Purpose of This Book

The intent of this book is to improve English language skills through realistic, inter-
esting reading. This method strives to combine the benefits of pleasure reading and
direct instruction by incorporating natural reading materials into the classroom. The
book consists of authentic articles and excerpts, along with related exercises in compre-
hension, vocabulary, discussion, grammar, and writing.
The readings are meant primarily for those learners who are interested in science and
technology, or those who are more motivated to read scientific and technical literature
than other genres (such as fiction, biography, history, news, etc.). My own parents, who
immigrated to the United States as middle-aged adults, are a good example. My mother
enjoyed biographies and historical novels and began to read them in English, with
increasing success. My father, on the other hand, was drawn to magazines about engi-
neering and mechanics, which he read with focused interest. In addition, this book may
be especially helpful to English learners who are engineers, scientists, or university stu-
dents in technical fields. For them, such reading is not only a source of relevant vocab-
ulary, but also a good example of technical writing style; and both vocabulary and style
are provided within an interesting and familiar context. Of course, this book is by no
means intended only for scientists and engineers. It is for everyone who wants to learn
English and also happens to enjoy science. I also hope that this book will provide some
additional motivation and encouragement to reluctant readers of other genres.
To those familiar with the research in second language reading, this volume does not
constitute "free" reading in a strict sense since the materials are not actually chosen by
the students themselves. Yet, the articles contained here are authentic texts, written in
non-technical English, and are likely to be of interest to a wide audience. These selec-
tions exemplify the types of reading materials that are easily available to the public and
common in academic study. Once students have been introduced to these types of
materials, they will be able to select materials that are of particular interest to them and
better satisfy academic requirements.
This textbook aims to:

• expose students to English language in a natural, meaningful context

• introduce students to interesting and relevant reading materials in
science and technology

IX
x Introduction

• increase vocabulary, both high-frequency and specialized, and

demonstrate how it is used
• improve reading comprehension
• teach grammar through examples of real usage
• provide practice in the writing styles that are required in science
and engineering — explanation, persuasion, critical analysis
• provide opportunity for verbal communication through class
discussion
• encourage language learners to read independently and to learn
language through reading

The material in this book is intended for high-intermediate to advanced students.

Although the readings come from U.S. sources, they should be of interest to learners in
other countries as well. This textbook is appropriate for all adults. It would be particu-
larly useful to English students who are also scientists and engineers, including univer-
sity students and professionals.

Materials
All materials are actual, unaltered English texts. They include articles from magazines
and newspapers, excerpts from non-fiction books, and items from the Internet. Such
materials are widely available and are easily accessible through public and university
libraries. The readings span a variety of science-related topics, and many of them deal
with the interaction of technology and society. They are meant to be enjoyable as well as
to provide food for thought and discussion. The linguistic difficulty of the selections
generally increases as the book progresses. Yet, the language is fairly general, rather than
technically specialized, so as to provide the students with models and opportunities for
everyday communication.

Reading
If class time allows, the articles should be read in class during a silent period, each
student reading alone. This will simulate natural, free reading, allowing each student to
make individual associations and interpretations. The length of the reading period will
depend on the length of the selection. If class time is limited, students may complete
their readings outside of class, after doing the pre-reading exercises in class.
 Introduction xi

exercises

Each unit includes pre-reading and post-reading exercises. The pre-reading exercises
set the stage for the reading by introducing the topic and key vocabulary, helpful to
understanding the readings. These activities tap into what the students already know
about the subject, put them at ease with it, and stimulate further interest in it. Post-
reading exercises check reading comprehension, strengthen the acquisition of new
vocabulary, and provide a forum for verbal discussion and written communication. The
vocabulary taught and practiced are high-frequency words common to academic study.
The discussion and writing activities deal with open-ended questions; they provide an
opportunity for personally meaningful and creative use of language. At the end of each
unit, the use of a certain grammatical form is pointed out and reviewed. Some units
also offer suggestions for expansion activities that the students can do on their own out-
side of class; these provide additional exposure to language and reading materials.
Pre-reading exercises include:

• Search Your Knowledge — introduction to topic

• Key Words — vocabulary preview, if needed

Post-reading activities include:

• What's the Point? — reading comprehension

• Understanding Words and Phrases — vocabulary and idioms
• Grammar Check — brief illustration of a grammatical feature
• Let's Talk about It — verbal discussion
• What Do You Think? — written assignments
• Activities for Fun — independent activities outside of class

Class discussions, in pairs or larger groups, give students an opportunity to converse

and to practice pronunciation and oral presentation in a meaningful context. For addi-
tional speaking practice, students may volunteer to present their written assignments.
This may also stimulate further class discussion.

Answer Key

The answer key, available online for teachers (www.press.umkh.edu/esl/tm/) provides

answers to short-answer exercise questions. It also offers sample answers to some pre-
reading exercises, where such answers help provide background knowledge or stimulate
preliminary discussion.
How to Read
Here are some suggestions for you, the student, that will help you enjoy reading in
English and increase your reading comprehension.
First, if applicable, think about how you read in your native language. Do you read
silently or aloud? Do you know every word? What do you do when you encounter a
word you don't know? If you don't understand every word, can you still understand
what the text is about?
As you read each reading selection in this book, rely as much as you can on what you
already know. There are several sources of this background knowledge: your familiarity
with the general topic, the title of the article, illustrations, the language you already
know, and your personal experience can help you figure out what the author is trying to
say. You don't need to know every word to understand the main message of the text.
Good readers often skip words they don't know, but they are still able to understand the
meaning of a sentence or the rest of the text. You may be able to figure out the meanings
of many new words and expressions from context.
In English writing, the title of a text and the first paragraph tell the reader what the
text is about. Similarly, the first sentence of each paragraph reveals what the rest of the
paragraph is about. Use this structure to make sense of what you read. Use your existing
knowledge with new information in the text to comprehend an article or a story.
For a longer text, you may want to skim it first. To skim means to read or look at
written material quickly in order to get the main idea. This will help you understand
what you read. When you skim, take the following four steps.
First, read the title and subtitles, look at illustrations, and read illustration captions;
this will help create a context for you.
Second, read the first one or two paragraphs to learn the general message of the
article.
Third, read the last paragraph for the author's summary or conclusions.
Finally, read the first (and, if you wish, the last) sentence of each paragraph or section
to get some supporting information for the main message. Remember that in skim-
ming, the goal is to grasp the main idea; details are not important. After skimming, read
the entire article.
Read quickly, but comfortably. Don't worry if you don't understand a word or a
phrase right away — just keep reading. The text that follows will usually explain the
meanings of new items. Even native speakers who are good readers don't understand
every detail when they read. They guess meanings, and you should do the same. Words,

XIII
xiv How to Read

phrases, grammatical forms, and ideas are often repeated in the text, and this helps
readers become more certain about new meanings. When you have finished a section of
a reading, you can, if you wish, re-read previous words and phrases to check your
understanding and to become more familiar with new expressions.
Happy reading!
1. How often do you use a computer? What do you use it for?

List some examples on page 2 of how computers are used in everyday

life.

1
2 Tech Talk

Your Own Uses Other Applications

2. How are computers like other machines? List some similarities.

3. How are computers different from other machines? List some differences.

Four short readings about computers follow. They are excerpted from the book The
Way Things Work by David Macaulay. A comprehension check activity appears between
the second and third readings.
Some of the words in the readings are underlined. These words may be new to you;
therefore, they are underlined so that you can find them easily later on, if you wish to
refer to them again. See if you can figure out what they mean from context or from the
other words and meanings around the underlined word. These words are also included
in the vocabulary exercises under Understanding Words and Phrases.
The boldfaced words in the texts are glossed in the margin. These non-high frequency
vocabulary words or phrases are helpful to understanding the reading.
 Unit I: Computers and Automation 3

Machines with Memories

from The Way Things Work

Computers and calculators are a revolutionary development in the history of

technology. They are fundamentally different from all other machines because
they have a memory. This memory stores instructions and information.
In a calculator, the instructions are the various methods of arithmetic.
These are permanently remembered by the machine and cannot be altered or
added to. The information consists of the numbers keyed in.
A calculator requires an input unit to feed in numbers, a processing unit
to make the calculation, and an output unit to display the result. A calculator
also needs a memory unit to store the arithmetic instructions for the process-
ing unit, and to hold the temporary results that occur during calculation.

Anatomy of a Calculator

Program Power
A computer contains the same basic four elements as a calculator. It dif-
fers in that its memory can be given a different set of instructions, called a
computer program, for different tasks. A program can turn a computer into,
for example, a game player, a word processor, a paintbox, or a musical instru-
ment. It instructs the processing unit how to perform the various tasks, and
stores scores, words, pictures, or music.
Computer programs consist of long sequences of instructions that individ-
ually are very simple. The computer is instructed to distinguish two kinds of
numbers and to put these two numbers into its memory. It is also told how
to multiply, which it does by adding the first number to itself by the second
number of times. Computers can perform millions of instructions in a matter
of seconds.
4 Tech Talk

What's the Point?

Show your understanding of the reading. Based on the text you just read, choose the best
answer to complete these statements.

1. The most important difference between computers and other

machines is that computers .
a. are faster
b. have a memory
c. can print words
d. can play a game

2. A computer needs a memory so that it can .

a. display results
b. understand numbers
c. make calculations
d. store instructions

3. A computer is different from a calculator because .

a. a computer can be programmed to do different jobs
b. a computer can do more difficult operations
c. a computer can complete a task faster
d. a computer can remember instructions
 Unit I: Computers and Automation 5

Understanding Words and Phrases

Determine the meaning of the underlined word in each sentence, and complete each
related task. These sentences are not directly related to the text you just read. Use your own
knowledge and experience — as well as what you learned from the text — to help you with
this exercise.
The underlined words also appear in the text you just read; they are underlined in the
text for easy reference. You can refer back to the text (page 3) to see how these words are
used there. Using both contexts — the text and the sentences — can help you figure out what
the words mean.

1. In the 16th century, Copernicus had the revolutionary idea that the
earth orbited the sun.
Explain why computers are a revolutionary development in technology.

2. When we first came to Boston, the hotel was our temporary home
until we bought our own house; now we have a permanent home.
In a computer, what kind of information is permanent and what
kind is temporary?

3. His suit didn't fit properly, so he asked a tailor to alter it.

Why would someone want to alter a computer program?

4. In a movie theater, a motion picture is displayed on a large screen.

Give a few examples of "output units" that different computers use
to display results.

5. People key in new information into a computer by pressing keys

with numbers, letters, and other symbols, arranged on a keyboard
(or a keypad on a calculator).
What other instruments have keys and keyboards?
6 Tech Talk

6. The months in a calendar are arranged from January to December

in a sequence, one month following the other.
Give another example of something arranged in a sequence.

Binary Code
from The Way Things Work

A computer appears to work with things with which we are familiar —

words composed of letters or pictures made of shapes in different colors, for
example. But a computer turns all of these things into sequences of code
numbers. These are not the decimal numbers we use, but binary numbers.
Inside calculators and computers, code signals for decimal num-
bers, letters, screen positions, colors and so on flash to and fro to and fro: back and
forth
between the various components. These signals are made up of
numbers in binary code.

Binary Numbers
Computers and calculators use binary code
because it is the simplest number system. Its
two digits — 0 and 1 — compare with our ten
digits (0 to 9).
The table on the left side shows how binary
numbers relate to decimal numbers. Reading
from right to left, the ones and zeros in each
column indicate whether or not the number
contains 1, 2, 4, 8, and so on, doubling each
time. 0101, for example, is

0 x 8 + 1 x 4 + 0 x 2 + 1 x 1 = 5.

Each binary digit (0 or 1) is called a bit.

 Unit I: Computers and Automation 7

Working with Addition

As computers and calculators work, they make calculations in binary arith-
metic at lightning speed. Components called adders do the calculations,
which all break down into sequences of additions. Subtraction, for example,
is done by steps that involve adding and inverting numbers (changing each 1
to 0 and vice-versa).

Code Signals
A binary code signal (above) is a sequence of electrical pulses pulse (physics!: a brief
traveling along wires. A device called a clock sends out regular burst of energy
pulses, and components such as transistors switch on and off to
pass or block the pulses. One (1) represents a pulse, zero (0) a
non-pulse.

Binary Arithmetic
There are only four basic rules:

A 0 + 0 = 0 and carry 0
B 0 + 1 = 1 and carry 0
C 1 + 0 = 1 and carry 0
D 1 + 1 = 0 and carry 1
8 Tech Talk

Supermarket Checkout
from The Way Things Work

A supermarket checkout is a sophisticated input unit to the store's computer.

Each product has a bar code that contains an identification number. The assis-
tant moves the product over a window and an invisible infra-red
infra-red: electromag-
laser beam scans the bar code, reading it at any angle. The number netic radiation with a
goes to the computer, which instantly shows the price of the product wavelength longer than
on the checkout display. The computer also adds up the check. visible light and shorter
than microwaves
Checkout computers give the customer rapid accurate service,
and they also benefit the store. The computer keeps a complete
record of purchases and can work out stock levels. When the stock stock; items kept on
of a particular product falls, the computer can automatically order a hand for sale

new supply. The computer can also tell the store which products are
selling well and which are less popular.

Bar Codes
A bar code is a set of binary numbers. It consists of black bars and white
spaces; a wide bar or space signifies 1 and a thin bar or space 0. The binary
numbers stand for decimal numbers or letters.
There are several different kinds of bar codes. In each one, a number, let-
ter or other character is formed by a certain number of bars and spaces. The
bar code shown below uses five elements (three bars and two spaces) for
numbers only.

START AND STOP CODES

These codes precede or follow the first
and last number or letter in the whole
code. By identifying these codes, the bar
code reader is able to read a whole code
either forward or backward.

FIVE-ELEMENT CODE
In this five-element bar code, the
binary code 00110 stands for the decimal
number 0.
 Unit I: Computers and Automation 9

Laser Scanner
The checkout contains a laser scanner, which works in a similar way to a
compact disc player. The laser fires a beam of infrared rays across the bar
code, and only the white spaces in the code reflect the rays. The beam
returns to the detector, which converts the on-off pulses of rays into an elec-
tric binary code signal that goes to the computer.

What's the Point?

Check your understanding of the texts you just read. Based on the reading, are the fol-
lowing statements true (T) or false (F)?

1. Computers work directly with familiar words and pictures.

2. The word binary means having two of something.

3. Computers use binary code because they need a complex

number system.
10 Tech Talk

4. The example bar code in this article represents the decimal

number 5 by the binary code 10100.

5. All calculations done by a computer are basically series of

additions.

6. In a computer, a component called the clock tracks the time of

day.

Understanding Words and Phrases

Based on the texts you just read, choose the best definition of the underlined word or
phrase. These words and phrases are also underlined in the texts for your reference. If you
aren't able to determine the meaning through context, use other vocabulary skills such as
word parts and word forms to help you with the meaning.

1. to appear a. to seem b. to start c. to try hard d. to move

2. to invert a. to add b. to subtract c. to turn around d. to include

3. component a. number b. part c. composition d. computer

4. to precede a. go after b. go before c. go together d. go separately

5, to stand for a. to represent b. to contradict c. to tolerate d. to understand

6. sophisticated a. interesting b. intelligent c. difficult d. highly advanced

7. instantly a. immediately b. correctly c. clearly d. lightly

8. rapid a. complete b. unusual c. very quick d. polite

9. to benefit a. be close to b. give thanks to c. give access to d. be helpful to

10. popular a. crowded b. widely liked c. personal d. very cheap

 Unit I: Computers and Automation 11

The P a s s i v e

The first two readings in this unit contain the following sentences:
"These [instructions] are permanently remembered by
the machine and cannot be altered or added to."
"The computer is instructed to distinguish two kinds
of n u m b e r s . . . . It is also told how to multiply... ."

The words in bold type are verbs in the passive form. The form of the
passive is be + PAST PARTICIPLE or MODAL + be + PAST PARTICIPLE.
Notice that adverbs, such as permanently and also, appear between be
and the past participle. How is the form of passive sentences different
from the form of active sentences? When is the passive form used?

FORM: The object of an active sentence becomes the subject of a pas-

sive sentence. The subject of an active sentence follows the preposition
by in the passive sentence; it is called the agent in the passive sentence.
The two sentence forms have essentially the same meaning.
For example,
Active: The machine permanently remembers these
instructions.
Passive: These instructions are permanently
remembered by the machine.

Often, the fey-phrase is not used in a passive sentence. This is

because the exact agent is not known or is not important. These exam-
ples show the unnecessary agent in parentheses:

These instructions cannot be altered or added to (by

people).

The computer is instructed (by someone) to distinguish

two kinds of numbers.

It is also told (by a programmer) how to multiply.

What are the active forms of these sentences?

12 Tech Talk

Notice that passive sentences use only transitive verbs — verbs that
can be followed by an object in an active sentence. It is impossible to
use intransitive verbs (such as sleep, fall, happen) in passive sentences;
this is because the active-form object, which becomes the passive-form
subject, does not exist. For example, the following active sentence can-
not be changed to a passive sentence: "She sleeps soundly at night."

Exercise 1
Change the active sentence to the passive. Use the by-phrase only if it is
necessary. Identify the sentences that cannot be changed to the passive
because the verb is intransitive. Remember that in the form be + PAST
PARTICIPLE, the verb be can have any tense — present, past, future,
progressive, etc. In the form with modals, the past passive form is MODAL
+ have been + PAST PARTICIPLE.

Example 1
Active: George was preparing the holiday dinner.
Passive: The holiday dinner was being prepared by
Georqe.

Example 2
Active: Someone should have told the students
about the exam today.
Passive: The students should have been told about
the exam today.

1. Some day, Roger's children will run the neighborhood hardware

store.

2. All people must obey traffic laws.

3. Everyone had eaten breakfast before ten o'clock.

 Unit I: Computers and Automation 13

4. In two years, she will become a judge.

5. How are scientists supposed to conduct these experiments?

6. My sister is going to pack and ship the packages tomorrow.

7. We don't understand human behavior very well.

8. Workers should have completed construction of this building

last month.

9. People don't usually ski in the summer.

10. Has a doctor examined the patient yet?

11. When is Lara supposed to go on vacation?

12. Could a single person have lifted this stone?

USAGE AND MEANING: The passive is used in the following situations.

1. The specific agent is not known or is not important. In this case,

the passive form is used without the fey-phrase. This is the most
common use of the passive. It is especially common in technical
and scientific writing. In such formal writing, the most important
thing is to describe events and results. It is not important to know
14 Tech Talk

exactly who did those things. It is understood that the agents are
people — scientists, engineers, researchers, doctors. For example,

Their children were educated in Italy.

This university was established in 1861.
Antibiotics are used to treat infections.

A five-year research study is being conducted to

evaluate the new test procedure.

2. It is important to identify the agent, or to distinguish a particular

agent from any other. In this situation, the by-phrase is used, and
it places the agent at the end of the sentence, a place of emphasis.
For example,

The special physics lecture will be presented by

Professor McCune.

These houses for the poor are built by volunteers.

[volunteers, not the government]

3. Sometimes, the speaker uses the passive with the by-phrase in

order to focus attention on the subject — or topic — of the sen-
tence. (The sentence subject is usually the topic of the larger dis-
cussion, identified in the previous context.) This also serves the
purpose of placing new information about the old, familiar topic
at the end of the sentence, a place of stronger emphasis. Thus, a
clear sentence begins with a familiar topic and ends with new
information, which is recognized more easily at the end. Consider
these examples from the last two readings in this unit. The first
sentence creates the context, while the next sentence is passive:

a. "Components called adders do the calculations,

which all break down into sequences of additions.
Subtraction, for example, is done by steps that
involve adding and inverting numbers."
Familiar topic: "subtraction," a type of calculation

New information: "adding and inverting numbers"

 Unit I: Computers and Automation

b. "There are several different kinds of bar codes. In

each one, a number, letter or other character is
formed by a certain number of bars and spaces."

Familiar topic: bar codes representing

"numbers, letters, or characters"

New information: "a certain number of bars and

spaces"

What is the corresponding active form of the second sentence in

examples a and b above? Does the active sentence sound equally
clear and logical to you in the given context?

Exercise 2
Now, change each passive sentence to a possible active form. Which
form sounds better, more natural, to you? Why do you think the passive
form was chosen for these items?

1. The city library was destroyed in the war. It was rebuilt ten years later.

2. First, the chicken is thoroughly washed. Then, it is seasoned with

spices and placed in the oven to roast.

3. The holiday show was a great success and involved everyone. The
singing was performed by the girls, while the tap-dancing was
done by the boys.

4. The bread and pastries in this resort hotel are baked fresh every
morning.

5. I have two kinds of green tea. One was given to me by a friend

from Japan; the other was brought by a friend from China.
16 Tech Talk

6. When were you first introduced to classical music?

7. Usually, this type of surgery is performed by a specialist, but this

time, it was done by my family doctor.

8. Electricity is frequently produced from fossil fuels. It can also be

produced from nuclear and solar energy,

9. Vulcanized rubber, which is used for automobile tires, was

invented by Mr. Charles Goodyear.

10. This museum contains works of art from all over the world. The
paintings were done mostly by European and American artists.
The sculptures and pottery were created by Asian and African
artists. The special collection of textiles was donated by Native
American tribes.

Exercise 3
Make it personal! Write your own sentences describing your native coun-
try, its popular traditions, the school system, or your family customs. Decide
which form — active or passive — is the best for a particular sentence.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
 Unit I: Computers and Automation 17

Lets Talk about It

1. How does an automated bar-code checkout help the customer? Give

two examples from the text. Can you think of other advantages to
the customer?

2. How does a bar-code checkout help the supermarket? Give at least

two examples from the text, and add your own examples.

3. Are computers helpful or harmful to our society? Why?

W h a t Do You Think?

Do you think that computers and automation have improved your life? Write a few
paragraphs arguing how computers have made your life better or worse.
 1. What are some ways in which people are able to fly?

2. Have you ever been in a small airplane? A glider? A helicopter? A

balloon? If you have, how did it feel? If you haven't, how do you
imagine it would feel?

3. List some reasons why it is difficult for human beings to fly.

18
 Unit 2: Flight 19

4. What makes a balloon stay in the air?

5. How is an airplane different from a balloon? What makes an air-

plane fly?

Next, you will read about some principles that are important in flying and about dif-
ferent kinds of flying machines. The readings are excerpts from the book The Way
Things Work by David Macaulay.
Some of the words in the readings are underlined. These words may be new to you;
therefore, they are underlined so that you can find them easily later on, if you wish to
refer to them again. See if you can figure out what they mean from context or from the
other words or meanings around the underlined word. These words are also included in
the vocabulary exercises under Key Words and Understanding Words and Phrases.
The boldfaced words in the text are glossed in the margin. These non-high frequency
vocabulary words or phrases are helpful to understanding the reading.

KEY WORDS

What is the meaning of the underlined word in this example?

The men had to use a lot of force to move this heavy piano.

What is force? Can you name some forces in physics or in other areas? Make a list of
them.
20 Tect Talk

Heavier-than-Air Flight
from The Way Things Work

A kite, a glider, and a powered aircraft are three quite different ways by
which an object that is heavier than air can be made to fly.
Like balloons and airships, heavier-than-air machines achieve flight by
generating a force, that overcomes their weight and which supports them in
the air. But because they cannot float in the air, they work in different ways
from balloons.
Kites employ the power of the wind to keep them aloft, while aloft high up
all winged aircraft, including gliders and helicopters, make use of
the airfoil and its power of lift. Vertical take-off aircraft direct the take-off: the act of
rising in flight (verb: to
power of their jet engines downward and heave themselves off the
take off)
ground by brute force.
brute force: a force or
The two principles that govern heavier-than-air flight are the effect that is purely
same as those that propel powered vessels — action and reaction, physical and strong
and suction. When applied to flight, suction is known as lift.

KITE
A kite flies only in a wind, and it is held by its
string so that it deflects the wind downward.
The wind provides the force for
flight. It exerts a reaction
force that equals the
pull of the string and
supports the kite in
the air.
 Unit 2: Flight 21

AIRFOIL
The cross-section of a wing has
a shape called an air-
foil. As the wing
moves through the
air, the air divides
to pass around the
wing. The airfoil is
curved so that air
passing above the
wing moves faster
than air passing beneath.
Fast-moving air has a lower pressure than slow-moving air. The pressure of the
air is therefore greater beneath the wing than above it. This difference in air
pressure forces the wing upward. The force is called lift.

GLIDER
A glider is the simplest kind of winged aircraft. It is first pulled along the
ground until it is moving fast enough for the lift generated by the wings to exceed
its weight. The glider then rises into the air and flies. After release, the glider con-
tinues to move forward as it drops slowly, pulled by a thrust force due to gravity.
Friction with the air produces a force called drag that
acts to hold the glider back.
These two pairs of opposing
forces — lift and
weight, thrust and
drag — act on all
aircraft.
22 Tech Talk

Flying Machines
from The Way Things Work

Many different flying machines now fill our skies. They range from solo
sports and aerobatic planes to wide-bodied and supersonic jet airliners
which carry hundreds of passengers. Some, such as pedal-powered planes,
lumber along just above the ground, while others, such as
reconnaissance aircraft, streak at three times the speed of reconnaissance:
exploration of an area,
sound at a height three times that of Mount Everest.
especially to obtain
There are also unpowered gliders, of which the returning space military information
shuttles are the largest and hang gliders the simplest. Development hovering: staying
in other directions has led to helicopters and vertical take-off air- floating in the air over
craft which are capable of rising vertically and hovering in the air. a particular place

There are also kites of all shapes and sizes, some large enough to
carry a person.
Machines also fly through water. Hydrofoils flying through the waves
employ exactly the same principles that keep winged airplanes aloft.

GLIDER
Being unpowered, a glider cannot travel fast and so has
long straight wings that produce high lift
at very low speed.

SPACE SHUTTLE
The space shuttle re-enters the atmosphere at very
high speed, and so has a delta wing like a supersonic air-
liner. It then glides to a high-speed landing.
 Unit 5: Flight 23

HANG GLIDER
The A-shaped wing inflates in
flight to produce an airfoil with low
lift and drag, giving low-speed flight
with a light load.

LIGHT AIRCRAFT
Short straight wings produce good lift and low drag at medium speed. Pro-
pellers or jet engines provide the power that produces the lift.

PEDAL-POWERED PLANE
Because the flying speed is very low, long and broad wings are needed to give
maximum lift. Drag is at a minimum at such low speeds.
24 Tech Talk

FORWARD-SWEPT WINGS
This experimental design gives high lift and
low drag to produce good maneuverability at high
speed. Two small forward wings called canards aid
control.

SWING-WING AIRCRAFT
The wings are straight at
take-off and landing to
increase lift so that
take-off and land-
ing speeds are low. In flight, the wings swing
back to reduce drag and enable high-speed flight.

SUPERSONIC AIRLINER
Aircraft that fly faster than the speed of sound often have dart-shaped delta
wings. This is because a shock wave forms in the air around the aircraft, and the
wings stay inside the shock wave so that control of the aircraft is retained at
supersonic speed. Take-off and landing speeds are very high as lift is low.
 Unit 2: Flight 25

AIRLINER
Swept-back wings are needed to minimize drag at high speed. However, lift is
also reduced, requiring high take-off and landing speeds.

FLAPPING WINGS
This is a highly efficient
wing design that you should
look o u t for, particularly look out for (phrasal
in places where bird feed- verb): watch carefully for
something, especially
ing is encouraged.
something dangerous;
be careful about
(something)
26 Tech Talk

What's the Point?

7. Show your understanding of the reading. Based on the text, pictures, and captions in
this unit, give short answers to the following questions.

1. What objects can stay in the air because they weigh less than air?

2. What three types of flying objects are heavier than air?

3. How do all flying objects achieve flight, in general?

4. What makes kites stay in the air?

5. What makes gliders, airplanes, and helicopters stay in the air?

6. What methods do powered aircraft use to produce power that cre-

ates lift? Name three different methods.

II. Check your understanding of the text. Based on the reading, are the following state-
ments true (T) or false (F)?

1. Winged aircraft can fly because pressure difference produces

suction on the wing.

2. Kites can fly even when there is no wind.

3. Aircraft wings are able to generate lift because of their geomet-

ric shape.

4. Gliders have their own engines to produce power.

 Unit 2: Flight 27

5. Airplanes cannot fly faster than twice the speed of sound.

6. _ The space shuttle flies like a supersonic glider.

7. Wings that point forward allow easy movement in different

directions at high speed.

8. Wings that are swept back reduce drag at high speed and
increase lift.

9. Long wings help increase lift.

10. Delta wings on supersonic aircraft prevent the formation of a

shock wave.

Understanding Words and Phrases

I. Choose one of the words to fill in the blank in each of the following sentences. You may
have to change the form of the word to fit the sentence.

exceed generate retain

float overcome solo

1. Many power plants in the United States

electricity by burning coal or oil.

2. Boats, ships, and wood on a river because

they weigh less than water, but rocks sink to the bottom.

3. Patience and hard work help a person

difficulties in life.

4. Sylvia has always performed with her group, but tonight she will
sing , and everyone's attention will be on her
alone.

5. The price of the car the amount of money I

could spend, so I couldn't buy it.

6. Margaret decided to update her wardrobe, so she got rid of all her
old clothes and only her favorite hand-knit
scarf.
28 Tech Talk

II. Many English words have multiple meanings. These meanings are often related.
However, only one of the meanings is usually correct in a particular situation or context.
These sentences contain underlined words that you have seen in the texts. Each sentence is
followed by two correct definitions of the underlined word. Choose the one definition that is
appropriate for the given sentence.

1. Kites employ the power of wind to keep them aloft.

a. to have a person working for payment
b. to use

2. You can inflate party balloons by blowing air into them.

a. to fill and swell with a gas
b. to raise or increase too much; to exaggerate

3. Laws of physics govern flight.

a. to administer public affairs or to rule a society
b. to regulate or control

4. Some small birds can sweep their wings forward to achieve faster
movement in the air. (Note: The past tense of sweep is swept.)
a. to clean or clear away (dirt or snow, for example) with a
broom or brush
b. to move with a flowing motion

5. Friction between a glider and the air produces drag, which holds
the glider back.
a. the rubbing of one surface against another
b. a conflict between two people because of disagreement

For each underlined word, write your own sentence using the other meaning, the one
that you did not choose above.

1. employ:

2. inflate:

3. govern:

4. sweep:

5. friction:
 Unit 2: Flight 29

Adverb Clauses
The excerpts you just read contain these grammatical structures:

a. "Because they cannot float in air, they work in

different ways from balloons."

b. "As the wing moves through the air, the air divides
to pass around the wing."
c. "It is first pulled along the ground until it is moving
fast enough for the lift generated by the wings to
exceed its weight"

d. "Kites employ the power of the wind to keep them

aloft, while ail winged aircraft, including gliders and
helicopters, make use of the airfoil and its power of
lift."

The part of each sentence that is in italics is an adverb clause, a kind

of dependent clause. A clause is a group of words that has a subject and
a verb. A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence; it must be
attached to an independent, or main, clause. In a, the group of words
"they work in different ways from balloons" is the main clause and can
stand alone as a complete sentence; it contains the main subject and
main verb of a sentence. The group of words "because they cannot float
in air" is a dependent clause. It is called an adverb clause because it
functions like an adverb: It gives additional information about the
main clause, particularly the main verb.
In these examples, the words because, as, until, white introduce an
adverb clause. These special words are called subordinating conjunc-
tions, because they connect a dependent, or subordinate, clause to an
independent clause.
Notice the punctuation in these examples. When an adverb clause
comes before the main clause, as in examples a and b, a comma is used
to separate the two clauses. When an adverb clause comes after the main
clause, as in example c, usually there is no comma. However, with the
conjunctions while and whereas, as in example d, a comma is usually
30 Tech Talk

used even when the adverb clause follows the main clause. Also, when
the conjunction only if comes in the beginning of a sentence, the sub-
ject and verb in the main clause are inverted, and a comma is not used.
For example:
Only if the animal is threatened does it attack people.

Here are some common subordinating conjunctions and their gen-

eral meanings.

Time: as, until, before, after, since, when,

while, by the time, as soon as, once,
as long as, whenever

Cause and effect: because, now that, since

Contrast: although, though, even though,
while, whereas (more formal than
while)
Condition: if, only if, even if, in case, in the
event that, whether or not, as long
as, unless

Exercise 1
Find the adverb clauses in the following items. Underline each adverb
clause, and circle the conjunction that introduces it. Punctuate the sen-
tences with commas, periods, and capital letters, as needed. Watch out —
some items contain more than one independent clause (sentence), and
some contain more than one adverb clause!

1. By the time you come home from work dinner will certainly be
ready.

2. We're enjoying our sightseeing vacation it hasn't rained at all

since we got here.

3. Larry always carries an umbrella in case it rains.

 Unit 2: Flight 31

4. Although I don't like vegetables very much I eat them every day
because they're good for me.

5. When she is thirsty she prefers hot drinks whether or not it is cold
outside.

6. Now that Mark and Christina have children they seldom go out to
dinner or the movies.

7. Ken and Belinda have different tastes in music he likes country

whereas she prefers jazz.

8. Since we are making good progress on this project let's keep

working we can have lunch later unless you are very hungry now.

Exercise 2
Each item contains two independent clauses. Combine them into one
sentence using the given conjunction in parentheses. Use commas where
needed.

1. (as soon as) He gets home. He takes off his shoes.

2. (because) Tracy is very upset. She lost the diamond ring that
belonged to her grandmother.

3. (before) You should brush your teeth. You go to bed.

32 Tech Talk

4. (only if) Billy can have ice cream for dessert. He eats all his
carrots.

5. (since) You insist on helping me with housework. You can

vacuum the rugs.

6. (as) Henry admired the architecture around him. He walked

along the street.

7. (even though) Mr. Wright is 84 years old. He still enjoys downhill

skiing.

8. (in the event that) You cannot reach me at work during the day.
Please call me at home.

Exercise 3
Complete the sentences with your own words. The subordinating
conjunctions are in boldface. Be sure to add commas where needed!

1. Molly goes for a walk every day even if _________________

2. Jerry doesn't like gardening though

3. Once Mrs. Bradley learned enough French

4. Her health will continue to improve as long as

5. After I finish this exercise

 Unit 2: Flight 33

6. He will definitely buy this house unless

7. Whenever I feel sad

8. New York is __ while _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Let's Talk about It

1. What is the fastest flying machine included in the text? Why do you
think this is true?

2. What is the slowest machine? Why?

3. Of the machines presented, list the ones that you think are used for
public or personal uses. Why do you think so?

4. List the aircraft that you think are used for military purposes. Why
do you think so?

5. What kinds of wings do birds have?

W h a t Do You Think?

In your opinion, has supersonic flight changed the way people live and work? Write a
short essay (two to three paragraphs) supporting your opinion.
Health Care in Space
Search Your Knowledge
1. Why might it be dangerous to send human beings into outer space?
What are some problems with living in space that we do not have on
earth?

2. Can you think of some health problems related to being in space for
a long time? What could go wrong?

34
 Unit 3: Health Care in Space 35

3. What happens when a person isn't able to exercise or move for a

long time? What happens to the muscles and bones?

4. How can scientists learn about these problems and their possible
solutions?

The text that follows Key Words was released by the National Space Biomedical
Research Institute (NSBRI). This organization conducts research on health risks related
to long-duration missions in space. Can you understand the underlined words in the
text? These words may be new to you; therefore, they are underlined so that you can
find them easily later on, if you wish to refer to them again. See if you can figure out
what they mean from context or from the other words and meanings around the under-
lined word. The words are also included in the vocabulary exercises under Key Words
and Understanding Words and Phrases.
The boldfaced words in the text are glossed in the margin. These non-high frequency
vocabulary words or phrases are helpful to understanding the reading.

KEY WORDS

These sentences contain underlined words, which also appear in the article you are
about to read. Knowing these words will help you understand the article. Can you figure
out what these words mean from the sentences? In addition, answer the question or
questions that follow each sentence.

1. Most milk sold in the United States contains two nutritional

supplements: vitamins A and D.
What other nutritional supplements do you know?

2. After the accident, Mr. Brown spent the rest of his life in a wheel-
chair; eventually, the muscles in his legs atrophied, becoming
smaller and weaker.
What parts of the body can atrophy from the disease diabetes?
What organs can atrophy from drinking too much alcohol?
36 Tech Talk

3. Laboratory mice are often the subjects of scientific and medical

experiments.
Have you ever been a subject in a research experiment? If so,
describe it.

4. Protein is an important part of your diet because it is necessary for

building muscles.
Name some foods that are good sources of protein.

5. The hormone insulin is produced by your body and controls the

level of sugar in your blood.
What other hormones are you familiar with?

6. Here is an explanation of a technical term that may be useful to you:

An isotope is a variation of a chemical element. Isotopes of an ele-
ment have the same number of protons inside the atom, but they
have a different number of neutrons. For example, Carbon-12 and
Carbon-14 are isotopes of the element carbon; they both have six
protons, but carbon-12 has six neutrons and is a stable isotope (not
radioactive), while carbon-14 has eight neutrons and is a radioactive
isotope. (Carbon-14 is used in "carbon dating" to figure out the age
of objects, such as archeological finds.)
 Unit 3: Health Care in Space 37

MEWS RELEASE

Nutritional Supplements May

Combat Muscle Loss
from the National Space Biomedical Research Institute

HOUSTON—(Aug. 27, 2002) — Early indications show that nutritional

supplements may lessen muscle atrophy brought on by space travel, pro-
longed bed confinement or immobility.
To study space travel's effect on muscles, Dr. Robert Wolfe of the Univer-
sity of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston enlisted healthy subjects to stay in
bed 28 days during a National Space Biomedical Research Institute study.
"One cause of muscle atrophy in space is lack of muscular activity. That's why
bed rest is a good model because it minimizes activity, and like astronauts, you
lose muscle mass primarily in the legs," said co-investigator Dr. Arny Ferrando, a
professor of surgery at UTMB and Shriners Hospital for Children in Galveston.
"When muscles are inactive, as they are in space, they don't make new proteins.
If muscle breakdown rates are the same, that means you lose muscle."
Researchers are attempting to increase protein synthesis rates with
supplements of amino acids, which are the raw materials of protein. Partici-
pants received the supplements three times a day, and researchers com-
pared the protein synthesis/breakdown rates and muscle mass before and
after the bed-rest study. This data was compared to results from a control
group that received a placebo drink instead of the supplements.
"Early results suggest that the amino acid supplement is able to maintain
synthesis rates and body mass," Ferrando said.
During the study, subjects must remain in bed and can get up only briefly
to use a bedside commode. They eat and bathe from their beds, and daily
activities encompass watching television, reading books and using a bedside
computer.
Midway through the study, researchers determine muscle mass and function
by testing the subjects' strength and body composition.
They gather the most vital data, the protein synthesis and breakdown
rates, by using stable isotope analysis. With the stable isotope
technique, researchers attach a harmless t r a c e r to specific tracer: a material, such
as a dye or a radioactive
amino acids that travel through the bloodstream. Then, they take
isotope, that can be
blood samples to determine the amount of amino acids that identified and followed
enter and exit the leg. through the course of a
process, like a label.
38 Tech Talk

"If 80 amino acids are coming into the artery and 60 are going out of the
vein, we know that 20 were probably made into proteins in the muscle," said
Dr. Douglas Paddon-Jones, also of UTMB and a co-investigator performing
these studies. "We complete the muscle analysis by removing a small piece
of muscle and determining how many amino acids have been incorporated
into proteins. Over time, we can calculate the rate at which the synthesis and
breakdown occurs."
Space conditions also elevate the body's level of the stress hormone
Cortisol, which increases the breakdown rate of proteins. "Under stress, the
body breaks down proteins to make energy for survival," said Ferrando, a
member of NSBRI's nutrition and fitness research team. "However, this
process also causes muscle atrophy."
To study the supplement's effects on muscle loss due to elevated levels of
Cortisol, researchers infused the stress hormone into the participants' blood
during the stable isotope tests. The researchers mimic the Cortisol concen-
trations found during space flight, then determine protein synthesis and
breakdown rates of the subjects taking the supplement and compare this to
the rates of the control group.
Ferrando and Wolfe are also collaborating with other NSBRI researchers
who use the subjects' body fluids to study changes in bone, immune func-
tion and cell damage induced by bed rest.
Findings from this research on nutritional supplements could benefit
patients on Earth.
"Muscle atrophy is common in many populations: the elderly, kids with
burns, patients in intensive care or people who have had major operations.
We're looking at this phenomenon in terms of space flight, but the study has
many other implications," Ferrando said.
 Unit 3: Health Care in Space 39

I. Show your understanding of the reading. Based on the reading, choose the best answer
to complete the statements.

1. The subjects in this research experiment on muscle loss are

a. astronauts
b. sick patients
c. medical doctors
d. people on earth

2. Astronauts in space generally lose muscle mass in .

a. the arms
b. the back
c. the heart
d. the legs

3. People lose muscle when they are not physically active because

a. only inactive muscles break down

b. inactive muscles turn into fat
c. inactive muscles do not produce protein
d. only active muscles resist disease

4. So far, the study results show that nutritional supplements of amino

acids .
a. help increase muscle mass
b. do not improve muscle health
c. may cause minor illnesses
d. help decrease heart rate

5. Researchers determine how much new protein is being produced in

the body by _______________.
a. weighing the subjects before and after the experiment
b. weighing the blood samples before and after the study
c. counting all amino acids in the body
d. counting the number of amino acids that enter and exit the leg
40 Tech Talk

6. Muscle atrophy in space is caused not only by inactivity, but also by

a. poor nutrition
b. stress
c. illness
d. radiation

7. Results of this study .

a. benefit only astronauts in space
b. are not public information
c. can apply to patients on earth
d. are not useful for children

II. Demonstrate your understanding of some of the details in the reading. Based on the
text you just read, give short answers to the questions.

1- What are amino acids?

2. What is a placebo? Based on its use in the reading, can you guess

what it is?

3. What is Cortisol? Where does it come from?

4. Why do the research scientists in this study use a tracer?

5. Why do the researchers remove a small piece of muscle?

6. What organization could you contact for more information about

medical research in space?
 Unit 3: Health Care in Space 41

Understanding Words and Phrases

I. Some incomplete sentences follow. Use your own ideas to finish these statements. There
is more than one way to complete them. The underlined words can be found in the text you
just read.

1. Some ways in which robots can mimic human behavior are

2. The confined space of an apartment doesn't allow me

3. He attempted to remove the red wine stain from his shirt by

4. When she was redecorating her house, she compared several samples
of in order to

5. In your next essay, please incorporate

6. It is often helpful to break down a large problem into smaller parts

because

II. Now, work with a partner to answer the following questions based on your own
knowledge. The underlined words appear in the text you just read.

1. How do you determine the area of a rectangle with length L and

width W?

2. Which harmless animals make good pets?

42 Tech Talk

3. What things in our environment are harmful to your health?

4. What raw materials are needed to build a house?

5. What countries does North America encompass?

6. What are some indications of the flu (influenzal?

7. Why do researchers from different organizations frequently

collaborate on a project?

8. What can cause a breakdown in communication between two

people?

III. Choose one of the words to fill in the blank in each sentence. You may have to change
the form of the word to fit the sentence. Remember, sometimes an English word is both a
noun and a verb.

attempt mimic sample

breakdown/breakdown confinement synthesis
incorporate synthesize

1. Green plants produce sugar through the of

carbon dioxide and water.

2. To make more delicious pancakes, add a teaspoon of vanilla to the

pancake batter, then stir well to it into the
batter.

3. Every year, city officials collect and test of

drinking water to make sure that the water is safe to drink.
 Unit 3: Health Care in Space 43

4. Before 1903, people but failed to achieve

heavier-than-air flight. However, on December 17, 1903, the Wright
brothers finally succeeded in their to fly a
powered airplane.

5. In a process called electrolysis, electric current causes the

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ of water into its elementary components, oxy-
gen and hydrogen.

6. She became seriously ill with pneumonia, which resulted in her

to a hospital for a month.

7. Parrots are colorful tropical birds that can

human speech.

8. The architect produced the final design for the office building by
the ideas of many people.

Agent Suffix -er

The article you just read contains the words researcher and tracer.
What do these words mean? How are they related to the words to
research, to trace?
Grammatical forms are used to convey meanings. In English, the
suffix -er has several uses and meanings. One common use of -er is as
an attachment to an adjective to make the comparative form of the
adjective: quick -> quicker, small -> smaller, clean -> cleaner. Another
common use of -er is as an ending of a noun. In this case, the suffix has
two slightly different meanings.
One meaning of -er in a noun is an agent or doer. Here, the suffix
attaches to a verb and changes it to a noun, meaning someone or some-
thing that does the action of the verb. So, a researcher is someone who
does research; a tracer is something that can trace (or allows others to
trace). Also notice the word doer in the first sentence of this paragraph!
Tech Talk

I. Provide the correct verb for the given agent (in italics).

1. An interpreter is someone who

2. A singer is a person who .

3. A baker is a person who _.

4. An organizer is something (or someone) that helps to

5. A manager is someone who _________________ .

6. A driver is a person who _________________ .

7. A slow cooker is a special pot that _________________ .

II. Now, do the reverse: Provide the correct form of the agent noun.

1. Someone who speaks is a .

2. A person who plays is a .

3. The object used for erasing (chalk or pencil marks) is an

______________________________.

4. Someone who trades is a .

5. A machine that computes is a .

6. A person who wins is a .

7. A pot that cooks under pressure is a pressure .

 Unit 3: Health Care in Space 45

TIL The other meaning of a noun with the suffix -er is someone who
belongs to a group or a place. Here, -er is attached to a noun (a group or
place) or to a modifier (which describes the group or place). So, a
commoner is a person who belongs to the common (not noble) class.
Some other examples follow. Provide the correct form of the noun and the
correct indefinite article (a or an), if needed. In each example, is the suffix
attached to a noun or to a modifier?

1. A person who lives in New England is .

2. Residents of New York are .

3. Someone who lives on an island is .

4. A member of a troupe (a group of actors or singers) is

____________________________.
5. A soldier who belongs to a troop (a military group that uses
tanks or horses) is .

6. Children who attend summer camp are ____ ____.

7. A person who lives in or comes from a foreign place is

___________________________________________.

8. Someone who is inside a group or organization is ___________.

9. People who are outside a group or organization are

_____________________________________.

10. A person in the teenage group (13-19 years old) is

____________________________________.
46 Tech Talk

Let's Talk about It

1. Researchers are working on novel techniques for providing health
care in space. Such techniques must work in the confined space of a
spacecraft. Make some predictions about new medical methods and
tools that will be used in space travel. Based on your own logical
reasoning, describe some characteristics that special techniques and
equipment should have in order to be used successfully in space. If
you wish, you may also do some research to answer this question.

2. Can you think of special situations on earth where people might

need medical care but don't have easy access to a doctor or to med-
ical equipment?

3. What do people do in these situations?

What Do You Think?

Imagine that you are going away on a year-long pleasure trip on a small ship. You are
going with a few friends. How would you prepare for this trip? What things are impor-
tant to consider? Write a brief plan for your trip. What would you bring with you to take
care of your medical needs? Why? What would you like to bring along but can't because
there is not enough space? How would you deal with some potential problems? Write a
position paper convincing your family, friends, and yourself that this is a good, safe plan.

expansion Activities

The NSBRI has an Internet website: www.nsbri.org. On your own

time, visit the website and see what interesting information you can
find. You can do this alone or with a classmate. Then, tell your class
what you found and what was especially interesting to you.
Note: Most public and university libraries offer free Internet access.
Wind Power
Search Your Knowledge
1. What's a wind turbine? How does it work? How is it similar to a
windmill?

1. How is a wind turbine similar to an electric fan? How are they

different?

3. Is wind power used widely around the world? Why or why not?

47
48 Tech Talk

4. Can you name other sources of energy that are used by power plants
to produce electricity?

5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of wind power over

other sources of energy?

6. How can the disadvantages be overcome?

The photograph on page 47 shows a currently operating wind-turbine plant. The

Searsburg Wind Facility belongs to the Green Mountain Power Corporation, an electric
company in Vermont.
You are about to read a text about wind power. The article appeared in the July/
August 2002 issue of Technology Review, a magazine published by the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT). The reading contains some words and concepts related
to wind turbines and power production. Some of these words and ideas are new to
many native speakers of English as well. You don't need to understand all the technical
details in order to understand the main story. You may wish to skim this article before
reading it more thoroughly. (For tips about skimming, see the section called How to
Read on page xiii.)
The text contains a number of underlined words. These words may be new to you;
therefore, they are underlined so that you can find them easily later on, if you wish to
refer to them again. See if you can figure out what they mean from context or from the
other words and meanings around the underlined word. The words are also included in
the vocabulary exercises under Key Words and Understanding Words and Phrases.
The boldfaced words in the text are glossed in the margin. These non-high frequency
vocabulary words or phrases are helpful to understanding the reading.
 Unit 4: Wind Power 49

KEY W O R D S

The text in this unit contains the words blade, prototype, flexible, hinge, niche, and
capacity. Do you know what these words mean? If you don't, see if you can figure them
out from the sentences that follow. Then, see how the words are used in the article.

1. The blades of a fan, like the blades of a knife, cut through air and
make the air move.
2. After the engineers successfully tested the prototype of a newly
designed electric car, the managers of the company decided to go
ahead with mass production of this design.

3. The Olympic gymnast was very flexible. She could bend backward
so that her head touched her feet.

4. When a door squeaks, it's time to oil its hinges to make it move
more smoothly.

5. a. A mouse found a niche in the side of a hill and made a nest

there.
b. The little diner that serves only soup found a small but successful
niche in the large restaurant market.

6. a. The gas tank in my car has a capacity of 16 gallons.

b. When the candy factory operates at full capacity, it produces 100
chocolate bars an hour.

Wind Power for Pennies

A Lightweight Wind Turbine Is Finally
on the Horizon — and It Might Just Be the on the horizon (idiom):
going to happen soon
Breakthrough Needed to
give fuels a run for
Give Fuels a Run for Their Money their money (idiom):
Peter Fairley give them strong
competition (a run for
from Technology Review one's money)

The newest wind turbine standing at Rocky Flats in Colorado, the

U.S. Department of Energy's proving ground for wind power proving ground (idiom):
a place for testing new
technologies, looks much like any other apparatus for capturing
devices or theories
energy from wind: a boxy turbine sits atop a steel tower that sprouts
50 Tech Talk

two propeller blades stretching a combined 40 meters — almost half the length
of a football field. Wind rushes by, blades rotate, and electricity flows. But
there's a key difference. This prototype has flexible, hinged blades: in strong
winds, they bend back slightly while spinning. The bending is barely perceptible
to a casual observer, but it's a radical departure from how existing wind
turbines work — and it just may change the fate of wind power.
Indeed, the success of the prototype at Rocky Flats comes at a crucial
moment in the evolution of wind power. Wind-driven generators are still a
niche technology — producing less than one percent of U.S. electricity. But last
year, 1,700 megawatts' worth of new wind capacity was installed in the United
States — enough to power 500,000 houses — nearly doubling the nation's wind
power capacity. And more is on the way. Manufacturers have reduced the cost
of heavy-duty wind turbines fourfold since 1980, and these gargantuan
machines are now reliable and efficient enough to be built offshore. An 80-
turbine, $240 million wind farm under construction off the Danish coast will be
the world's largest, and developers are beginning to colonize German, Dutch
and British waters, too. In North America, speculators envision massive offshore
wind farms near British Columbia and Nantucket, MA,
But there is still a black cloud hovering over this seemingly a black cloud (idiom):
a sign of misfortune;
sunny scenario. Wind turbines remain expensive to build — often
bad luck
prohibitively so. On average, it costs about $1 million per
megawatt to construct a wind turbine farm, compared to about $600,000
per megawatt for a conventional gas-fired power plant; in the economic cal-
culations of power companies, the fact that wind is free doesn't close this
gap. In short, the price of building wind power must come down if it's ever
to be more than a niche technology.
And that's where the prototype at Rocky Flats comes in. The flexibility in
its blades will enable the turbine to be 40 percent lighter than today's indus-
try standard but just as capable of surviving destructive storms. And that
lighter weight could mean machines that are 20 to 25 percent cheaper than
today's large turbines.
Earlier efforts at lighter designs were universal failures — disabled or
destroyed, some within weeks, by the wind itself. Given these failures, wind
experts are understandably cautious about the latest shot at a lightweight
design. But most agree that lightweight wind turbines, if they work, will
change the economic equation. "The question would become, 'How do you
get the transmission capacity built fast enough to keep up with growth,'" says
Ward Marshall, a wind power developer at Columbus, OH-based American
Electric Power who is on the board of directors of the American Wind Energy
Association, a trade group. "You'd have plenty of folks willing to sign up."
 Unit 4: Wind Power 51

And, say experts, the Rocky Flats prototype — designed by Wind Turbine of
Bellevue, WA — is the best hope in years for a lightweight design that will
finally succeed. "I can say pretty unequivocally that this is a dramatic step in
lightweight [wind turbine] technology," says Bob Thresher, director of the
National Wind Technology Center at Rocky Flats. "Nobody else has built a
machine that flexible and made it work."

Steady as She Blows

Wind turbines are like giant fans run in reverse. Instead of motor-driven
blades that push the air, they use airfoils that catch the wind and crank a
generator that pumps out electricity. Many of today's turbines are mammoth
machines with three-bladed rotors that span 80 meters — 20 meters longer
than the wingspan of a Boeing 747. And therein lies the technology chal-
lenge. The enormous size is needed if commercial wind turbines are to com-
pete economically because power production rises exponentially
with blade length. But these vast structures must be rugged rugged: strong
enough to endure gales and extreme turbulence.
In the 1970s and '80s, U.S. wind energy pioneers made the first serious
efforts at fighting these forces with lightweight, flexible machines. Several
startups installed thousands of such wind turbines; most were liter-
gusts: sudden and
ally torn apart or disabled by gusts. Taking lightweight experimen-
violent rushes of wind
tation to the extreme, General Electric and Boeing built much
larger prototypes — behemoths with 80-, 90-, and even 100-meter-long
blades. These also proved prone to breakdown; in some cases their blades
bent back and actually struck the towers.
All told, U.S. companies and the Department of Energy spent hundreds of
millions of dollars on these failed experiments in the 1980s and early 1990s.
"The American model has always gravitated toward the light and sophisticated
and things that didn't work," says James Manwell, a mechanical engineer who
leads the University of Massachusetts's renewable-energy research laboratory in
Amherst, MA.
Into these technology doldrums sailed researchers from Denmark's Riso
National Laboratory and Danish companies like Vestas Wind Systems. During
the past two decades they perfected a heavy-duty version of the wind tur-
bine — and it has become the Microsoft Windows of the wind power industry.
Today, this Danish design accounts for virtually all of the electricity generated
by the wind worldwide. Perhaps reflecting national inclinations, these sturdy
Danish designs had tittle of the aerodynamic flash of the earlier U.S. wind tur-
bines; they were simply braced against the wind with heavier, thicker steel and
composite materials. They were tough, rugged — and they worked.
52 Tech Talk

What's more, in recent years, power electronics — digital silicon switches

that massage the flow of electricity from the machine — further improved the
basic design. Previously, the turbine's rotor was held to a constant rate of
rotation so its alternating-current output would be in sync with the power
grid; the new devices maintain the synchronization white allowing the rotor
to freely speed up and slow down with the wind. "If you get a gust, the
rotor can accelerate instead of just sitting there and receiving the brute force
of the wind," says Manwelll.
Mastering such strains enabled the Danish design to grow larger and
larger. Whereas in the early 1980s a typical commercial machine had a blade
span of 12.5 meters and could produce 50 kilowatts — enough for about a
dozen homes — today's biggest blades stretch 80 meters and crank
crank o u t produce.
out two megawatts; a single machine can power more than 500 especially mechanically
homes.
The newest challenge facing the Danish design is finding ways for it to
weather the corrosive and punishing offshore environment, where months
can pass before a mechanic can safely board and fix a turbine. Vestas, for
one, is equipping its turbines with sensors on each of their compo-
wear and tear (idiom):
nents to detect wear and tear, and backup systems to take over
damage resulting from
in the case of, say, a failure in the power electronics. normal use or exposure
Vestas's approach goes to the test this summer, as Denmark's
power supplier begins installing 80 Vestas machines in shallow water 14 to
20 kilometers off the Danish coastline. It will be the world's biggest offshore
wind farm, powering as many as 150,000 Danish households.

Wind Shadows
These upgrades will make big, heavy turbines more reliable, but they don't
add up to a fundamental shift in the economics of wind power. Nations like
Denmark and Germany are prepared to pay for wind power partly because fos-
sil fuels are so much more costly in Europe, where higher taxes cover environ-
mental and health costs associated with burning them. (About 20 percent of
Denmark's power comes from wind.) But for wind power to be truly cost com-
petitive with fossil fuels in the United States, the technology must change.
What makes Wind Turbine's Rocky Flats design such a departure is not
only its hinged blades, but also their downwind orientation. The Danish
design faces the blades into the wind and makes the blades heavy so they
won't bend back and slam into the tower. The Wind Turbine design can't
face the wind — the hinged blades would hit the tower — so the rotor is posi-
tioned downwind. Finally, it uses two blades, rather than the three in the tra-
ditional design, to further reduce weight.
 Unit 4 = Wind Power 53

A LIGHTER, CHEAPER TURBINE

Hinged blades and sophisticated control systems allow the lightweight tur-
bine designed by Wind Turbine of Bellevue, WA, to survive storms and gusts.
In Normal Conditions: Blades spin freely, the entire turbine swivels accord-
ing to wind direction, and a gearbox amplifies blade rotation speed so a genera-
tor can produce power.
In High Wind or Erratic Conditions: Hydraulic dampers allow blades to flex
up to 15 degrees downwind and five degrees upwind to shed excess wind
force. Control systems include a brake
to slow blade spin and a yaw drive
to counteract swiveling.

Advances in the computer modeling of such dangerous forces as vibration

helped the design's development. Flexible blades add an extra dimension to
the machine's motion; so does the fact that the whole machine can freely
swivel with the wind. (Traditional designs are driven to face the wind, then
locked in place.) Predicting, detecting and preventing disasters — like rapidly
shifting winds that swing a rotor upwind and send its flexible blades into the
tower — are control challenges even with the best design. "If you don't get
that right, the machine can literally beat itself to death," says Ken Deering,
Wind Turbine's vice president of engineering.
Two years ago, when Wind Turbine's prototype was erected at Rocky Flats,
there were worries that this machine, too, would beat itself to death. Thresher
says some of his staff feared that the machine, like its 1980s prede-
the scrap heap (idiom):
cessors, would not long escape the scrap heap. Today, despite a place for discarding
some minor setbacks, those doubts are fading. useless material
 Emboldened by its early success, Wind Turbine has installed, near Lancaster,
CA, a second prototype, with a larger, 48-meter blade span. By the end of this
year, the company expects to boost blade length on this machine to 60
meters — full commercial size. What's more, this new prototype has a
thinner tower, aimed at reducing the noisy thump — known as a "wind
shadow" — that can occur each time a blade whips through the area of tur-
bulent air behind the tower. And with its lighter weight, the turbine can be
mounted atop higher towers, reaching up to faster winds.

Becalmed
Whatever the advances in technology, however, the wind power industry
still faces significant hurdles, starting with uncertain political support in the
United States. In Europe, wind power is already a relatively easy sell. But in
the United States, wind developers rely on federal tax credits to make a
profit. These vital credits face chronic opposition from powerful oil and coat
lobbies and often lapse. The wind power industry raced to plug in its turbines
before these credits expired at the end of last year, then went dormant for
the three months it took the U.S. Congress to renew them. Congress
extended the credits through the end of next year, initiating what is likely to
be yet another start-and-stop development cycle.
A second obstacle to broad adoption is the wind itself. It may be free and
widely accessible, but it is also frustratingly inconsistent. Just ask any
sailor. And this fickleness translates into intermittent power pro- fickleness: unpredict-
ability or instability,
duction. The more turbines get built, the more their intermittency will
especially of feelings;
complicate the planning and management of large flows of power unreliability
across regional and national power grids. Indeed, in west Texas, a
recent boom in wind turbine construction is straining the region's transmission
lines — and also producing power out of sync with local needs: wind blows dur-
ing coo) nights and stalls on hot days when people most need electricity.
Texas utilities are patching the problems by expanding transmission lines.
But to really capture the value of wind power on a large scale, new approaches
are needed to storing wind power when it's produced and releasing it when
needed. The Electric Power Research Institute, a utility-funded R&D consortium
in Palo Alto, CA, is conducting research on how to make better one-day-ahead
wind predictions. More important, it is exploring ways to store energy when
the wind is blowing. "We need to think about operating an electrical system
rather than just focusing on the wind turbines," says Chuck McGowin, man-
ager for wind power technology at the institute. Storage facilities "would allow
us to use what we have more efficiently, improve the value of it."
 Unit 4: Wind Power 55

In the northwest United States, one storage option being developed by the
Portland, OR-based Bonneville Power Administration balances wind power with
hydroelectric power. The idea is simple: when the wind is blowing, don't let the
water pass through the hydroelectric turbines; on calm days, open up the gates.
And the Tennessee Valley Authority is even experimenting with storing energy in
giant fuel cells; a pilot plant is under construction in Mississippi.
Wind power faces plenty of obstacles, but there's more reason than ever
to believe these obstacles will be overcome. Worries over the environmental
effects of burning fossil fuels and political concerns about an overdepen-
dence on petroleum are spurring a boom in wind turbine construction. But it
is advances in technology itself, created by continued strong research efforts,
that could provide the most critical impetus for increased use of wind power.
At Rocky Flats, four rows of research turbines — a total of a dozen
machines ranging from 400-watt battery chargers to grid-ready 600-kilowatt
machines — share a boulder-strewn 115-hectare plain. With the Rocky Moun-
tains as a backdrop, their blades whip against the breezes blowing in from
El Dorado Canyon to the west. At least, they do much of the time. "We have
a lot of calm days, in the summer in particular, and for a testing site it's good
to have a mix," Thresher says.
Calm days may be good for wind turbine research, but they're still among
the biggest concerns haunting wind turbine commercialization. While no
technology can make the wind blow, lower-cost, reliable technologies appear
ready to take on its fickleness. And that could mean a wind turbine will soon
sprout atop a breezy hill near you.

Major Players in Wind Power R&D

Organization R&D Focus
Bergey WindPower Small (one-kilowatt to 50-kilowatt)
(Norman, OK) turbines for distributed-power applications
General Electric Wind Energy Improving existing large, heavy design
(Atlanta, GA)
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Large turbines for offshore use
(Tokyo, Japan)
National Wind Technology Center Cost-effective turbines for moderate-wind
(Rocky Flats, CO) sites
Pfleiderer Wind Energy Simplifying gearbox with permanent-
(Neumarkt, Germany) magnet generators
Riso National Laboratory Improving existing large, heavy design;
(Ringkobing, Denmark) testing of small-scale, lightweight designs
Vestas Wind Systems Improving existing large, heavy design
(Roskilde.Denmark)
Wind Turbine Large, lightweight flexible turbines
(Bellevue, WA)
Source: Peter Fairley, "Wind Power for Pennies," Technology Review, July/August 2000, copyright ©
2002 Technology Review.
56 Tech Talk

What's the Point?

I. Show your understanding of the reading. Based on the reading, choose the best answe
to complete these sentences.

1. The new wind turbine being tested at Rocky Plats looks like

a. a normal wind turbine

b. a football field
c. a jet airplane turbine

2. Since 1980, wind turbines have become four times .

a. more efficient
b. less expensive
c. smaller

3. The most important innovation of the new wind turbine is

a. flexible, hinged blades that face away from the wind

b. 2 blades instead of the traditional 3
c. greater height than that of existing turbines

4. According to the article, the new turbines would cost less because
of .
a. cheaper materials
b. lower weight
c. lower manufacturing cost

5. Early light-weight wind turbines .

a. were successful in Denmark
b. were used offshore
c. all failed

6. The new wind turbine prototype was designed by .

a. the Unites States Department of Energy
b. the National Wind Technology Center, a government
agency
c. Wind Turbine, a company in Bellevue, Washington
 Unit 4. Wind Power 57

7. Early American designs failed because they were .

a. too simple
b. too high-tech
c. too expensive

8. Danish designs were successful because the wind turbines were

a. supported by strong, heavy structures

b. designed using advanced aerodynamics
c. constructed from new materials

9. Two important technological advances that made modern turbine

designs possible are .
a. power electronics devices and computer modeling
b. computer modeling and weather forecasting
c. weather forecasting and manufacturing

10. Since the early 1980s, the power production of a single wind
turbine has .
a. not increased significantly
b. increased four times
c. increased 40 times

11. The new wind turbine could be installed on a higher tower than
before, and could thus reach faster winds, because the tower would

a. be thicker and, therefore, stronger

b. be made of new stronger materials
c. support a lighter turbine

12. For wind power to become more widely accepted and used, it will
be necessary .
a. to store wind energy
b. to replace hydroelectric power plants
c. to build all wind turbines off shore
58 Tech Talk

II. Complete the sentences below based on the article you just read. To complete a sen-
tence, sometimes you may need a single word and sometimes a phrase. You may use your
own words or words from the text.

1. According to the chart in the article, the number of countries that

are "major players" in wind power is .

2. An important drawback (negative side) of wind power is

3. When this article was written, the largest wind power plant was in

4. Wind turbines must be very large in order to

5. In the United States, the most abundant and least expensive form
of energy for producing electricity is .

6. In Europe, fossil fuels are very costly because of

7. A commercial wind-turbine machine built by Wind Turbine Com-

pany will have a combined blade length of .

8. A power-plant wind turbine can produce as much power as

kilowatts.

Understanding Words and Phrases

I. Choose one of the words to fill in the blank in each sentence. You may have to change
the form of the word to fit the sentence.

breakthrough intermittent synchronization

conventional in sync; out of sync unequivocally
crucial prone universal
departure to shift to weather
to envision
 Unit 4: Wind Power 59

1. People's tastes for different kinds of food vary from culture to cul-
ture, but their pleasure in eating is .

2. Tom woke up many times during the night and felt tired the next
day because of his sleep.

3. Ten years ago, a great fire destroyed most of the family's farm, but
they this catastrophe and are still running the
farm today.

4. When Diane heard her name mentioned by her colleagues, she

her attention from her work to their
conversation.

5. Gandhi's peaceful protest against the government of Great Britain

was a from the more _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
violent rebellions against ruling regimes.

6. Katie was poor and had a difficult life, but she worked very hard
and a brighter future for her two children.

7. After the dog lost one of its legs in an accident, it was

to falling down if it ran too fast.

8. Helen's office clock, wristwatch, and computer clock are all

, so she is never sure of the correct time.

9. For a while, the factory workers weren't sure whether or not they
would lose their jobs. But, in a recent announcement, the company
president stated that the factory would shut
down in six months and all employees would be
laid off.

10. For a psychologist, the ability to listen is .

11. The discovery of antibiotics was a major in

treating infections.

12. For our home movie, we recorded the action on a videotape and
the sound on an audiotape. When we showed the movie, we had to
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ the two tapes to match the action with the sound.
60 Tech Talk

II. The article uses several idiomatic expressions. They are defined in the text margins.
Each of these phrases is used as a single unit that has a particular meaning. Review the use
of these expressions in the article. Then, select the phrase that fits best in each of the follow-
ing sentences.

on the horizon a proving ground a black cloud

wear and tear the scrap heap give (someone) a run for
(one's) money

1. My little 40-year-old refrigerator is not ready for

yet; it still runs very well and
keeps the food cold.

2. Many older people suffer from arthritis due to normal

on their joints.

3. The Olympic training camp is for

the country's best athletes. The few who succeed there will go on to
compete in the Olympic Games.

4. The basketball coach said, "The other team is very strong, but we
can beat them. At least, we'll !"

5. When Laura finally began to recover from her long and dangerous
illness, was lifted from her family,
and they celebrated the good news.

6. Yes, their wedding is ; they'll

probably be married before the end of the year.
 Unit 4: Wind Power 61

Adverb Phrases

The article you just read contains these sentences:

1. Taking lightweight experimentation to the extreme,

General Electric and Boeing built much larger
prototypes.

2. Perhaps reflecting national inclinations, these sturdy

Danish designs had little of the aerodynamic flash
of the earlier U.S. wind turbines.

The part of the sentence that is in italics is called an adverble phrase,

or participial phrase. An adverb phrase modifies the subject of the
sentence. Notice that the verb in the adverb phrase is in the form -ing,
which is also called the present participle; this gives the name
participial phrase. The adverb phrase comes from reducing, or chang-
ing, an adverb clause (see Grammar Check: Adverb Clauses in Unit 2).
To illustrate this, let's analyze the first example above.

Sentence with adverb clause:

Because they took lightweight experimentation to the

extreme, General Electric and Boeing built much
larger prototypes.

Sentence with modifying adverb phrase:

Taking lightweight experimentation to the extreme,

General Electric and Boeing built much larger
prototypes.

Notice that the subject of the adverb clause (they) and the subject of
the main clause (General Electric and Boeing) refer to the same thing.
The modifying adverb phrase modifies the subject General Electric
and Boeing. In the adverb phrase, the subject is omitted, and the verb
takes the -ing form; the conjunction because is not used.
Can you rewrite the second example from the article so that it con-
tains an adverb clause?
62 Tech Talk

Rules of reduction:

1. Omit the subject of the adverb clause.

2. Change the verb in the adverb clause to the -ing form. If the verb
is in the progressive tense, be + -ing, then omit the be form and
just use the -rug verb. For example:
While she was listening to music, she cleaned the
apartment.
-> While listening to music, she cleaned the apartment.

3. Time phrases: Modifying adverb phrases can be formed by reduc-

ing adverb clauses that begin with the conjunctions after, before,
since, when, and while. The adverb phrase may come before or
after the main clause. When the adverb phrase is at the end of the
sentence, there is no comma. For example:
Since I met you, I have learned a lot about Canada.
-> Since meeting you, I have learned a lot about Canada.
-> I have learned a lot about Canada since meeting you.

Sometimes, the conjunction while can be omitted, but then the

adverb -ing phrase must come at the beginning of the sentence.
For example:
While he waited for the bus, Tom watched the old man.

-> While waiting for the bus, Tom watched the old man.
-> Waiting for the bus, Tom watched the old man.

Incorrect (different meaning!): Tom watched the old

man waiting for the bus.

Tom watched the old man while waiting for the bus.
 Unit 4: Wind Power 63

4. Cause-and-effect phrases: An adverb phrase at the beginning of a

sentence often has the meaning "because," even though the con-
junction because is always omitted. For example:
a. Because she was sick with the flu, Renee couldn't
go to work.
-> Being sick with the flu, Renee couldn't go to
work.

-> Sick with the flu, Renee couldn't go to work.

b. Because she had eaten a big lunch, Kathy wasn't

hungry for dinner.

-> Having eaten a big lunch, Kathy wasn't hungry

for dinner.

In cause-and-effect sentences, the adverb phrase must come

before the main clause. Notice in example a that a form of be may
be changed to being or it may be omitted. In example b, the use of
the perfect tense, having + PAST PARTICIPLE, means "because
+ before (an earlier action)."

5. Important: An adverb clause can be reduced to an adverb phrase

only when the subject of an adverb clause is the same as the sub-
ject of the main clause. If the subjects are different, a reduction is
not possible. For example:
a. Because Jerry wanted to treat us, we let him buy ice
cream.

Incorrect: Wanting to treat us, we let him buy

ice cream.

b. While the music was playing, Anna prepared lunch.

Incorrect: Playing, Anna prepared lunch.

In these examples, the incorrect phrases Wanting to treat us and

Playing are called dangling participles — they are "hanging alone"
because there is no correct subject to modify.
64 Tech Talk

Exercise 1
In each sentence, change the adverb clause to an adverb phrase. What is
the subject of the adverb clause? What is the subject of the main clause?
Which sentences must begin with the adverb phrase? Which sentences
cannot be changed?

1. While Jeremy was taking a shower, he sang his favorite songs.

2. Because previous methods were unsuccessful, the mathematician

tried something new.

3. Always look both ways when you cross the street.

4. The lawyers prepared their case very carefully before they

defended their client in court.

5. After he had finished his second piece of apple pie, Clarence took
a third piece.

6. Because I've never been to Hawaii before, I really look forward to

going there this winter.

7. Peter has been taking care of his mother at home since she
became ill.

8. Sally is frequently invited to parties because she can perform

magic tricks.
 Unit 4: Wind Power 65

Exercise 2
Think about the meanings of the following sentences. Which ones
express the idea of time, or cause and effect, or perhaps both? Some sen-
tences contain dangling participles; circle the dangling participles, and
change the incorrect sentences in some possible way to make them correct.

1. When giving advice, Doreen tries to be polite and tactful.

2. Having been married and divorced five times, Mrs. Post is an

expert on weddings but perhaps not on marriage!

3. Being able to explain concepts very clearly, all the students want
to be in Professor Moore's science class.

4. Walking on an icy sidewalk, Linda fell and broke her wrist.

5. After arriving home with the suitcases, Charlie realized that they
weren't his!

6. While raining outside, the birds hid under the bridge.

7. Wanting to stay dry in the rain, the birds hid under the bridge.

8. Chewing a piece of bread, Martha bit on a small stone and broke

her tooth.

9. Since visiting Barbara a year ago, she [Barbara] hasn't called or

written to Ben.

10. Unaccustomed to taking orders from others, Rick quit his job at
the big company as soon as he could start his own business.

11. Working on a long and challenging homework assignment,

Norman ate an entire box of cookies.

12. Traveling through rural New England, we saw many small,

family-run dairy farms.
66 Tech Talk

Exercise 3
In each item, combine the given sentences into a single sentence by
using one of the sentences to form an adverb phrase. What relationship is
there between the adverb phrase and the main clause — time, while,
because (cause and effect)? Which items cannot he combined in this way
without changing the sentences?

1. Jim was taking a stroll in the city. He ran into two old acquaintances.

2. The book should be discarded from the library. It has several torn
and missing pages.

3. The man was crossing the street with two small children. He held
onto them very tightly.

4. Maggie was talking to herself on the bus. Other passengers were

staring at her.

5. Albert Einstein won a Nobel Prize. He had made significant dis-

coveries in physics.

6. Cats make good house pets. They are small, clean, and
unaggressive.

7. Jacob (had) retired from his job. Then, he became even busier
with his hobbies and volunteer work.

8. He is a highly respected member of the community. Many people

seek his advice.
 Unit 4: Wind Power 67

Let's Talk about It

1. Why is wind power a niche technology? What is the niche — who
uses wind power?

2. What are the innovations of this design? How are these features an
improvement over existing designs?

3. Why is wind power not widespread in the United States? Do you

think the new wind turbine will help?

4. What source or sources of energy are the best for a given country?
Explain and defend your answer.

5. The article suggests that the increased use of wind power will
depend on economic factors, political concerns, environmental con-
cerns, and technological advances. Which of these do you think
plays the most important role? Why?

What Do You Think?

What source of power is the best for your region or community? Imagine that you
are part of a team that must recommend a particular power plant, or plants, for your
local area. What will you recommend? How will you decide what option is best? Write a
letter to your local government office describing your proposal and explaining your rea-
sons for it.
High-Tech Lizards
Search Your Knowledge

1. What is a lizard? What is a gecko?

2. Have you ever seen a lizard or gecko walk on walls or ceilings?

3. How do you think they are able to do this without falling?

4. What is a molecule? What is an electron?

68
 Unit 5: High-Tech Lizards 69

5. Are you familiar with any forces between molecules or electrons that
allow materials to stick together?

The two magazine articles that follow talk about the science behind geckos' ability to
walk vertically and upside down. The first article explains how geckos' feet are able to
stick to various surfaces. The second article describes a new technological invention
based on this science. These articles appeared in two different issues of the weekly mag-
azine Science News. Can you understand the underlined words in the texts? These words
may be new to you; therefore, they are underlined so that you can find them easily later
on, if you wish to refer to them again. See if you can figure out what they mean from
context or from the other words and meanings around the underlined word. The words
are also included in the vocabulary exercises under Key Words and Understanding
Words and Phrases.
The boldfaced words in the text are glossed in the margin. These non-high frequency
vocabulary words or phrases are helpful to understanding the reading.
First, read Part I and complete the exercises for that part. Then, read Part 2 and com-
plete the exercises for that part. Finally, complete the discussion and writing exercises
that follow; they pertain to Parts 1 and 2 together.

KEY WORDS

This word is important for understanding the text that you are about to read. It is
underlined in the text for easy reference. Study its meanings and answer the related
questions.

adhesive: 1. (adjective) sticky. 2. (noun) a material that makes things

stick.

Can you give some examples of adhesive materials?

What are the meanings of the verb adhere and the noun adhesion?
70 Tech Talk

PART 1

Getting a Grip
How Gecko Toes Stick
from Science News

Geckos are the envy of rock climbers. Without glue, suction, or claws,
these lizards scamper up walls and hang from ceilings.
Scientists finally have pinned down the molecular basis of this seeming
magic. Gecko feet are covered by billions of tiny hair tips, or spatulae, that hug
surfaces. Temporary shifting of the electrons in the molecules of the spatulae
and of opposing rocks, walls, or ceilings creates adhesive van der Waals forces,
according to a study in the Aug. 27 Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences. The collective action of these subtle intermolecular interactions
contributes to countless properties, including a liquid's boiling point
and a polymer's strength. polymer: a natural or
Previous research had shown that gecko adhesion relies on synthetic (man-made)
material, having long
intermolecular forces, but scientists weren't sure whether van der
chains of molecules.
Waals bonding or water adsorption was at work. In water adsorp- Plastics and rubber
tion, a thin layer of the liquid acts like glue, but only on surfaces are polymers.
that readily bond water. The new study, however, shows that
geckos cling equally well to water-attracting and water-repelling surfaces.
Using mathematical models, the authors report that the width of each spat-
ula is just what would be expected if van der Waals forces were operating.
The small size and high density of the spatulae, rather than their chemical
composition, enable geckos to stick to the world so well, report
mockup: a model of
Kellar Autumn of Lewis and Clark College in Portland, Ore., and his
a structure, usually
colleagues. full-sized, used for
Gecko spatulae are made of keratin, the protein in human hair. study, demonstration,
However, when the scientists made spatulae mockups out of or testing

either silicon rubber or polyester, each material adhered to silicon rubber: a water-
resistant synthetic
many surfaces as well as the real spatulae did. material that contains
"Just by splitting a surface into multiple small tips, we can get the element silicon
dry adhesion," Autumn says. Such structures might serve as a new polyester: light and
type of adhesive that doesn't require messy, smelly liquids. strong synthetic polymer.
The work shows that strong adhesion can arise from what are Some clothes are made
of polyester.
thought to be relatively weak forces, comments Matthew Tirrell of
 Unit 5: High-Tech Lizards 71

the University of California, Santa Barbara. The highly divided gecko foot is
also minutely adaptable to bumpy surfaces and is easy to reposition, he says.
A good adhesive has to both stick and release easily, adds Anthony
Russell of the University of Calgary in Alberta. "Getting something to
stick is not that hard," he notes. "Getting it off and being able
to use it again, that is one of the neat things that geckos have neat (slang): wonderful,
terrific
been able to do."

What's the Point?

Check your understanding of the text. Based on the reading, are the following statements
true (T) or false (F)?

1. Geckos are able to walk on ceilings due to special intermolec¬

ular forces.

2. Van der Waals adhesion requires a thin layer of water.

3. A gecko's feet can stick to any surface because of their special

chemical composition.
4. Artificial spatulae adhere to surfaces as well as natural gecko
spatulae.

5. The size of the spatulae on a gecko's foot is not important for

adhesion.

6. The number of spatulae on a gecko's foot is very important

for adhesion.

7. Van der Waals forces are among the strongest forces in

nature.

8. The most amazing thing about the adhesive property of

gecko feet is that they can stick to bumpy surfaces.
72 Tech Talk

Understanding Words and Phrases

J. Each item in the left column represents a category, and each item in the right column
give examples of things that belong in one of the categories. Match each item on the left
with the correct examples on the right. Words that are underlined here are also underlined
in the text for your reference.

1. things that are countless a. glue; cement

_____ 2. things that bond b. legs; wheelchair; airplane

3. things that repel other things c. stars in the sky; grains

of sand on the beach

4. things that enable us to move d. insect spray; magnets

with like poles

Can you add other examples to each category in the left column?

II. Words that have the same or similar meanings are synonyms. For each word or phrase
in the left column, pick the correct synonym in the right column. The words on the left are
underlined in the text for easy reference. If a word has more than one meaning, use the
meaning that is used in the article.

1. envy a. easily

2. scamper b. establish exactly

3. pin down c. jealous desire

4. subtle d. divide

5. contribute e. fit

6. readily f. run lightly

7. cling g. share in the cause

8. split h. delicate

9. adapt i. characteristic or quality

10. property j. hold on tightly

 Unit 5: High-Tech Lizards 73

III. Answer the following questions or do the requested tasks. The underlined words are
also underlined in the article for easy reference. Respond in full sentences.

1. What is something that you envy?

2. Give an example of something or someone that scampers.

3. Name something that is difficult to pin down,

4. What is a subtle way to get someone's attention?

5. What contributes to air pollution?

6. Name something that is readily available to you.

7. Give an example of someone or something that clings to another

person or thing.

8. Describe some things that can be split.

9. What circumstances have you found difficult to adapt to? What has
been easy to adapt to?

10. What are some properties of gold?

74 Tech Talk

Present Perfect and Past Perfect Tenses

The second paragraph of the text begins with the sentence "Scientists
finally have pinned down the molecular basis of this seeming magic." The
words in bold type are the present perfect tense of the verb pin down. The
form of the present perfect is: have/has + PAST PARTICIPLE. What is
the difference between this present perfect form and the simple past
form pinned down?
The simple past tense means that an event happened at a specified
time in the past and is finished; it was completed in the past. The per-
fect tense means that one event happens prior to another event or time;
the prior event may not be completed and its time is not specified. The
perfect tense often implies duration or repetition of an event prior to a
subsequent event.
The present perfect tense means that an event happened at some
unspecified time prior to the present. It also gives the idea that this
event is still relevant now. So, as stated in the article, scientists have
pinned down the explanation for geckos' magical ability — at some
unspecified time before now — and this explanation is still true today.
The third paragraph of the article begins with the sentence, "Previous
research had shown that gecko adhesion relies on intermolecular forces
. . ." The words in bold type are the past perfect tense of the verb pin
down. Notice the form of the past perfect: had + PAST PARTICIPLE.
The past perfect tense means that an event happened in the past prior
to another event or time in the past. So, the article says that previous
research had shown something at some unspecified time prior to the
new research and was still relevant when the new research was done;
both research events (previous and new) took place in the past.
 Unit 5: High-Tech Lizards 75

Compare the following examples:

Simple past
Last year, the chef created a new cake recipe, which she
included in her latest cookbook.

Present perfect
She has created a new soup recipe, which is very popu-
lar at her restaurant today.
Past perfect
She had created many other recipes before she created
the new cake recipe.

I. Complete the following sentences by choosing the correct tense of the

verb in parentheses: simple past, present perfect, or past perfect.

1. Last fall, the children (go) _ to an art

museum. They {be} to a science
museum before, but (be, never)
to an art museum.

2. My parents (visit) art and history

museums many times.

3. We finally (go) _____________________________ hiking yesterday.

We (hike, not) in several months.

4. My teacher (move) _____________________ to Vermont in

1970 and (live) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ there ever since.

5. By the time Mark and Sofia got married, they (know)

__________________________ each other six years.

6. No, thank you, I'm not thirsty. I (have, already)

two glasses of juice.

7. So far, he (complete) ____________________ three research

projects but (write, not) ______________________ the
reports yet.

8. When we entered the laboratory, the experiment (start, just)

76 Tech Talk

9. Last night, my brother (eat)

an entire banana split. He (be able)
to finish it because he (have) nothing
else to eat that day.

10. Europeans (taste, not) chocolate

until they were introduced to it by Native Americans.

11. Scientists still (figure out, not) __________________________ all

the secrets of our solar system.

12. She (feel) _________________________ embarrassed when

she arrived late for the conference. She (realize, not)
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ that people were waiting for her.

II. According to the answers in Part I, what tenses are usually used with
the following expressions: ever, never, already, just, still, yet, many times,
so far, by the time? For each of these expressions, write your own sentence
using that expression.

1 . ever: ____________________________________

2. never:

3. already: __________________________________

4. just:

5. still: ______________________________________

6. yet:

7. many times:

8. so far:

9. by the time:
 Unit 5: High-Tech Lizards 77

PART 2

Caught on Tape
Gecko-inspired adhesive is superstrong
from Science News

As it scurries along the ceiling, a gecko has the sticking power to support
not just its own body weight, but about 400 times as much. Besides that
sticking power, the natural adhesive on this animal's feet is clean and
reusable, and it works on all surfaces, wet or dry.
Scientists at the University of Manchester in England and the Institute for
Microelectronics Technology in Russia have emulated the animal's adhesive
mechanism by creating "gecko tape." It comes closer to the lizard's sticking
power than any other gecko-styled adhesive so far.
The 1-square-centimeter prototype patch can bear about 3 kilograms,
almost one-third the weight that the same area of gecko sole can support.
In the July Nature Materials, Andre Geim of the University of Manchester
and his colleagues claim that the tape is scalable to human dimensions:
Wearing a "gecko glove," a person could dangle from the ceiling.
tissues (biology):
In theory, the tape could hold tissues together after surgery or collections of cells
support stunt doubles climbing around movie sets.
The gecko tape is modeled on the gecko sole, an intricate fingernail-size
surface covered with a half-million microscopic, hair-like structures known as
setae. Each seta's tip branches into even finer hairs that nestle so
finer: thinner
closely with every surface the gecko touches that intermolecular (adjective: fine)
attractions called van der Waals bonds and capillary forces kick in.
kick in (informal): begin
These bond the gecko's foot to the surface. to take effect
Geim and his team made their synthetic gecko adhesive by tidy: orderly and neat
fabricating a tidy array of microscale hairs out of polyimide, a
flexible and wear-resistant plastic. When mounted on a flexible base, the
arrangement and density of the hairs maximize the number of hairs con-
tacting a surface.
"The smaller the hairs are, and the more of them you have, the greater
the adhesion," notes Ron Fearing, an engineer at the University of California,
Berkeley.
Unlike a gecko's feet, however, the tape begins to lose its adhesive power
after about five applications. Geim blames this shortcoming on polyimide's
78 Tech Talk

hydrophilicity, that is, its tendency to attract water. With repeated

applications, some of the gecko tape's hairs get soggy, bunch soggy: very wet;
together, and then clump onto the tape's base. This happens even soaked

when the tape is attached to surfaces that are dry to the touch,
because they carry a layer of water two or three atoms thick.
By using hydrophilic material, Geim departed from the gecko's design — its
setae are made of keratin, a so-called hydrophobic protein that repels water.
Geim says hydrophobic materials, which include silicone and polyester, are
more difficult to mold into setae-like structures than is polyimide. Even so,
both he and Fearing agree, it will take water-repellant substances to produce
a long-lasting gecko tape.

Left: straight, separate hairs on gecko tape — good adhesion

Right: clumped hairs on gecko tape — poor adhesion

What's the Point?

Check your understanding of the text. Based on the reading, are the following statements
true (T) or false (F)?

1. Other gecko-like adhesives have been developed before.

2. The newly developed "gecko tape" is three times as strong as

natural gecko feet.

3. __ Gecko tape could be used like a bandage on human skin.

4. _____ The new synthetic (artificial) tape uses van der Waals forces
for adhesion.
 Unit 5: High-Tech Lizards 79

5. For repeated use, the synthetic gecko tape is more effective

than real gecko feet.

6. Gecko tape is made of the same chemical material as real

gecko feet.

7. Water creates problems for the synthetic adhesive tape.

8. Gecko tape can be made from different materials with equal

ease.

Understanding Words and Phrases

I. The text you just read uses the following words: hydrophilicity, hydrophilic,
hydrophobic. The text of the article explains the meanings of these words. Based on the
explanations in the text, answer the following questions.

1. What is a hydrophilic material? What is a hydrophobic material?

2. Can you give some examples of each type of material?

3. These words contain the Greek roots hydro, phil, phob. What is the
meaning of each root?

4. Based on your knowledge of these roots, what kind of person is an

Anglophile?

5. The word phobia is used to describe an abnormal psychological fear.

What is hydrophobia?

Are you familiar with the words claustrophobia, agoraphobia, acro-

phobia, xenophobia? If not, look up these words in the dictionary.

Do you know anyone who has one of these phobias?

80 Tech Talk

II. Words that have similar meanings are called synonyms. Match each word or phrase
in the left column with the correct synonym on the right. The words on the left are under-
lined in the article for easy reference. If a word has more than one meaning, use the mean¬
ing that is used in the article.

1. scurry a. imitate

_____ 2. emulate b. shape

_____ 3. dangle c. stick together

_____ 4. branch d. co-worker

5. colleague e. divide

_____ 6. nestle f. amount of something in a space

7. bear g. rush

8. density h. hang

9. clump i. tolerate, support

10. mold j. snuggle

III. Words that have the opposite meanings are called antonyms. Match each word or
phrase in the left column with the correct antonym on the right. The words on the left are
underlined in the article for easy reference.

1. claim a. simple

2. intricate b. advantage

3. application c. deny

4. mount d. detach

5. shortcoming e. removal
 Unit 5: High-Tech Lizards 81

IV. Answer these questions or do the requested tasks. The underlined words are also
underlined in the article for easy reference. Respond in full sentences.

1. New Yorkers often scurry along the streets. Give another example of
someone or something that scurries.
____________________________________________________________

2. Whom would you like to emulate?

_______________________________________________________________

3. What did Christopher Columbus claim about the shape of our

planet?
____________________________________________________________

4. List some major branches of science. Does each item on your list
branch into further divisions? Give some examples.
____________________________________________________________

5. Name or describe something that you just can't bear.

______________________________________________________________

6. A computer circuit board has intricate electrical connections. What

other things have an intricate design or mechanism?
____________________________________________________________

7. A joey (a baby kangaroo) can nestle comfortably in its mother's

pouch. Give some examples of things that can nestle in or next to
other things.
____________________________________________________________

8. What usually has a higher population density — a city or a suburb?

_______________________________________________________________

9. A camera can be mounted on a tripod for stability. Describe some-

thing else that can be mounted?
_____________________________________________________________
82 Tech Talk

10. What are some shortcomings of living in a large city? What are some
advantages?
_______________________________________________________

11. When you cut or scrape your skin, what can you apply to the wound
to help it feel better or heal faster?
____________________________________________________

12. When it's humid, sugar can clump. What else can clump?
_______________________________________________________

13. Children like to mold clay into various shapes. What other things,
tangible or intangible, can be molded into desired forms?
___________________________________________________

14. Sometimes, a small bell dangles from a collar around a cat's neck.
Give an example of something else that dangles.
___________________________________________________

The Double Comparative Form

The article contains the sentence, "The smaller the hairs are, and the
more of them you have, the greater the adhesion." What does this sen-
tence mean?
The words in bold type are the double comparative form. This form
consists of two parts: Both parts are comparative forms of an adjective
or adverb, and both parts begin with the definite article the. The first
part presents a condition, and the second part tells the result of that
condition. So, the sentence in the article means the following: If the
hairs become smaller and smaller, then the adhesion becomes greater
and greater; and, if there are more and more hairs, then the adhesion
becomes greater and greater.
 Unit 5: High-Tech Lizards 83

Here are some well-known expressions:

"Yes, bring your friend to the New Year party. The
more, the merrier!"
"Get medical attention as soon as you can. The sooner,
the better."
"The more things change, the more they stay the
same." (Marcel Proust)

Note: if the result is in the future, the correct tense of the condition
is simple present, the same as with if expressions. For example: The
faster you walk, the sooner you will get there. If you walk faster, you will
get there sooner.

Complete the following sentences with your own words.

1. The more I read in English, .

2. The closer a planet is to the sun, .

3. The heavier something is, .

4. The more energy we use, .

5. The larger the world's population gets, .

6. The more we learn in science, .

7. , the sooner I will get it done.

8. , the better we will get along.

9. , the higher the chance for success.

10. , fhe more complex it becomes.

11. , the faster it can go.

12. , the more well-behaved they are.

84 Tech Talk

Let's Talk about It

1. Why do you think it took scientists so long to pin down the secret of
geckos' ability to stick to surfaces? What modern tools have helped
scientists figure out this puzzle?

2. What are the unique characteristics of geckos' sticking power?

3. What are some of the difficulties of manufacturing an artificial

gecko-type adhesive?

4. Why are geckos the envy of rock climbers?

5. Who else might envy geckos' special ability? Why? What could it be
used for?

What Do You Think?

Can you think of some people who would benefit from a gecko-type adhesive? Imag-
ine that you are a scientist or engineer working on developing such an adhesive. You
need money to fund your research. Write a proposal to an organization, company, or
government agency that might be interested in funding your work. Persuade this organ-
ization to fund your work. Convince them that your work is important, that it is achiev-
able, and that it will greatly benefit this organization.
 Unit 5: High-Tech Lizards 85

Expansion Activities

1. What does a gecko look like? Is there more than one species of
gecko? What do their feet look like? To get answers to these
questions, visit the Internet and try to find pictures of geckos
and their feet. Most school, university, and public libraries have
free Internet access. Or, see if you can find pictures of geckos in
an encyclopedia.
2. Would you like to learn more about gecko-inspired adhesive?
Look for information about it on the Internet. See if you can
find answers to the following questions:

What is the current status of this research?

What are some possible applications of this adhesive?

Report your findings to the whole class in the form of a brief

oral presentation. You can do this either alone or with a partner.
Time and the Brain
Search Your Knowledge
1. Have you ever had the feeling that time goes by more and more
quickly every year? Do you know other people who feel the same
way?

2. Why do you think this happens? Are we just imagining this feeling
or is it real?

3. Can you estimate how much time goes by without looking at a

clock? How well can you do that?

86
 Unit 6: Time and the Brain 87

The text that follows reports on scientific research into how our brain measures time
and how our sense of time may change as we age. The article was published in the New
York Times. Can you understand the underlined words in the text? These words may be
new to you; therefore, they are underlined so that you can find them easily later on, if
you wish to refer to them again. See if you can figure out what they mean from context
or from the other words and meanings around the underlined word. The words are also
included in the vocabulary exercises under Key Words and Understanding Words and
Phrases.
The boldfaced words in the text are glossed in the margin. These non-high frequency
vocabulary words or phrases are helpful to understanding the reading.
This article is quite challenging. It is difficult even for native English speakers because
it describes new scientific concepts and uses technical terms (for instance, midbrain,
basal ganglia, higher cortex, higher cortical area, and frontal lobes are different parts of
the brain). But you can still enjoy the overall message of this story. Don't worry about
the technical details; just try to understand the main ideas. The title and the illustration,
a chart, will help you become familiar with the context. Skim the article first before
reading it. (For tips about skimming, see How to Read on page xiii.)

KEY WORDS

Try to figure out the meanings of the underlined words from the following examples.

1. a. The interval between Christmas and New Year's Day is one week.
b. The apple trees in the orchard are planted at equal intervals.
What is an interval?

2. a. People from different cultures perceive the world around them

in different ways. They have different perceptions about what is
right or wrong, beautiful or ugly, important or not important.
b. Dogs can perceive some sounds that people can't hear.
Can you think of other words with the same meanings as percep-
tion or perceive?
 88 Tech Talk

Running Late? Researchers Blame Aging Brain

Sandra Blakeslee
from the New York Times

Can March be almost over? to minutes. A Duke University neuro-

Didn't they play the Super Bowl scientist, Dr. Warren Meek, and a
just last week? It sometimes seems graduate student, Matthew Matell,
that with each passing year, have now proposed a model of this
zip by (idiom); go by
the days and weeks zip by clock based on studies of human
very fast
more quickly. brain anatomy.
If you have ever had this feeling, According to their theory, a cluster
you are not imagining it. Studies of of neurons in the midbrain collects
human time perception show that time signals from all over the brain
age-related changes in the nervous and coordinates those that occur at
system alter one's sense of time; it the same time and involve singular
really does seem to move more events or perceptions. The neurons
quickly with age. At a meeting of the also establish the start and finish of
Society for Neuroscience in New various time intervals that the brain is
Orleans in November, a psychologist, interested in measuring, such as how
Dr. Peter A. Mangan, reported on a long it should take before a red traffic
study in which he asked people in dif- light turns green. Moreover, a brain
ferent age groups to estimate when chemical called dopamine regulates
three minutes had passed by silently this clock. Add dopamine and the
counting one-one-thousand, two- clock runs faster; take it away, and
one-thousand, three-one-thousand the clock slows down.
and so on. People in their early 20s Defects in this clock could help
were accurate within three seconds, explain human ailments like dyslexia,
and some got it exactly right. People hyperactivity, Parkinson's disease and
in their 60s estimated that three min- schizophrenia. It could explain why, in
utes w e r e up after 3 minutes an automobile accident, three sec-
were up (idiom): were and 40 seconds had passed. onds can feel like three minutes, why
over; ended
Middle-aged subjects fell in old people in nursing homes are
between but, tike the older people, all often confused about time, and even
underestimated the passage of time. how some drugs like cocaine and
This phenomenon has led some amphetamine give the sense of
researchers to suspect that the brain "speed" while others, including mar-
contains a special clock that tracks ijuana, subjectively slow down the
time intervals in the range of seconds passage of time.
 Unit 6: Time and the Brain 89

HOW TIME FLIES

Researchers set out to test the popular hypothesis that time seems to go faster
as people age and when they are busy. They asked three groups of people, divided
by age, to estimate when three minutes were up. In one part, the subjects counted
the seconds; in the other, they stayed busy performing a task similar to sorting mail.
Here are the average times that actually elapsed.

Counting the time

Age 19-24 -3 minutes, 3 seconds

45-50 3 minutes, 16 seconds

60-70 3 minutes, 40 seconds
While performing a task

Age 19-24 3 minutes, 46 seconds

45-50 4 minutes, 3 seconds

60-70 4 minutes, 46 seconds
1 2 3 4 5
minutes
Source: Dr. Pefer A. Mangan

An American psychologist, Dr. Other researchers later found that

Hudson Hoagland, first suspected the lowering a person's body temperature
existence of an interval clock in the by two or three degrees could speed
1930s, when his wife ran a high up the subjective sense of time.
fever. Mrs. Hoagland complained that The idea that there is a clock
her husband had been out of the measuring interval; in the range of
room for a very long time when he seconds to minutes (in addition to the
had actually been gone for only a few circuits that measure tenths of hun-
moments. Curious, Dr. Hoagland dredths of seconds and the circadian
asked his wife to estimate when a clock) makes a lot of sense. The abil-
minute has passed. After 37 seconds, ity to estimate short durations of time
she said that the time was up. And as is critical for learning and survival,
her temperature rose, she counted said Dr. John Gibbon of the New York
faster. State Psychiatric Institute and Colum-
In further experiments, Dr. Hoagland bia University.
found that he could retard an individ- People unconsciously monitor the
ual's sense of time by 20 percent by timing of external events and respond
applying heat to the person's brain. to them. For example. Dr. Meek said,
 90 Tech Talk

"suppose you are sitting at a red light, second. It is as if they are operating
waiting for it to turn green," adding: independently on different time
"At a certain point, based on past scales yet the basketball player's
experience, you will begin to put your brain must integrate them so that
foot on the gas in anticipation that he or she can decide what to do
the light is about to turn. Uncon- with the ball.
sciously, you are counting the sec- For this task of coordination. Dr.
onds, without looking at your watch. Meek and his assistant have nomi-
But if the light fails to turn green in nated a structure in the midbrain
the expected amount of time, you called the striatum, which is loaded
start fretting, wondering if it with spiny neurons, so called
fretting: being uneasy
is working properly. If enough because their projections are thick
or upset; worrying
time passes, you may decide with spines. Such neurons are well
to run the red light." connected in that each one — and
People use interval clocks when there are thousands of them — is
engaged in music or sports. Basket- linked to tens of thousands of other
ball players, Dr. Meck points out, cells via dendrites coming from other
keep track of time in their brains, parts of the brain. The dendrites are
knowing that they will be penalized the slender spines that help brain
under certain circumstances if they cells communicate. They detect oscil-
hold the ball for longer than several lations for cell firing rates that occur
seconds without dribbling or pass- all over the brain, Dr. Meck said,
ing. Musicians simultaneously meas- "and the question has been what
ure not just the beat but the phrase, the heck do they do with them?"
the crescendos and innuendoes. "We think spiny neurons integrate
When jazz players shade the time in these signals," Dr. Meck said, and,
violation of strict beats, it makes the based on previous experience of
music interesting, Dr. Gibbon said. what is important, select those that
In the case of the basketball are beating at the same frequency
player, different parts of the brain and synchronize them. This collective
are working on different tasks. Cells timing signal is sent to higher cortical
in the visual system are controlling areas where, in a grand
movements. Cells in the auditory loop from the brain's basal loop: a closed circular
system are listening for information ganglia to its frontal lobes, path
from teammates on what to do perceptions and actions are
next. Each of these specialized ceil coordinated and acted upon. When a
circuits carrying out different jobs person is performing several tasks at
tends to oscillate or fire at different once and needs to measure time,
rates. Some might be firing 5 times spiny neurons parcel out the tasks,
a second, others up to 40 times a Dr. Meck said.
 Unit & Time and the Brain 91

The key to how this clock works — difficulty in learning to read was just
or fails to work — is dopamine. When one manifestation of a more wide-
the brain notices something new or spread defect. Some dyslexics have a
rewarding, dopamine made in a problem with time, she said. They
nearby region called the substantia come late to appointments and have
nigra is released into the spiny neu- trouble keeping rapidly moving
rons, which become excited and begin events in proper chronological order.
to integrate time signals. In this way, A study in the Feb. 7 issue of the
the brain learns to anticipate events British medical journal The Lancet
seconds or minutes into the future. found that people with attention
Animal and human experiments deficit hyperactivity disorder tend to
support the existence of the short- have smaller than normal frontal
interval circuit, Dr. Meck said. For lobes and basal ganglia, the loop
example, rats trained to press a lever that Dr. Meck and his colleagues
at regular intervals to get food lose think is the interval time keeper.
the ability when their dopamine- People with Parkinson's disease
producing cells are removed. When lose cells that make dopamine and
the rats are given a synthetic form of their interval clocks are
dopamine, the ability is restored. In thrown off, Dr. Meck thrown off: upset or
confused, usually due to
brain imaging experiments by Dr. said. They have tremors, something unexpected
Sean Hinton at Duke, people were difficulty in starting move-
asked to estimate when 11 seconds ments, rigid muscles and problems
were up and to squeeze a ball just perceiving time accurately, all of
before and after this interval. The which can be reversed with drugs
loop from the midbrain, where the that supply dopamine to the brain.
source of dopamine and spiny neu- Researchers agree that drugs
rons reside, to the higher cortex was affect the brain's sense of time.
activated each time they estimated Cocaine and methamphetamine
11 seconds had gone by. both increase the amount of
dopamine and speed up the interval
clock or its equivalent elsewhere in
The Days Grow Short as the brain. A similar chemical cascade
We Near December may happen during an accident,
The interval clock has drawn the when dopamine and other neuro-
interest of medical researchers. Dr. transmitters flood the brain, Dr.
Guinevere Eden of Georgetown Mangan said. Time seems to stand
University Medical Center in still or move incredibly slowly. Con-
Washington said that dyslexia was versely, drugs that reduce the
basically a timing problem through- amount of dopamine in the brain,
out the brain and that for dyslexics like Haloperidol, and Clozapine, used
92 Tech Talk

to treat schizophrenia, and marijuana, Virginia in Wise, VA. As shown by

slow the interval dock, Dr. Meck said. the experiments reported by Dr.
It is in growing older that most Mangan in New Orleans, the older
people will experience the vagaries you get the more you are going to
of the interval clock. Studies show feel that time is passing by quickly.
that dopamine levels gradually begin The good news is that spring will
come sooner and sooner.
to fall when people are in their 20s
and decline through old age, said Source: Sandra Blakeslee, "Running Late?
Researchers Blame Aging Brain," Mew York
Dr. Mangan, a psychologist at Clinch Times, March 24, 1998. Copyright © 1998
Valley College of the University of New York Times.

What's the Point?

I. Check your understanding of the text. Based on the reading, are the statements true
(T) or false (F)?

1. _____ People who are 35-45 years old estimate the passage of time
accurately.

2. ________ Some drugs can affect the brain clock and change the way
people perceive time.

3. Dr. Meck and his student at Duke University were the first to
propose the idea of a biological interval clock in the brain.

4. High body temperature can make it seem like more time goes
by than the actual amount of time.

5. Without looking at a watch, we can tell if a movie lasts three

hours instead of two hours with the help of the brain's inter-
val clock.

6. Some scientists believe that a collection of nerve cells in the

spine organizes and manages many time signals from differ-
ent parts of the brain.
 Unit 6: Tims and the Brain 93

7. Being able to estimate short intervals of time is important

only to athletes.

8. Some serious diseases are caused by chemical imbalances in

the brain's interval clock.

9. Some medical disorders may be due to the interval clock's

abnormal size.

10. As we get older, our brain produces more dopamine.

II. Check your understanding of details. Complete the sentences on the left by choosing
the best phrase on the right.

1. There is a region in the a. various activities.

brain that measures

2. The idea that a short- b. an increase in the amount

interval "clock" may exist of dopamine.
in the brain is supported by

3. The brain's interval clock c. short time intervals.

is made up of

4. The interval clock is d. the chemical dopamine.

regulated by

5. People use the interval e. experiments with people

clock to perform and animals.

6. An accident may cause f. a collection of neurons.

Understanding Words and Phrases

I. Think of a few examples for each of the following items. Key words are underlined.
They are also underlined in the article for your reference.

1. Something that retards the growth of a plant: .

2. Things that come in a cluster: .

3. Things that can have defects: .

94 Tech Talk

4. Things that can be integrated together (or with other things):

5. Something you anticipate: .

6. Events that can occur in chronological order: .

7. Things that you coordinate: .

8. Ailments that older people have: .

II. These two exercises deal with figurative expressions. Answer the questions in each
exercise.

1. Here is a phrase from the article: "The days grow short as we near
December."
This phrase has two meanings, one literal and one figurative.
What is the literal meaning?
Try to figure out the figurative meaning by answering these questions:
What happens to the length of daylight as we get closer to the
month of December?
What happens to the length of our days as we age?
What are the similarities between "nearing December" and
"growing older"?

2. The title of the chart in the article is "How Time Flies."

There is a saying in English: "Time flies when you're having fun."
What do you think it means? Do you agree that time passes very
quickly when you are having a good time?
 Unit 6: Time and the Brain 95

Gerunds

Look at the following examples from the article. Why is the -ing
form used in each case (the underlined words provide a hint)?

Type 1:
lowering . . . body temperature . . . could speed up the
subjective sense of time

Type 2:
you start fretting

Type 3:
to estimate . . . by counting
interested in measuring
similar to sorting
the ability . . . is critical for learning
hold the ball... without dribbling or passing

Type 4:
they stayed busy performing a task
you are sitting at a red light waiting for it to turn green
Dr. Meck said . . . adding . . .
they . . . have trouble keeping
they have . . . difficulty (in) starting
they have ... problems perceiving

The words in bold are called gerunds. A gerund is an -ing form of a

verb that is used as a noun; for example, Reading is fun. (You are
familiar with several other -ing forms of verbs. One form is a present
participle used as a verb in the present progressive tense; for example,
He is watching a movie. Another form is a present participle used as an
adjective; for example, I heard some interesting news. Yet another form
is used in adverbial phrases; see Grammar Check: Adverbial Phrases in
Unit 4.)
96 Tech Talk

When English speakers want to use a verb-like noun, they often have
to choose between a gerund (like reading) and an infinitive (like to
read). In this unit, we'll review the use of gerunds.
Following is a summary of the common uses of a gerund, shown in
the preceding text examples.

1. Type 1, subject of a sentence. Either a gerund or an infinitive can

be the subject of a sentence, but gerunds are much more common
as subjects than infinitives. For example:
Studying a foreign language is required in this school.

Worrying about it won't help you.

2. Type 2, after certain verbs. Some verbs (such as enjoy) must be

followed by gerunds, while others (such as want) must be fol-
lowed by infinitives; still others (such as start) may be followed by
either a gerund or an infinitive. There is no rule for distinguishing
such verbs; they must be learned and memorized like vocabulary.
For example:
Janet enjoys traveling around the world.
Bill doesn't mind doing the dishes after dinner.

Sometimes, he likes being alone. Or: Sometimes, he

likes to fee alone.

3. Type 3, after prepositions. Fortunately, this is an easy rule, with-

out exceptions. For example:
I plan on taking vacation next fall.
Let's take a walk after eating this large meal.
 Unit 6: Time and the Brain 97

4. Type 4, after special expressions. There are several kinds of such

expressions.
a. One kind expresses the ease or difficulty of doing
something: have fun, have a good time, have a bad time,
have trouble, have a difficult time, etc. For example:
I always have a great time talking to you!

John had a hard time moving to a new city.

b. Another kind describes two simultaneous actions,

often with an expression of time or place, where the
gerund shows the main activity: spend or waste
(time or money) doing something; sit, stand, or
walk (somewhere) doing something. For example:
Don't waste money fixing this old TV set; buy a
new one.
We walked along the street taking in the new
sights.

c. A third kind gives the idea of discovering someone

doing something, often something undesirable:
discover, catch, find (someone or something). For
example:
Little Susie was caught eating a cookie before
dinner.

d. Another well-known special expression has the

form go + gerund and is used for leisure or sport
activities: go shopping, go hiking. For example:
Do you want to go skiing in Colorado this winter?
98 Tech Talk

Exercise 1: Gerunds as Subjects

It is common to see an infinitive phrase used with the word it as the
subject of a sentence: It is easy to find my house. In such sentences, it
refers to the infinitive phrase. Although an infinitive can he used as the
subject of a sentence — To find my house is easy — if is more common to
see a gerund as the sentence subject: Finding my house is easy. For each
item, change the given sentence with an infinitive phrase to a sentence
with a gerund phrase as the subject.

1. It's good for you to exercise regularly.

2. It is dangerous to climb mountains, especially in the winter.

3. It takes a long time to learn to ride a bicycle. Once you learn, it's
easy to ride it.

4. Is it impolite to ask a lot of personal questions if you don't know

the person very well?

5. It's not as easy as it looks to figure-skate beautifully.

6. Is it more difficult for an adult to learn a foreign language than

for a child?

Now, complete each following sentence with an infinitive phrase, using

your own words. Then, rewrite the sentence using a gerund as the subject.

7. It is very important ________

8. Is it a good idea
?

9. It is usually wrong
 Unit 6: Time and the Brain 99

10. It sounds like a lot of fun

11. It's impossible (for me)

12. I t i s better _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ than _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Exercise 2: Gerunds Following Verbs, Prepositions,

and Special Expressions
Complete these sentences with either a gerund or an infinitive form of
the given verb. Why did you choose a particular form?

1. The boy is refusing (get on) the

elevator because he is claustrophobic.

2. He was telling her about his childhood, (describe)

everything in colorful detail.

3. Do you want (go + bowl) after work

this evening?

4. Melanie prefers (hike) to (swim)

5 . Pamela's brother advised her ( s e e ) _

a doctor about her eye problem. She promised (see)
an ophthalmologist next week.

6. Greg can put a great deal of effort into (solve)

difficult physics problems.

7. Mr. and Mrs. Wright often discuss (stay)

at home for their vacation, but they usually end up (travel)
to interesting and exotic places.

8. The young campers had fun (swim) _ _ _ _ _ in

the lake and (learn) (catch)
fish.
100 Tech Talk

9. Because it's raining, I suggest (go + shop) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

at a mall instead of (go + sightsee) .

10. Thank you for (take care of) my house

and yard while I was on vacation.

11. The Martins are considering (enroll)

in a course about (invest) money.

12. When we came home late at night, we found a stray cat (sleep)
on the front porch.

13. My professor doesn't tolerate (laugh)

at other students' mistakes.

14. She has a hard time (drive) at night

because she has difficulty (see) in the
dark.

15. The family finally succeeded in (reach)

their destination by (follow) _______________________ the map
and (ask) local residents for direc-
tions.

16. Oscar loves (spend) his free time

(watch) movies and (play)
computer games.

Exercise 3
Complete these sentences in your own words. Provide your own verb in
the correct form—gerund or infinitive.

1. You can attract birds to your garden by .

2. We tried .

3. Mr. and Mrs. Lasky plan

4. Carol sat in the rocking chair

5. Please close the windows before

 Unit & Time and the Brain 101

6. We remained in class ________________ .

7. I really miss _______________________________________ .

8. My wife can't stand____________________________________ .

9. I'm ready looking forward to___________________________________________,

10. The students in the class had a problem .

Exercise 4
Create your own sentences from the given combinations of verbs and
expressions. You may use any noun, pronoun, or person's name; you may
also use any verb tense or modal. The first item is done for you as an
example.

1. begin + operate
At 8:30 A.M., the surgeon began operating on the
vice-president's heart.
Or: At 6:30 A.M., the surgeon began to operate on
the vice-president's heart.

2. stand (somewhere) + watch

3. decide between + (any two actions)

4. spend an hour +- explain

5. avoid + go + dance

6. have trouble + understand

7. catch (someone or something) + hide

8. hate + go + camp

9. delay + do laundry

10. continue + play

102 Tech Talk

Let's Talk about It

1. Take a look at the chart presented in the article. Researchers asked
people to estimate the passage of time under two different conditions.
What were the two conditions?

Under what conditions are people more accurate when they esti-
mate time?

Do these conditions affect young and old people in the same way or
in different ways?

Based on what you read and on your own experience, why do you
think our time estimates are different under the two conditions
above?

2. Have you noticed that time goes faster when you are busy? How
about when you are happy or sad?

Give some examples from your experience. Why do you think there
is a difference, if any?

3. Does it make sense to you that time passes more quickly as we age
because of changes in the "interval clock" in the brain? Why or why
not?

What Do You Think?

As you read in this article, scientists believe that our perception of time changes as we
get older because of biological changes in the brain. Do you think there might be other
reasons why time seems to move faster as we age? Write an essay arguing your case.
 Unit 6: Time and the Brain 103

Expansion Activities

The text described an experiment where researchers measured how

well people estimate time. See if you can replicate this experiment. Ask
two (or more) friends or relatives of different ages to estimate when
three minutes go by. Report your findings in class.
Engineering Achievements
Search Your Knowledge
1. What was life like 100 years ago? How much of your life today is
affected by engineering accomplishments?

2. What do engineers do?

104
 Unit 7: Engineering Achievements 105

3. What are some of the engineering achievements of the 20th century?

List as many as you can.

4. Think about what life might be like without these developments.

Which engineering achievements are the most important? Why?

5. Class activity: Rank the engineering achievements in order of

importance. Discuss the choices and agree or vote on the order.

Now, compare your class results to the list of engineering achievements that was put
together by the National Academy of Engineering in the United States. Read the docu-
ment on pages 106-10 from the Academy, which selected the top engineering feats of
the 20th century. The document was issued as a press release to various news services and
press clubs, including the National Press Club in Washington, DC. Can you understand
the underlined words in the text? These words may be new to you; therefore, they are
underlined so that you can find them easily later on, if you wish to refer to them again.
See if you can figure out what they mean from context or from the other words and
meanings around the underlined word. The words are also included in the vocabulary
exercises under Key Words and Understanding Words and Phrases.
The boldfaced words in the text are glossed in the margin. These non-high frequency
vocabulary words or phrases are helpful to understanding the reading. Read the entire
text before doing the exercises.
106 Tech Talk

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING

2101 Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20418
http://www.nat/ona/-academies.org

Date: February 22, 2000

Contacts: Charles E. Blue, American Association of Engineering Societies
999-555-2237 X16; e-mail xxxx@aaes.org;
cell phone 999-555-8865 x55555
Donald Lehr, National Engineers Week
999-555-8200; e-mail xxxx@compuserve.com;
cell phone 999-555-4058
Robin Gibbin, National Academy of Engineering
999-555-1562; e-mail xxxx@nae.edu

[EMBARGOED: NOT FOR PUBLIC RELEASE BEFORE 1:00 P.M. EST

TUESDAY, FEB. 22]

National Academy of Engineering Reveals Top

Engineering Impacts of the 20 t h Century:
Electrification Cited as Most Important

WASHINGTON — One hundred years ago, life was a constant struggle

against disease, pollution, deforestation, treacherous working conditions,
and enormous cultural divides unreachable with current communications
technologies. By the end of the 20th century, the world had become a health-
ier, safer, and more productive place, primarily because of engineering
achievements.
Speaking on behalf of the National Academy of Engineering on behalf of:
(NAE), astronaut/engineer Neil Armstrong today announced the 20 speaking for
engineering achievements that have had the greatest impact on
quality of life in the 20th century. The announcement was made during
National Engineers Week 20001 at a National Press Club luncheon.
The achievements — nominated by 29 professional engineering societies —
were selected and ranked by a distinguished panel of the nation's top engi¬

1
National Engineers Week 2000 is held February 20-26. National Engineers Week always falls
around the birth date of George Washington, who was a surveyor and is often cited as America's
first engineer.
 Unit 7: Engineering Achievements 107

neers. Convened by the NAE, this committee — chaired by H. Guyford Stever,

former director of the National Science Foundation (1972-76) and Science
Advisor to the President (1973-76) — worked in anonymity to ensure the
unbiased nature of its deliberations.
"As we look at engineering breakthroughs selected by the National Acad-
emy of Engineering, we can see that if any one of them were removed, our
world would be a very different — and much less hospitable — place," said
Armstrong. Armstrong's announcement of the top 20 list, which includes
space exploration as the 12 th most important achievement, covers an incred-
ibly broad spectrum of human endeavor — from the vast networks of electri-
fication in the world (No. 1), to the development of high-performance
materials (No. 20) such as steel alloys, polymers, synthetic fibers, composites
and ceramics. In between are advancements that have revolutionized the
way people live (safer water supply and treatment, No. 4, and health tech-
nologies, No. 16); work (computers, No. 8, and telephones, No. 9); play
(radio and television, No. 6); and travel (automobile, No. 2, airplane, No. 3,
and interstate highways, No. 11).
In his statement delivered to the National Press Club, Armstrong said that
he was delighted to announce the list of the greatest achievements to under-
score his commitment to advancing the understanding of the critical impor-
tance of engineering. "Almost every part of our lives underwent profound
changes during the past 100 years thanks to the efforts of engineers, changes
impossible to imagine a century ago. People living in the early 1900s would be
amazed at the advancements wrought by engineers," he said.
adding, "as someone who has experienced firsthand one of engi- firsthand: directly,
neering's most incredible advancements — space exploration — I have personally
no doubt that the next 100 years will be even more amazing."
The NAE notes that the top achievement, electrification, powers almost
every pursuit and enterprise in modern society. It has literally lighted the
world and impacted countless areas of daily life, including food production
and processing, air conditioning and heating, refrigeration, entertainment,
transportation, communication, health care, and computers.
Many of the top 20 achievements, given the immediacy of their impact on
the public, seem obvious choices, such as automobiles, at No. 2, and the air-
plane, at No. 3. These achievements, along with space exploration, the
nation's interstate highway system at No. 11, and petroleum and gas tech-
nologies at No. 17, made travel and mobility-related achievements the single
largest segment of engineering to be recognized.
Other achievements are less obvious, but nonetheless introduced changes
108 Tech Talk

of staggering proportions- The No. 4 achievement, for example, the availabil-

ity of safe and abundant water, literally changed the way Americans lived
and died during the last century. In the early 1900s, waterborne diseases like
typhoid fever and cholera killed tens-of-thousands of people annually, and
dysentery and diarrhea, the most common waterborne disease, were the
third largest cause of death. By the 1940s, however, water treatment and
distribution systems devised by engineers had almost totally eliminated these
diseases in America and other developed nations. They also brought water to
vast tracts of land that would otherwise have been uninhabitable.
No. 10, air conditioning and refrigeration technologies, underscores how
seemingly commonplace technologies can have a staggering impact on the
economy of cities and worker productivity. Air conditioning and refrigeration
allowed people to live and work effectively in sweltering climates, had a
profound impact on the distribution and preservation of our food supply, and
provided stable environments for the sensitive components that underlie
today's information-technology economy.
Referring to achievements that may escape notice by most of the general
public, Wm. A. Wulf, president of the National Academy of Engineering,
said, "Engineering is all around us, so people often take it for granted, like
air and water. Ask yourself, what do I touch that is not engineered? Engi-
neering develops and delivers consumer goods, builds the networks of high-
ways, air and rail travel, and the Internet, mass produces antibiotics, creates
artificial heart valves, builds lasers, and offers such wonders as imaging tech-
nology and conveniences like microwave ovens and compact discs. In short,
engineers make our quality of life possible."

Selection Process
The process for choosing the greatest achievements began in the fall of
1999, when the National Academy of Engineering, an enormous non-profit
organization of outstanding engineers founded under the congressional char-
ter that established the National Academy of Sciences, invited discipline-spe-
cific professional engineering societies to nominate up to ten achievements. A
list of 105 selections was given to a committee of academy members repre-
senting the various disciplines. The panel convened on December 9 and 10,
1999, and selected and ranked the top 20 achievements. The overarching cri-
terion used was that those advancements had made the greatest contribution
to the quality of life in the past 100 years. Even though some of the achieve-
ments, such as the telephone and the automobile, were invented in the 1800s,
they were included because their impact on society was felt in the 20th century.
 Unit 7: Engineering Achievements 109

The Achievements
Here is the complete list of achievements as announced today by Mr.
Armstrong:

1) Electrification — the vast networks of electricity that power the

developed world.
2) Automobile — revolutionary manufacturing practices made the
automobile the world's major mode of transportation by making cars
more reliable and affordable to the masses.
3) Airplane — flying made the world accessible, spurring globalization
on a grand scale.
4) Safe and Abundant Water — preventing the spread of disease,
increasing life expectancy.
5) Electronics — vacuum tubes and, later, transistors that underlie
nearly all modern life.
6) Radio and Television — dramatically changed the way the world
received information and entertainment.
7) Agricultural Mechanization — leading to a vastly larger, safer,
less costly food supply
8) Computers — the heart of the numerous operations and systems
that impact our lives.
9) Telephone — changing the way the world communicates personally
and in business.
10) Air Conditioning and Refrigeration — beyond convenience, it
extends the shelf life of food and medicines, protects electronics and
plays an important role in health care delivery.
11) Interstate Highways — 44,000 miles of U.S. highways allowing
goods distribution and personal access.
12) Space Exploration — going to outer space vastly expanded
humanity's horizons and introduced 60,000 new products on Earth.
13) Internet — a global communications and information system of
unparalleled access.
14) Imaging Technologies — revolutionized medical diagnostics.
15) Household Appliances — eliminated strenuous, laborious tasks,
especially for women.
16) Health Technologies — mass production of antibiotics and artificial
implants led to vast health improvements.
17) Petroleum and Gas Technologies — the fuels that energized the
20th century.
110 Tech Talk

18) Laser a n d Fiber Optics — applications are wide and varied, includ-
ing almost simultaneous worldwide communications, non-invasive
surgery, and point-of-sale scanners.
19) Nuclear Technologies — from splitting the atom, we gained a new
source of electric power.
20) High-Performance Materials — higher quality, lighter, stronger,
and more adaptable.

###

Editor's Notes:
Additional information and visuals are available at http;//www.
greatachievements.org.
Greatest Engineering Achievements of the 20th Century is a collaborative
project led by the National Academy of Engineering, with the American
Association of Engineering Societies, National Engineers Week, and 29 engi-
neering societies.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the
charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of
outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the
selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences
the responsibility for advising the federal government The National Academy
of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting
national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the
superior achievements of engineers.
Since its founding in 1951 by the National Society of Professional Engi-
neers, National Engineers Week, a consortium of more than 100 engineer-
ing, scientific, educational societies, and major corporations, has helped
increase public awareness and appreciation of technology and the engineer-
ing profession. National Engineers Week 2000 co-chairs are the American
Consulting Engineers Council (ACEC), a national organization of private
engineering firms, and CH2M HILL, a global engineering company specializ-
ing in water and wastewater, environmental management, transportation,
telecommunications, industrial facilities, and related infrastructure.
American Association of Engineering Societies is a federation of engineer-
ing societies dedicated to advancing the knowledge, understanding, and
practice of engineering, whose membership represents more than one mil-
lion engineers in the United States.
 Unit 7: engineering Achievements 111

What's the Point?

I. Demonstrate your understanding of some of the details in the reading. Based on the
text you just read, give short answers to the questions that follow.

1. Who is Neil Armstrong? What is his profession?

2. When is National Engineers Week held? When was it first established?

3. Why was electrification chosen as the most important achievement?

4. How many engineering achievements were originally nominated for

selection?

5. How many organizations participated in the project to select the top

20 achievements?

6. What is the function of the National Academy of Engineering?

II. Show your understanding of the reading. Based on the text you just read, choose the
best answer to complete the statements.

1. Many people consider to be the first American engineer.

a. George Washington
b. Neil Armstrong
c. Wm. A. Wulf
d. Thomas Edison
112 Tech Talk

2. The area of engineering that received the most recognition on the

list of top achievements is_____________.
a. power production
b. transportation
c. medicine
d. agriculture

3. The most important achievement affecting public health was .

a. imaging technology
b. laser surgery
c. antibiotics
d. safe water supply

4. Air-conditioning and refrigeration show how something that seems

ordinary can .
a. be very significant
b. be highly complex
c. be very popular
d. be taken for granted

5. The National Academy of Engineering is administered by .

a. the federal government
b. National Engineering Week
c. its own members
d. a major corporation
 Unit 7: Engineering Achievements 113

Understanding Words and Phrases

The words or phrases that fit these definitions are underlined in the text you just read.
Use the context to try to figure out their meanings, and match them with the given defini-
tions, Write the words or phrases in the spaces provided so that each letter fits in a separate
space. Notice that each answer has a numbered letter. When you have written in all the
answers, arrange the numbered letters in numerical order at the bottom of the page to spell
a word that you know well!
Example: in large quantity, plentiful: a b u n d a n t
1. to be the basis (of something):
1
2. very large:
2

3. a difficult battle, a big effort:

3
4. generous to guests; favorable
to living: 4
5. deep, thorough, far-reaching:
5
6. formal discussion and debate
of an issue: 6
7. greatly pleased, very glad:
7
8. a chase, a search; a work
activity: 8
9. neutral, fair, not prejudiced:
9
10. independent, self-governing:
10
11. terribly hot and humid:
11
Alexandre Gustave Eiffel designed the
Eiffel Tower for the Paris Exhibition
of 1889. This was his profession:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 11
114 Tech Talk

Quoted Speech and Reported Speech

The press release you just read contains examples of both quoted
speech and reported speech. Can you find some of these examples?

Part 1: Quoted Speech

When we want to quote, or write exactly, what another person said,
we write the speaker's exact words inside quotation marks ("..."). Here
are some examples. In the first example, Mr. Wulf is the speaker and
said is the reporting verb. Other reporting verbs may be used.

1. Mr. Wulf said, "Engineering is all around us, so people often take
it for granted, like air and water."

2. The children shouted happily, "We want cake!"

3. "Today, the class will end early," announced the teacher.

4. "Are you sure?" asked Maria quietly.

5. "My son has been sick for five days," he told the doctor, "and I'm
very worried about him."

Notice the basic punctuation rules for a direct quote in another

sentence:

• The speaker and verb (and any adverbs) are followed by a comma
before the opening quotation mark.
• The first word of the quote inside the opening quotation mark is
capitalized.
• The final punctuation mark of the quote is inside the closing quo-
tation mark.
 Unit 7: Engineering Achievements 115

• A direct quote can appear at the beginning of a sentence, and the

speaker and reporting verb can be at the end. In this case, if the
final punctuation mark of the quote is a period, the period
becomes a comma; however, a question mark or exclamation point
remain the same.
• The speaker and reporting verb can also appear in the middle of a
direct quote. In this case, the quotation marks go around each part
of the quote, the continued part of the quote is not capitalized, and
the speaker and verb are surrounded by commas.

Exercise 1
Write your own sentences with direct quotes. Many different reporting
verbs and adverbs provide information about the manner of the quoted
speech. You have already seen some of them in the examples. Additional
examples of reporting verbs and adverbs follow. Use these verbs to create
at least five sentences; feel free to use these or other adverbs. Be sure to use
correct punctuation and capitalization.

REPORTING VERB ADVERB OR ADVERBIAL PHRASE

yelled angrily
whispered slowly
reported shyly
said to the woman
joked to him/her

Exercise 2
Now, work with a partner to create five more sentences using different
reporting verbs, such as advise, suggest, insist, tell, ask, inform, etc.

Part II: Reported Speech

Reported speech states the message of a speaker but does not use the
speaker's exact words. Quotation marks are not used, and pronouns
and verb forms may change. For example,

Quoted speech: He said, "I go shopping once a week."

Reported speech: He said that he goes shopping once a

week.
116 Tech T a l k

In reported speech, the following rules apply:

a. The reported information is usually preceded by the word that,

which may be omitted.
Example: She claims (that) she knows the answer.

b. If the reporting verb in the main sentence is in the present (or

present progressive) tense, then the verb in the reported speech
can be in the present tense or in the past tense.
Examples: He says, "I go to work every day."
-> He says that he goes to work every day.

He says, "I went to work yesterday."

-> He says that he went to work yesterday.
He is saying, "I don't work on holidays."
-> He is saying that he doesn't work on
holidays.

c. If the reporting verb in the main sentence is in the past tense, then
the verb in the reported speech is usually back-shifted from the
present tense to the past tense also. This applies to perfect tenses
and modals as well: present perfect is back-shifted to the past per-
fect, and present-form modals are back-shifted to the past form.
Examples: Armstrong said, "I am delighted."
-> Armstrong said that he was delighted.

"I have worked all my life," she informed me.

-> She informed me that she had worked all
her life.

I said, "We can't come."

-> I said that we couldn't come.

d. In reported questions, the reported information is usually pre-

ceded by the word whether or if (informally) instead of that
Examples: "Will you finish your paper on time?" my
professor asked me.
-> My professor asked me whether I would
finish my paper on time.

They asked me, "Can you come to the party?"

-> They asked me if I could come to the party.
 Unit 7: Engineering Achievements 117

e. Sometimes, if the reported information represents a continued

condition or a general truth, then the verb in the reported speech
is not back-shifted.
Examples: Armstrong said that engineering is very
important.
The teacher told them that the sun rises in
the east.

Exercise 1
Part I began with five examples of quoted speech. Rewrite these five
sentences as reported speech. The first sentence is done for you:

1. Mr. Wulf said that engineering is all around us, so people often
take it for granted, like air and water.

2. .

3. .

4. .

5. .

Exercise 2
In Part I, Exercises 1 and 2, you created ten original sentences with
quoted speech. Now restate those sentences in the form of reported speech.

Let's Talk about It

1. On what basis, or criterion, were the engineering achievements

selected and ranked?

2. On this basis, do you agree with the choices made by the NAE?

3. What other criteria could be used to select the top engineering

achievements?
 4. Based on a different criterion, how would you rank the top 20
achievements? Would you choose any other achievements that are
not on the NAE list?

Activity: Work in groups of two or three students. Work with your partner(s) to
select and rank the top 20 engineering accomplishments of the 20th century according
to a different criterion. Think of your own, or choose one of these suggested criteria:

• technologies created in your lifetime

• the greatest impact on public safety
• the most technologically challenging
• the most original

What are your reasons for selecting the accomplishments? Present your group's results
to the whole class. One student from each group can do the presentation, or each team
member can present a different detail. Be prepared to explain and defend your selections.

W h a t Do You Think?

What technological achievement or achievements have had the most profound effect
on your own life? What modern technologies would you not want to live without? Why?
Write an essay describing a few engineering achievements that are most important to
you personally. Explain how they have affected your life.

Expansion Activities

The word commonplace means "ordinary, everyday." However, there

is also something extraordinary about this word. Its letters can be com-
bined in different ways to make many different English words — more
than 80 words! See how many you can find. The words can be as long
or as short as you like, but you cannot use any letters that are not in
the word commonplace. Three of the words are given as examples.
place
common
mane
Science News and Fun
Search Your Knowledge

1. Where can you get news about science and technology?

2. Do you know of any radio or television programs that provide

information about science?

3. How can you find out about such programs?

4. Have you ever looked for science-related information on the

Internet?

119
120 Tech Talk

Radio and TV programs about science and nature can be both educational and
entertaining.

RADIO

Local public radio stations usually broadcast programs by National Public Radio
(NPR), a publicly funded organization. NPR has many programs, including the science-
related show Talk of the Nation — Science Friday™. The British program BBC World
Service — Science in Action may also be heard on public radio.

TELEVISION

Local public television channels usually carry the shows Nova, Nature, and National
Geographic. There are the private cable channels Discovery Channel and Science
Channel.

INTERNET

Many organizations, including magazines, newspapers, and TV and radio stations,

have their own Internet websites. NPR has its own website, www.npr.org, with a link to
the Science Friday™ website, www.sciencefriday.com, where you can learn about some
interesting discoveries in science. You can even listen to an entire radio show on the
computer! (Some libraries provide earphones for your use.)
Get to know your local public radio and TV stations. Find out what programs they
broadcast and at what time. You can call them to request a schedule of all their pro-
grams, or look them up on the Internet. Many websites offer interactive activities.
 Unit 8: Science News and Fun 121

Read three summaries of stories that were discussed on the NPR radio program
Talk of the Nation—Science Friday™. This is a two-hour show, in which each hour is
devoted to a different topic. These summaries (and many more) are available on the
Science Friday™ website. Can you understand the underlined words in the text? These
words may be new to you; therefore, they are underlined so that you can find them eas-
ily later on, if you wish to refer to them again. See if you can figure out what they mean
from context or from the other words and meanings around the underlined word. The
words are also included in the vocabulary exercises under Key Words and Understand-
ing Words and Phrases.
The boldfaced words in the text are glossed in the margin. These non-high frequency
vocabulary words or phrases are helpful to understanding the reading.

Story summary 1.

SCIENCE FRIDAY > ARCHIVES > 2000 > MARCH > MARCH 10, 2000

Smell
from Talk of the Nation — Science Friday™,
National Public Radio, Inc.

Take a deep breath. Smell anything? Maybe you're getting a few whiffs of
early-spring air. Maybe you're dealing with the garlic-anchovy pizza on your
co-worker's desk. Or maybe you're catching molecules of perfume from the
woman next to you in the elevator. So how does the sense of smell work?
What happens when it doesn't work right? And how are efforts to develop
odor-related technology progressing?
On one level, the workings of your sniffer are pretty straightforward. Odor
molecules have a specific shape. When they enter the nose, if those shapes
match up with surface proteins on odor-sensing neurons (about 10 million of
them, with over 1,000 configurations) the neuron fires. But at levels beyond
that, it gets much more complicated, involving subtle mixes of chemicals, the
ways that proteins bind together, how long they stick to receptors, genetics,
and more.
"Not smelling" may seem like a joke, but 2-3 percent of the population is
"anosmic" — having little or no sense of smell. About 15% of the population
has some form of "odor blindness" — not being able to smell certain things
that other people can smell. And since about 90% of what people perceive
122 Tech Talk

as "taste" is actually produced by smell (hold your nose and eat a piece of
chocolate — it doesn't taste very chocolatey at all!), a lack of ability to smell
can become a real quality-of-life issue.
Several companies are developing "artificial noses," sensors on the fly (idiom): in
that can identify odor components on the fly. Most of these are hurry
designed for some type of quality-control monitoring or environ-
mental sampling, such as making sure that fish shipments are fresh or that oil
refineries aren't emitting compounds they shouldn't A few inventors are
working on using an artificial nose for medical diagnoses, using it to sense
faint tell-tale scents given off by certain bacteria, for example. And there's
even an effort afoot to create a sort of Smell-o-Vision for the Internet Age —
an artificial odor generator called DigiScents.
Join us on this hour of Science Friday as we find out what science knows
about noses!

Source: "Smell," Talk of the Nation — Science Friday™. National Public Radio, Inc., March 10, 2000.
www.sciencefriday.com. Science Friday™ © Samanna Productions, Inc.

What's the Point?

Check your understanding of the text. Based on the reading, are the statements true (T)

or false (F)?

1. Different odor molecules have different shapes.

2. About 17-18% of the population has some problem with

smell.

3. People who cannot smell can still taste most food.

4. Companies are developing artificial noses for people who

cannot smell.
 Unit 8: Science News and Fun 123

Understanding Words and Phrases

I. Based on the text you just read, choose the best definition of the underlined word or
phrase. These words and phrases are also underlined in the text for your reference. If you
aren't able to determine the meaning through context, use other vocabulary skills such as
word parts and word form to help you with the meaning.

1. straightforward: a. painful b. unusually fast c. simple

2. bind: a. belong b. stick c. communicate

3. faint: a. weak b. unpleasant c. healthy

4. monitor: a. observe closely b. escape c. compute

5. emit: a. import b. send out c. pollute

6. tell-tale: a. interesting b. telling a lie c. revealing information

II. Answer the following questions about the underlined expressions that appear in
the text.

1. In this story, what is a sniffer? Do you recognize the doer suffix -er ?
What does it mean to sniff? What animal is well-known for sniffing?

2. The story introduces and explains two new technical terms, which
are unfamiliar to most English speakers. Do you know what they
mean now?
a. What does anosmic mean?
b. What is odor blindness?

3. Based on the definition of odor blindness, can yon guess what color
blindness means? Do you know anyone who is color-blind?
124 Tech Talk

Informal Register
Notice the unusual question form in the summary you just read:
Smell anything?

What's unusual about this question form?

In English conversation, as in many languages, there are different
appropriate ways of speaking in different situations — formal or infor-
mal, child or adult, professional or social, military or civilian, etc. A
particular way of speaking in each situation is called a register. In the
informal register, it is common for a speaker to speak in sentence frag-
ments, omitting the subject or the verb, or both. The speaker can do so
safely because both the speaker and listener are part of the same imme-
diate situation; both participants can convey certain information per-
fectly clearly using fewer words. In the example, the radio announcer is
speaking informally to his audience, and this is clear to both the radio
host and the audience. Therefore, the auxiliary verb (do) and the sub-
ject (you) are omitted from the more usual, formal question form: Do
you smell anything?
Consider this situation: A father enters the kitchen and speaks to his
young son.
Father: Mmm, smells great! Mom baking a cake?
Son: Yeah! For my birthday!

Can you rewrite this dialogue in the grammatically correct formal

register?
 Unit 8: Science News and Fun 125

Exercise 1
Change the expressions in the informal register to the usual grammati-
cal forms.

1. What's that noise? See anything outside?

2. When I count to three, start running. Ready?

3. A: Hey, it's almost one o'clock. You hungry?

B: Starving! You?

4. Good luck on your test! Hope you get an A.

5. A: Where's Mary? She coming?

B: Yeah, late as usual.

Exercise 2
Change the expression in the formal register to the informal register.
Describe briefly a situation where such speech might occur.

1. Where's Gina? Is she not feeling well?

2. Are you tired?

3. I'll see you tomorrow. I hope your friend can come too!

4. It looks beautiful. Did you make it yourself?

126 Tech Talk

5. A: That's a cute card. Did Maggie write it?

B: Yes, she wrote it at school.

6. A: Whose turn is it? Is it mine?

B: No, it's Pete's.

Exercise 3
Your turn! Create two expressions or short dialogs in the informal
register. Describe the situations in which these conversations take place.

Let's Talk about It

J. Why do we smell some things but not others?

2. Are there animals that can smell odors that people can't?

3. Do you think that everything has a smell? What does the story suggest?

4. Is the sense of smell useful? Why or why not?

W h a t Do You Think?

How important is the sense of smell? Can you think of one or more situations where
the sense of smell was helpful to you? Write a brief story about your experiences. Tell
your classmates about it.
 Unit 8: Science News and Fun 127

Story summary 2.

SCIENCE FRIDAY > ARCHIVES > 2000 > FEBRUARY > FEBRUARY 18, 2000

Global Climate Change

from Talk of the Nation — Science Friday™,
National Public Radio, Inc.

Over 100 years ago, Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius proposed the pos-
sibility of human-caused climate change. Since then, the world has become
more and more dependent on fossil fuels for energy. Today, approximately
85% of the world's energy comes from fossil fuels. Meanwhile, the possibil-
ity of global long-term climate change caused by greenhouse gas emissions
has moved firmly into the public consciousness.
Carbon dioxide is one of the most likely "greenhouse gases." Other
gases, from methane to water vapor, can also cause the greenhouse effect.
When in the atmosphere, these gases can act like a thermal blanket around
the planet, preventing heat energy from the sun from radiating back out into
space. Possible results of this warming, some scientists say, could include
changing rainfall patterns worldwide, shifting agricultural zones, and melting
glacier and ice caps.
In 1992, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
recognized the potential problem and set an ultimate objective to stabilize
greenhouse gas levels below dangerous levels (though the document didn't say
what "dangerous" levels were). The Kyoto Protocol, established at a 1997
meeting, set targets for emission levels in developed countries. A collective 5%
reduction in emissions from industrialized countries was mandated.
The problem is very political. Tensions between developed countries
(which often achieved their industrialized glory years through processes
involving massive emissions of greenhouse gases) and developing countries,
which do not want any limits on their potential expansion, are high. In the
U.S., there are political tensions over the costs and necessity of expensive
emission controls.
Scientifically, the global climate change debate can also be problematic.
While there is very strong evidence pointing to the existence of global warm-
ing, there is some uncertainty. But how much uncertainty is too much? And
how high a level of certainty should be required before action is necessary?
in this hour of Science Friday, broadcast live from the annual meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science in Washington, D.C.,
128 Tech Talk

we'll talk about the science, politics, and economics of the global climate
change debate. Call in with your comments and questions, and be sure to
tune in.

Source: "Global Climate Change," Talk of the Nation — Science Friday™, National Public Radio,
inc., February 18, 2000. wwvf.sciencefriday.com. Science Friday™ © Samanna Productions, Inc.

What's the Point?

Show your understanding of the reading. Based on the reading, choose the best answer to
complete the following statements.

1. The idea that people might cause global climate change was first
suggested .
a. in 1992
b. in the 19th century
c. after World War II

2. The most commonly known greenhouse gas is .

a. methane
b. water vapor
c. carbon dioxide

3. In this summary, global climate change implies that the earth is

a. getting warmer
b. getting more rain
c. losing agricultural areas

4. The issue of global climate change is .

a. purely scientific
b. highly political
c. well understood
 Unit 8: Science News and Fun 129

Understanding Words and Phrases

What is the meaning of the underlined word in each sentence? Answer these questions or
do the tasks that follow each sentence. The underlined words are also underlined in the text
for easy reference.

1. The archaeologist found fossils of animal bones and plant leaves

imprinted in rocks and clay.
What are some examples of fossil fuels? Why are they called fossil
fuels?

2. When we use an electric heater, we convert electricity into

thermal energy, or heat.
Can you think of other words that contain the segment therm?
An instrument that measures t e m p e r a t u r e : _ _ _
A device that controls temperature in your home:
A container that keeps your drink hot (or cold): __

3. The government mandated a new energy tax on gasoline.

What are some things that can be mandated? Who can mandate
them?

4. The Great Wall of China is a massive structure that can be seen from
far away.
Give some examples of massive things.
130 Tech Tall

Adjective Phrases

Take a look at the following sentences from the second news

summary:

a. The Kyoto Protocol, established at a 1997 meeting, set targets for

emission levels in developed countries.

b. [Developed countries] often achieved their industrialized

glory years through processes involving massive emissions of
greenhouse gases.

c. While there is very strong evidence pointing to the existence of

global warming, there is some uncertainty.

What is the function of the words in bold type? What do you notice
about their form?
The part of the sentence that is in bold type is called an adjective
phrase. An adjective phrase modifies a noun. An adjective phrase is
the result of reducing an adjective clause. (In Units 2 and 4, you
reviewed adverb clauses and adverb phrases. Recall that a clause is a
group of words that has a subject and a verb. A phrase is a group of
words that does not have a subject and a verb.) To see this reduction
from an adjective clause to an adjective phrase, consider the preced-
ing examples.

a. Sentence with adjective clause:

The Kyoto Protocol, which was established at a 1997
meeting, set targets for emission levels in developed
countries.

b. Sentence with adjective clause:

[Developed countries] often achieved their industrial-
ized glory years through processes that involve
massive emissions of greenhouse gases.
 Unit 8: Science News and Fun 131

c. Can you write the sentence with the correct adjective clause for
example c on page 130?

In example a, the relative pronoun which is also the subject of the

adjective clause. Notice that this pronoun is omitted from the
adjective phrase. Notice also that the verb be is omitted. In exam-
ple b, there is no be verb in the clause, and the verb changes to the
present participle, or -ing form. The resulting adjective phrase
modifies the noun Kyoto Protocol in a, the noun processes in b, or
the noun evidence in c.

1. If the adjective clause contains the verb be, the relative pronoun
and be are omitted. This is shown in example a on page 130. Here
is another example:
The apples that are in the glass bowl have been
washed.
-> The apples in the glass bowl have been washed.

2. If the adjective clause contains no be verb, the relative pronoun is

omitted, and the verb is changed to the -ing form. This is shown
in examples b and c on page 130.

3. If the adjective clause is not essential and requires commas, then the
resulting phrase also requires commas, as in example a on page 130.

4. Only adjective clauses with a subject pronoun — who, which, or

that — can be reduced to adjective phrases. For example:
The two men who are dressed in light-green suits
belong to a special club.
-> The two men dressed in light-green suits belong
to a special club.

The two men (whom) we met earlier belong to a

special club.
-> cannot be reduced
132 Tech Talk

Exercise 1
In the following sentences, change the adjective clauses to adjective
phrases. Which sentences or clauses cannot be changed? Some sentences
contain more than one clause.

1. The car which is parked in front of the automobile dealership is a

hybrid electric car.

2. Our neighbor's dog barks at everyone who walks by the house.

3. Do you like the restaurant that is on the corner of Salem Street

and Prince Street?

4. Oh no! The train that is just leaving the station was ours!

5. Mr. and Mrs. Dean, who are my neighbors, are kind and generous
people.

6. The criminal who was guilty of the armed robbery, which was
committed two years ago, is now in jail,

7. The Ledyard Bridge, which we are crossing now, was rebuilt sev-
eral years ago.

8. The Connecticut River, which separates New Hampshire and

Vermont, is full of wildlife.

9. All the children who wait in line to see Santa Claus get a lollypop.
 Unit 8: Science News and Fun 133

10. Yes, this is the museum that I visited two years ago.

11. The patients who stay in this hospital, which is a teaching hospital
that was established 200 years ago, are treated by both senior
physicians and residents who are in training.

12. Our cat, which we got five years ago, is good at hunting mice that
get into the attic.

Exercise 2
In the following sentences, change all adjective phrases to adjective
clauses.

1. The woman wearing a straw hat and carrying a briefcase is my

chemistry professor.

2. The flowers in our garden, a small and sunny spot in the back-
yard, are native to this region.

3. The articles published in this magazine were thoroughly reviewed

by independent scientists, doing similar research.

4. The athletes, eager to begin the competition, were waiting in the

small locker room reserved for visiting teams.

5. Anyone wishing to travel during the busy holiday season should

allow extra time needed for security checks.
134 Tech TaIk

Exercise 3
For each item, combine the short sentences into one sentence. Use the
first sentence as the main clause and the remaining sentences as phrases, if
possible, or clauses, if necessary. Use commas if needed.

1. Robertson Davies is one of my favorite authors. He was a well-

known Canadian writer.

2. For breakfast, we ate a few pieces of cake. The cake contained dry
fruit and nuts.

3. Paul took his girlfriend to a very expensive restaurant. He wanted

to impress her. The restaurant was in a beautiful part of town.

4. I still haven't finished reading the book. I started reading it two

months ago.

5. This summer, I'm going to drive my new car to visit my cousins. I

haven't bought the car yet. My cousins are on the west coast.

Let's Talk about It

1. How are fossil fuels related to carbon dioxide?

2. What is a greenhouse? How is it associated with global warming?

3. Besides the greenhouse effect, what else might cause global warming?

4. Should people do anything about global climate change? What are

the reasons for action or inaction?
 Unit 8: Science News and Fun 135

W h a t Do You Think?

Many people believe that we should reduce industrial emissions and the use of
energy to prevent global warming. Are there other reasons for reducing industrial emis-
sions and energy use? Write a short essay explaining your opinions.
Take a look at story summary 3. Does it sound familiar? If not, see Unit 7 in this
book!

Story summary 3.

SCIENCE FRIDAY > ARCHIVES > 2000 > FEBRUARY > FEBRUARY 25, 2000

Engineering Feats
from Talk of the Nation—Science Friday™,
National Public Radio, Inc.

Think back to the year 1900. What was life like then? Now think of today.
See some changes? Ok . . . so how did we get to this point?
This week the National Academy of Engineering listed its top twenty
engineering achievements of the century, ranging from electrification to
developments in materials science. The basic guideline for inclusion in the
list was whether or not an advancement had made a great contribution to
the quality of life. (Even devices such as the airplane, invented in the
1800s, were eligible for the list if the judges felt that they had had a great
impact on society in the 20th century.) On this hour of Science Friday, we'll
talk about the list — and take your suggestions for what YOU think should
have been included.

Source: "Engineering Feats," Talk of the Nation — Science Friday™, National Public Radio, Inc.,
February 25, 2000. vww.sciencefriday.com. Science Friday™ © Samanna productions. Inc.
136 Tech Talk

Fun Factoids
from Science Friday™, National Public Radio, Inc.

The following material originally appeared on NPR's website. These are short
descriptions of interesting scientific facts, called Fun Factoids. Below are five fac-
toids for you to read and enjoy.

1. Potato Paint
If you're partial to ketchup red or hash brown, you might partial: likes especially

want to check out a new kind of paint. . . that's part potato. tubers: swollen,
underground plant
New Scientist magazine reports that chemists in Great Britain
stems, such as potatoes,
have come up with a way to make the brown tubers into green from which new plant
paint. They're using plant starches to replace up to a quarter of shoots grow
the structural chemicals in standard house paint. In most paints, starches: natural
vinyl or acrylic plays the role of hardener. But potato starch nutrient carbohydrates,
found in plants,
can do the same job, and it won't even rot on the wails.
especially in potatoes,
The chemists say starch will turn out to be considerably corn, rice, and wheat
cheaper to use than its chemical counterparts . . . and they vinyl: a chemical
think potato paint will be a big hit with environmentally aware compound used in mak-
ing plastics
consumers.
acrylic: a chemical
And we say . . . It'll be just the thing . . . especially if you're
compound used in mak-
painting your kitchen. ing some plastics and
paint
2. Spinach Explosion
rot: decay; decompose
Ah, spinach . . . bane of children . . . beloved of Popeye
Popeye: a famous
. . . delicious with feta cheese . . . and now . . . scientists say American cartoon
this green leafy vegetable could be used to neutralize power- character who likes
to eat spinach
ful explosives.
The Department of Energy's Pacific Northwest Laboratory has enzymes: proteins
produced by living
been testing various natural enzymes and their effect on explo- organisms and acting
sives like TNT And their researchers say that spinach is just the as chemical agents
thing for deflating dynamite, and making blasting caps behave. fungi: plants that
It turns out that the spinach enzymes eat and digest the include yeasts, molds,
and mushrooms
explosives, and transform them into harmless products like car-
lactic acid: a chemical
bon dioxide and water. This is actually pretty similar to what
compound present in
takes place in your stomach after dinner. some foods, like sour
Scientists extract the enzymes, also found in fungi and but- milk, and used in chemi-
termilk, mix them with a buffer solution, and lactic acid or cal processes
 Unit 8: Science N E W S and Fun 137

ethanol, which concentrates the mix. Add the broth to TNT, ethanol: a type of
wait a little while . . . and voila! the boom is a bust. alcohol that is a type
of fuel
You might call it a dynamite recipe for spinach!

3. Airplane Band-Aid
Here's an interesting science note this week . . . the Federal Aviation
Administration has given the thumbs up to a new band-aid
thumbs up (idiom]; the
. . . for airplanes. okay or approval
You may not have realized that jumbo jets get boo-boos
boo-boos (informal):
just like the rest of us. Take-offs, landings, rapid temperature small injuries
changes and turbulence all take their toll on an airplane's alu¬
minum skin. These daily stresses cause tiny cracks and internal flaws to
form, then grow into bigger cracks and bigger problems.
Airplane doctors used to repair these aircraft by bolting hard metal
plates on top of the cracks. But the stiff plates and the bolts were causing
new cracks to form.
So the FAA and Sandia National Laboratories came up with a softer,
gentler solution: bandages.
The new flexible airplane band-aids are really patches of thin tape . . .
and they give aging airplanes the gift of new life . . . virtually overnight.
So everybody's happy . . . band-aids save the airlines tens of thousands of
dollars.
And you get to concentrate on those gremlins on the wing!

4. Leap Second
How many times have you yelled, "Just a second, just a second!" Well,
on June 30th, you will get that second . . . A leap second . . . at exactly
7:59 and 59 seconds eastern time. So make the most of it.
This is the 21 s t leap second added since 1972. . . . Our guardians of
time, the U.S. Naval Observatory, insert these extra seconds to bring uni-
versal time into sync with the rotation of the earth. . . . The earth is just
not a reliable clock . . . at least when compared to the Observatory's
atomic timepieces.
The earth is sort of rotationally challenged . . . its rotation slows down
just a little b i t . .. about 1 to 3 milliseconds per day per century . . . so the
leap second is added to compensate.
It's much easier to change the time on an atomic clock than it is to
alter the rotation of the earth . . . unless you're Superman.
138 Tech Talk

5. Mussel Power
Have you heard the news that eating fish is heart-healthy? Well, fish
aren't the only sea creatures that may be good for your health.
Scientists at Auckland University in New Zealand are hoping to intro-
duce mussels . . . the kind who live in shells in the ocean that is . . . into
the operating room. You know how tough it is to pry one of these things
off a rock? Now researchers are synthesizing a gooey protein
gooey: sticky
found in the mussels that makes them cling tight. The protein secreted; produced and
is secreted by a gland in the mussel's foot, and it's made up separated out from cells
of some mysterious materials. The Auckland chemistry team or organs
has spent an entire year trying to assemble a copy of the long
chain of amino acids that make up the protein . . . but it should be well
worth the trouble.
Doctors could use this super glue to close wounds without
stitches: medically
stitches. If the human body accepts this foreign substance. sewing up a wound
the adhesive would just eventually dissolve . . . and stitches
could become obsolete.
Now that's how to flex your mussels! flex: contract (a muscle);
use muscles in a show
Source: "Fun Factoids," Science Friday™, National Public Radio, Inc., 1998-1999. of strength (here, a play
www.sciencefiiday.com. Science Friday™ © Samanna Productions, Inc. on words)

What's the Point?

Check your understanding of the texts. Based on the readings, provide short answers to
these questions.

1. Potato Paint

a. How are potatoes used to replace traditional paint?

b. What are the advantages of potato paint?

c. Can potato paint be used like regular house paint?

 Unit 8: Sclence News and Fun 139

2. Spinach Explosion
a. What substance from spinach can be used to deactivate

explosives?

b. Where else can we get the same natural substance?

c. What organization is working to develop this new technology?

Now, make up your own questions about the factoids for your fellow students.
a. For each of the three remaining factoids, develop two or more ques-
tions to test a reader's understanding of the text. They can be short-
answer questions, true-or-false statements, or questions with
multiple-choice answers. Your teacher will help you come up with
appropriate, clear questions.
b. Exchange your questions with a classmate and answer each other's
questions. You can volunteer to pose your questions to the entire
class.

Understanding Words and Phrases

Create word puzzles for a classmate. The words and expressions in this exercise
appear in the factoids you just read. They are underlined in the texts for your easy ref-
erence. Pick six or more words from this list, and write an original sentence using each
word. Then, write the sentences on a piece of paper, leaving out the vocabulary words
that were on the list. Scramble (mix up) the letters of each missing word and write
down the scrambled word next to its sentence. Exchange papers with a classmate and
solve the puzzles by unscrambling the words that fit the sentences.

assemble dissolve stiff

considerable dynamite substance
concentrate extract transform
counterpart neutralize turbulence
deflate obsolete

Example: Honey is a sweet, sticky . [abuscents]

Answer: substance
140 Tech Talk

Infinitives
In Unit 6, we reviewed the use of gerunds in certain grammatical sit-
uations. Similarly, an infinitive (the form to + the simple form of a
verb) is used in certain other grammatical situations. In this unit, we
will review four such situations, or types of uses, which are demon-
strated in the Fun Factoids you just read. (There are some additional
uses of infinitives that will not be reviewed here.)
Look at these examples from the text. Can you figure out what types
of uses require an infinitive? The underlined words or words in paren-
theses provide a hint.

You might want to check out a new kind of paint.

Starch will turn out to be considerably cheaper to use.

These daily stresses cause tiny cracks and internal flaws
to form.

They're using plant starches (in order) to replace . . .

chemicals in . . . paint.

This . . . vegetable could be used (in order) to

neutralize powerful explosives.

It's much easier to change the time on an atomic clock

than . . . to alter....
Starch will turn out to be considerably cheaper to use.

(variation: It will turn out to be. considerably cheaper

to use starch.)
 Unit 8: Science News and Fun 141

Chemists .. . have come up with a way to make the

brown tubers into green paint.
You get (an opportunity) to concentrate on those
gremlins on the wing!
These common uses of infinitives are summarized:

1. Type 1, after certain verbs. Just like gerunds follow certain verbs,
infinitives follow certain other verbs. Some verbs may be followed
by either a gerund or an infinitive. These verbs must be learned
and memorized like vocabulary. With some verbs, there is a noun
or pronoun between the verb and infinitive. For example:
Is Sara planning to go home early this afternoon?

Simon's lawyer advised him to read the document

carefully.

2. Type 2, expression of purpose — in order to. This use of infini-

tives answers the question "why?" The actual words in order to are
often omitted. For example:
He goes to the night club (in order) to meet people.

3. Type 3, with it as the subject of a sentence. These sentences usu-

ally have the form it + be/verb/modal + adjective + infinitive.
The subject it refers to the infinitive phrase. The adjective
describes the infinitive phrase, and the infinitive provides mean-
ingful content to the sentence. (Also, see a variation of this form
in the second example in Type 3; the object of the infinitive may
be moved to the subject position in the sentence.) For example:
It is difficult to design a computer.
-> variation: A computer is difficult to design.
It is easy for you to say, but not easy for him to do!
142 Tech Talk

4. Type 4, after a noun or pronoun that has a particular purpose.

Here, the infinitive refers to the noun (or pronoun) that precedes
it and explains its purpose. Frequent nouns include a way, a
method, a chance, how (a relative pronoun), get (an opportunity)
to do something. For example:
Please give me a chance to prove my skills.
It takes time to fix this problem.
-> variation: This problem takes time to fix.

She showed me how to wrap a gift.

Exercise 1
Here are additional examples of the uses of infinitives from the text of
Fun factoids. Which type of use does each example represent?

1. But the stiff plates and the bolts were causing new cracks to form.

2. Our guardians of time, the U.S. Navai Observatory, insert these

extra seconds to bring universal time into sync with the rotation
of the earth....

3. Scientists . . . are hoping to introduce mussels . . . into the operat-

ing room.

4. [Do] You know how tough it is to pry one of these things off a
rock? (Hint: change this question to a statement of fact.)

5. The leap second is added to compensate.

6. The Auckland chemistry team has spent an entire year trying to

assemble a copy of the long chain of amino acids....
 Unit 8: Science News and Fun 143

7. Doctors could use this super glue to close wounds without

stitches.

8. Now that's how to flex your mussels!

Exercise 2
In these sentences, choose either an infinitive or gerund form of each
verb in parentheses.

1. Ralph can't stand (hear) people gossip

about their friends or co-workers.

2. You have to see it (believe) it!

3. It's fun (do) crossword puzzles on a lazy

Sunday morning.

4. They encouraged him (exercise) every

day (gain) strength.

5. We look forward to (see) you tomor-

row (discuss) (expand)
the research project.

6. It can be very soothing (take) a hot bath

at the end of a stressful day.

7. Jeff has a good reason for (decide) __ (quit)

_ his job.

8. There's a new techtiique (teach) children

how (play) musical instruments.

9. Cars are easier (drive) than trucks.

10. Lillian Dooley truly deserves (win) the

Citizen of the Year Award after (work) as
hard as she did (help) the people in her
community.
144 Tech Talk

11. Is it necessary (look up) every unknown

word in the dictionary (understand) an
article?

12. I usually take the bus to work (avoid)

(drive)___________________________________ in traffic.

13. Lawrence bates (get caught) in the rain, so

he always remembers (take)___________________ an umbrella
with him.

14. Are dairy farms interesting for children (visit) ?

15. Everyone must begin (sing) _ when I raise

my hand. Continue (sing) until I give the
command (stop)______________________.

16. If you take Mr. Coleman's class, you'll get (watch)

_____________________. two foreign films.

Let's Talk about It

1. When you read the "fun factoids," did any question arise in your
mind? Do you have any comments about what you just read? Did
anything remind you of a related issue?

Think of a question or issue that you would like to discuss in class. It

can be related to any of the "factoids" you read. Pose your question
or issue to the whole class for discussion.

2. If possible, listen to a radio show or watch a TV show in class. Then,

discuss the show. What did you learn? (NPR tapes and transcripts
are available for purchase. Tapes and transcripts are also available
for some of the public TV shows. For details, call your local radio
and TV stations or check their websites.)
 Unit 8: Science News and Fun 145

What Do You Think?

Choose a question or issue from the activity on page 144 — presented either by you or
by a classmate — and write a brief essay describing your response or your thoughts.

Expansion Activities

1. Play a game of knowledge! Websites sometimes have interac-

tive programs. One such activity that appeared on the Science
Friday™ website was the Science Quiz. A few of the quiz ques-
tions are included for you on page 146. See if you know the
answers, which are provided on the page following the quiz.
After taking the quiz, discuss these questions with your class-
mates:
a. Do you know of any other foods, drinks, or herbs
that can improve your health?
b. Ants help other ants find food by leaving a trail. Do
people ever do anything similar?
c. Have you ever had a bad reaction to contact with
certain plants or animals?

2. Visit the NPR, Science Friday™, or another program website. Find

something that interests you and read about it. You can read
summaries of news reports and science shows or do other activi-
ties. You can listen to a complete show right on the computer
(for this, you may have to download a free audio software pro-
gram). Report the news to your class, or bring an interesting
activity to class.
3. Listen to one of the radio shows suggested in this unit. Or watch
one of the TV shows. Tell your class what you have learned.
146 Tech Talk

Science Quiz
from Science Friday™, National Public Radio, Inc.

It's time for another SOUNDS LIKE SCIENCE quiz!

Question Number One

In honor of the Fourth of July holiday, we are going on a picnic and of course
we brought some hamburgers to grill. They're delicious but not what many would
call a health food. Recently scientists say they found a way to make hamburgers
better for you — by adding which of these ingredients?
a. Sesame oil
b. Orange Juice
c. Cherries
d. A touch of cilantro

Great! Let's move on to number two.

Question Two
Like any respectable picnic, we've attracted a few ants. One of the many inter-
esting things that ants can do is conveniently find the shortest path to the food.
How do they do it — with which sense?
a. sight
b. touch
c. smell

And how 'bout another one.

Question Three
Another picnic danger is poison ivy. If you have found yourself highly suscepti-
ble to the plant before, you should also avoid:
a. Ginkgo nuts
b. Lacquered boxes
c. Cashew shells
d. All of the above
 Unit 8: Science News and Fun 147

Answers
1c.
The answer is Cherries. Scientists at Michigan State University say that adding
cherries to hamburger retards spoilage and reduces the risk of cancer. The cherry
tissue slows down the oxidative deterioration of meat lipids, and reduces the for-
mation of suspected cancer-causing compounds known as H-A-As or Heterocyclic
Aromatic Amines. Cherry tissue has also been shown to make a hamburger that's
lower in fat and more tender than your average beef variety.

2c.
Smell is the answer. It's not their great mind; ants only have a few hundred
neurons to help them work out what to do next. What they do have are
pheromones. When an ant comes across food, it lays down a pheromone trail for
other ants to follow. At first other ants will follow long and short paths at ran-
dom. Eventually though more ants will travel the shorter path in a given time and
will create the stronger pheromone trail. This will become the favored path.

3d.
The answer is All of the above. The substance in poison ivy that causes a rash
can also be found in other plants such as the cashew tree, the ginkgo tree, and
the Japanese lacquer tree. Some people have developed rashes after coming in
contact with lacquered products form Japan or China, or cashew nut shells or
gingko nut shells.

Source: "Science Quiz," Science Friday™, National Public Radio, Inc. 2000. www.idencefridny.com. Science
Friday™ © Samanna Productions, Inc.
Our Future
Search Your Knowledge

1. Imagine life 50 years ago. What products, services, and conveniences

do we have today that we didn't have then?

2. What are scientists and engineers working on now that might

change our future? Think of articles you have read, news you have
heard, and your own experiences.

148
 Unit 9: Our Future 149

3. Make some predictions about the future. What new products and
services might we enjoy 50 years from now? List some possible
future innovations in the following fields:

• Medicine
What is done for diseased joints today? What could be done in
the future?
• Energy
How is solar energy used today? How can its use be improved?
• Computing
Name some major innovations in computer technology in
the last 20 years. What are some current areas of research or
development?
• Software
What are some annoying problems with many computer pro-
grams? How can we make software more dependable?
• Communications
Why is secrecy important in communications? How can we
achieve it, particularly in Internet-based communications?

The text that you are about to read appeared in the February 2003 issue of Technol-
ogy Review magazine. It predicts technological advances that will greatly influence our
future. Do you agree with these predictions?
The original article, titled "10 Emerging Technologies That Will Change the World,"
was divided into an introduction and ten stories, each story describing a different tech-
nology. This unit contains the article introduction and five of the technology stories,
each in complete form and in a separate section. Here are the contents of this unit:

Introduction
Section 1: "Injectable Tissue Engineering" by Alexandra M. Goho
Section 2: "Nano Solar Cells" by Eric Scigliano
Section 3: "Grid Computing" by M. Mitchell Waldrop
Section 4: "Software Assurance" by Erika Jonietz
Section 5: "Quantum Cryptography" by Herb Brody

The full article excerpt is long, but it is conveniently divided into shorter sections.
Read one section at a time and complete the corresponding reading-comprehension
and vocabulary exercises after each section. Can you understand the underlined words
in the text? These words may be new to you; therefore, they are underlined so that you
150 Tech Talk

can find them easily later on, if you wish to refer to them again. See if you can figure out
what they mean from context or from the other words and meanings around the under-
lined word. The words are also included in the vocabulary exercises under Key Words
and Understanding Words and Phrases.
The boldfaced words in the text are glossed in the margin. These non-high frequency
vocabulary words or phrases are helpful to understanding the reading.

KEY WORDS

The key words in this unit are divided into separate sections: the article introduction
and the five story sections. Familiarize yourself with these words before reading each
section. The key words are underlined in the text you are about to read.

INTRODUCTION

Use these sentences to figure out the meanings of the underlined words.

1. After sleeping there all winter, the bear finally emerged from the
cave in the spring.
Give examples of some things that emerge from the ground.

2. Rice is an important crop in East Asia.

Name some major crops grown in the United States.

3. A can opener is a very useful gadget.

What gadgets do you have in your kitchen?

SECTION 1: Injectable Tissue Engineering

Figure out the meanings of the underlined words.

1. Some drugs are taken by mouth, while others are injected through a
needle under the skin.
Name some things that you can inject into other things.
 Unit 9: Our Future 151

2. Skin, bones, and leaves on trees are all made up of different living
tissues.
Give some other examples of living tissue.

3. All living tissues are made up of tiny, individual living cells.

What are the main structural parts of a cell? What organisms consist
of a single cell?

4. A syringe is used to inject, squeeze out, or even suck in a substance.

It consists of a cylindrical container and a hollow needle or nozzle.
What are some different uses for syringes?

5. Cartilage is a strong, flexible, connective tissue found in joints, such

as knees and hips.
Your nose and ears are made of cartilage. Where else in your body
can you find it?

6. A cadaver is a dead human body, especially one that is used for med-
ical training.
Most cadavers used in medical schools come from people who
donate their bodies.

SECTION 2: Nano Solar Cells

Analyze the meanings of these words and answer the related questions.

1. photovoltaic: (adjective) capable of producing a voltage when

exposed to light
What are photovoltaic cells?

2. composite: (noun) a complex material made of two or more distinct

substances, which combine to produce special properties, such as
structural strength
Concrete, a strong material used in construction, is a kind of com-
posite; it consists of sand, broken stone, pebbles, and cement. Can
you think of other examples of composite materials, or things made
from composites?
152 Tech Talk

3. electrode: (noun) a solid conductor, usually metal, through which

electric current enters or leaves an electrically conducting medium,
such as a battery or solar cell
Locate the electrodes on a small battery, which may be used in a
radio, a smoke detector, or a toy. The electrodes are often labeled (+)
and (-).

SECTION 3: Grid Computing

Figure out the meanings of the underlined words. Then answer the related questions.

1. A protocol is a code of correct conduct; it can be a detailed plan for

a medical procedure or scientific experiment. In computer science, a
protocol is a standard procedure for regulating the flow of data
between computers.
Why is it important to have protocols in certain professions or for
certain actions?

2. On Labor Day, a large crowd gathered around a smoky barbecue

grill in the town park. By evening, the last hamburger was cooked,
and the smoke from the grill dispersed. This was followed by
dispersal of the crowd. By sunset, the park was empty.
Give two other examples of things that can disperse.

3. While we were watching a movie in a theater, the film projector

began to burn! The manager, who was worried about a fire, immedi-
ately told everyone to evacuate the building.
Have you ever been in an emergency situation where evacuation was
required?

4. Only a small number of experts truly understand the arcane U.S. tax
laws.
What do you think arcane means?

5. McDonald's fast-food restaurants are ubiquitous not only through-

out the United States but throughout the world.
Name something else that is ubiquitous (either locally or in a larger
area).
 Unit 9: Our Future 153

SECTION 4: Software Assurance

Here are some expressions that will help you understand this section.

1. to crash: in computer science: to stop working sud-

denly, often due to a sudden failure of a
computer program

2. software bug: a mistake or problem in a computer program

3. to reboot: to turn off (a computer) and turn it on

again; to restart

4. civil engineer: an engineer who works on designing and con-

structing public works, such as bridges, roads,
dams, sewage systems, other large facilities

5. pseudo: a prefix (or adjective) meaning false,

deceptive, similar but not real. For example,
the author Samuel Clemens used the
pseudonym Mark Twain.

SECTION 5: Quantum Cryptography

Do you know what these words mean? They are useful for understanding this story.
1. cryptography: the process of communicating in secret
writing (or code); from crypt-, meaning hid-
den or secret
encryption: the act of putting into secret code; encoding
decryption: the act of solving a secret code; decoding

2. an entrepreneur: a person who starts or operates a business,

especially a new and financially risky business
Can you name some well-known entrepre-
neurs who became successful?
3. to crack (a code) or to figure out a solution to a difficult
to break (a code): problem, especially after a lot of effort
Why do people use secret codes for com-
munication? Why do others want to crack
(or break) the codes?
154 Tech Talk

10 Emerging Technologies
That Will Change the World
from Technology Review

In labs around the world, researchers are busy creating technologies that
will change the way we conduct business and live our lives. These are not the
latest crop of gadgets and gizmos: they are completely new tech-
gizmos: mechanical
nologies that could soon transform computing, medicine, manu-
devices or parts whose
facturing, transportation, and our energy infrastructure. . . . In this names are unknown
special issue, Technology Review's editors have identified 10
emerging technologies that we predict will have a tremendous influence in
the near future. For each, we've chosen a researcher or research team whose
work and vision is driving the field. The profiles . .. offer a sneak
sneak preview: an
preview of the technology world in the years and decades to
advance look
come.

Section I: Injectable Tissue Engineering

Jennifer Elisseeff

Every year, more than 700,000 patients in the United States undergo
joint replacement surgery. The procedure — in which a knee or a hip is
replaced with an artificial implant — is highly invasive, and many patients
delay the surgery for as long as they can. Jennifer Elisseeff, a biomedical
engineer at Johns Hopkins University, hopes to change that with
a treatment that does away with surgery entirely: injectable does away with
tissue engineering. She and her colleagues have developed a way (phrasal verb); elimi-
to inject joints with specially designed mixtures of polymers, cells, nates or removes

and growth stimulators that solidify and form healthy tissue.

"We're not just trying to improve the current therapy," says Elisseeff.
"We're really trying to change it completely."
Elisseeff is part of a growing movement that is pushing the bounds of
tissue engineering — a field researchers have long hoped would produce lab-
grown alternatives to transplanted organs and tissues. For the last three
 Unit 9: Our Future 155

decades, researchers have focused on growing new tissues on polymer

scaffolds in the lab. While this approach has had success producing small
amounts of cartilage and skin, researchers have had difficulty keeping cells
alive on larger scaffolds. And even if those problems could be worked out,
surgeons would still have to implant the lab-grown tissues. Now, Elisseeff,
as well as other academic and industry researchers, are turning to
injectable systems that are less invasive and far cheaper. Many of the
tissue-engineering applications to reach the market first could be delivered
by syringe rather than implants, and Elisseeff is pushing to make this hap-
pen as soon as possible.
Elisseeff and her colleagues have used an injectable system to grow
cartilage in mice. The researchers added cartilage cells to a light-sensitive liq-
uid polymer and injected it under the skin on the backs of mice. They then
shone ultraviolet light through the skin, causing the polymer to harden and
encapsulate the cells. Over time, the cells multiplied and developed into
cartilage. To test the feasibility of the technique for minimally invasive sur-
gery, the researchers injected the liquid into the knee joints of cadavers. The
surgeons used a fiber-optic tube to view the hardening process on a televi-
sion monitor. "This has huge implications," says James Wenz, an orthopedic
surgeon at Johns Hopkins who is collaborating with Elisseeff.
While most research on injectable systems has focused on cartilage and
bone, observers say this technology could be extended to tissues such as
those of the liver and heart. The method could be used to replace diseased
portions of an organ or to enhance its functioning, says Harvard University
pediatric surgeon Anthony Atala. In the case of heart failure, instead of
opening the chest and surgically implanting an engineered valve or muscle
tissue, he says, simply injecting the right combination of cells and signals
might do the trick.
For Elisseeff and the rest of the field, the next frontier lies in a powerful
new tool: stem cells. Derived from sources like bone marrow and embryos,
stem cells have the ability to differentiate into numerous types of cells.
Elisseeff and her colleagues have exploited that ability to grow new cartilage
and bone simultaneously — one of the trickiest feats in tissue engineering.
They made layers of a polymer-and-stem-cell mixture, infusing each layer
with specific chemical signals that triggered the cells to develop into either
bone or cartilage. Such hybrid materials would simplify knee replacement
surgeries, for instance, that require surgeons to replace the top of the shin
bone and the cartilage above it.
156 Tech Talk

Others in Injectable Tissue Engineering

RESEARCHER PROJECT

Anthony Atala Cartilage

Harvard Medical School

Jim Burns Cartilage

Genzyme
Antonios Mikos Bone and cardiovascular tissue
Rice University

David Mooney Bone and cartilage

University of Michigan

Don't expect tissue engineers to grow entire artificial organs anytime

soon. Elisseeff, for one, is aiming for smaller advances that will make tissue
engineering a reality within the decade. For the thousands of U.S. patients
who need new joints every year, such small feats could be huge.
— Alexandra M. Goho

Section 2: Nano Solar Cells

Paul Alivisatos

The sun may be the only energy source big enough to wean
wean us off: make us
us off fossil fuels. But harnessing its energy depends on silicon give up a habit (verb: to
wafers that must be produced by the same exacting process wean off)
used to make computer chips. The expense of the silicon wafers
raises solar-power costs to as much as 10 times the price of fossil fuel
generation—keeping it an energy source best suited for satellites and other
niche applications.
Paul Alivisatos, a chemist at the University of California, Berke-
ley, has a better idea: he aims to use nanotechnology to produce nano: one billionth of
a photovoltaic material that can be spread like plastic wrap or a measure
paint. Not only could the nano solar cell be integrated with other
building materials, it also offers the promise of cheap production costs that
could finally make solar power a widely used electricity alternative.
Alivisatos's approach begins with electrically conductive polymers. Other
researchers have attempted to concoct solar cells from these plastic materials
. . . but even the best of these devices aren't nearly efficient enough at con-
verting solar energy into electricity. To improve the efficiency, Alivisatos and
 Unit 9: Our Future 157

his coworkers are adding a new ingredient to the polymer: nanorods, bar-
shaped semiconducting inorganic crystals measuring just seven nanometers
by 60 nanometers. The result is a cheap and flexible material that could pro-
vide the same kind of efficiency achieved with silicon solar cells. Indeed,
Alivisatos hopes that within three years, Nanosys — Palo Alto, CA, startup
he cofounded — will roll out a nanorod solar cell that can produce energy
with the efficiency of silicon-based systems.
The prototype solar cells he has made so far consist of sheets of a
nanorod-polymer composite just 200 nanometers thick. Thin layers of an
electrode sandwich the composite sheets. When sunlight hits the sheets,
they absorb photons, exciting electrons in the polymer and the photons (physics): a
nanorods, which make up 90 percent of the composite. The result unit of electromagnetic
is a useful current that is carried away by the electrodes. energy considered a
Early results have been encouraging. But several tricks now in separate particle

the works could further boost performance. First, Alivisatos and in the works: under
development
his collaborators have switched to a new nanorod material, cad-
mium telluride, which absorbs more sunlight than cadmium selenide, the
material they used initially. The scientists are also aligning the nanorods in
branching assemblages that conduct electrons more efficiently than do ran-
domly mixed nanorods. "It's all a matter of processing," Alivisatos explains,
adding that he sees "no inherent reason" why the nano solar cells couldn't
eventually match the performance of top-end, expensive silicon solar cells.
The nanorod solar cells could be rolled out, inkjet printed, or even painted
onto surfaces, so "a billboard on a bus could be a solar collector," says
Nanosys's director of business development, Stephen Empedodes. He pre-
dicts that cheaper materials could create a $10 billion annual market for solar
cells, dwarfing the growing market for conventional silicon cells.
Alivisatos's nanorods aren't the only technology entrants chasing cheaper
solar power. But whether or not his approach eventually revolutionizes solar
power, he is bringing novel nanotechnology strategies to bear on the prob-
lem. And that alone could be a major contribution to the search for a better
solar cell. "There will be other research groups with clever ideas and
processes — maybe something we haven't even thought of yet," says
Alivisatos. "New ideas and new materials have opened up a period of
change. It's a good idea to try many approaches and see what emerges."
158 Tech Talk

O t h e r s in N a n o Solar Cells

RESEARCHER PROJECT

Richard Friend Fullerene-polymer composite

University of Cambridge solar cells

Michael Gratzel Nanocrystalline dye-sensitized

Swiss Federal Institute of solar cells
Technology

Alan Heeger Fullerene-polymer composite

University of California, solar cells
Santa Barbara

N. Serdar Sarkiftci Polymer and fullerene-

Johannes Kepler University polymer composite solar cells

Thanks to nanotechnology, those new ideas and new materials could

transform the solar cell market from a boutique source to the Wal-Mart of
electricity production.
—Eric Scigliano

Section 3: Grid Computing

Ian Foster & Carl Kesseiman

In the 1980s "internetworking protocols" allowed us to link any two com-

puters, and a vast network of networks called the Internet exploded around
the globe. In the 1990s the "hypertext transfer protocol" allowed
us to link any two documents, and a vast, online library-cum- cum (Latin): with
shopping-mall called the World Wide Web exploded across the
Internet. Now, fast-emerging "grid protocols" might allow us to link almost
anything else: databases, simulation and visualization tools, even the
number-crunching power of the computers themselves. And we might soon
find ourselves in the midst of the biggest explosion yet.
"We're moving into a future in which the location of [computational]
resources doesn't really matter," says Argonne National Laboratory's Ian Foster.
Foster and Carl Kesseiman of the University of Southern California's Informa-
tion Sciences Institute pioneered this concept, which they call grid computing
in analogy to the electric grid, and built a community to support it. Foster and
Kesseiman, along with Argonne's Steven Tuecke, have led develop-
ment of the Globus Toolkit, an open-source implementation of grid de facto (Latin):
protocols that has become the de facto standard. Such protocols in reality; actually
 Unit 9: Our Future 159

promise to give home and office machines the ability to reach into cyber-
space, find resources wherever they may be, and assemble them on the fly
into whatever applications are needed.
Imagine, says Kesselman, that you're the head of an emergency response
team that's trying to deal with a major chemical spill. "You'll probably want
to know things like. What chemicals are involved? What's the weather fore-
cast, and how will that affect the pattern of dispersal? What's the current
traffic situation, and how will that affect the evacuation routes?" If you tried
to find answers on today's Internet, says Kesselman, you'd
get bogged down: be
get bogged down in arcane log-in procedures and incompatible
held back
software. But w i t h grid computing it w o u l d be easy: the grid proto-
cols provide standard mechanisms for discovering, accessing, and invoking
just about any online resource, simultaneously building in all the requisite
safeguards for security and authentication.
Construction is under way on dozens of distributed grid com- under way: happening
puters around the world — virtually all of them employing Globus now

Toolkit. They'll have unprecedented computing power and applica-

tions ranging from genetics to particle physics to earthquake engineering.
The $88 million TeraGrid of the U.S. National Science Foundation will be one
of the largest. When it's completed later this year, the general-purpose, dis-
tributed supercomputer will be capable of some 21 trillion floating-point
operations per second, making it one of the fastest computational systems
on Earth. And grid computing is experiencing an upsurge of support from
industry heavyweights such as IBM, Sun Microsystems, and Microsoft. IBM,
which is a primary partner in the TeraGrid and several other grid projects, is
beginning to market an enhanced commercial version of the Globus Toolkit.

Others in Grid Computing

RESEARCHER PROJECT

Andrew Chien Peer-to-Peer Working Group

Entropia
Andrew Grimshaw Commercial grid software
Avaki; University of Virginia

Miron Livny Open-source system to harness

University of Wisconsin, idle workstations
Madison

Steven Tuecke Globus Toolkit

Argonne National Laboratory
160 Tech Talk

Out of Foster and Kesselman's work on protocols and standards, which

began in 1995, "this entire grid movement emerged," says Larry Smarr,
director of the California Institute for Telecommunications and Information
Technology. What's more, Smarr and others say, Foster and Kesselman have
been instrumental in building a community around grid computing and in
advocating its integration with two related approaches: peer-to-peer com-
puting, which brings to bear the power of idle. desktop computers on big
problems in the manner made famous by SETI@home, and Web
services, in which access to far-flung computational resources is far-flung: wide-ranging;
provided through enhancements to the Web's hypertext protocol. distant
By helping to merge these three powerful movements, Foster and
Kesselman are bringing the grid revolution much closer to reality. And that
could mean seamless and ubiquitous access to unfathomable computer
power.
— M. Mitchell Waldrop

Section 4: Software Assurance

Nancy Lynch & Stephen Garland

Computers crash. That's a fact of life. And when they do, it's usually
because of a software bug. Generally, the consequences are minimal — a
muttered curse and a reboot. But when the software is running complex dis-
tributed systems such as those that support air traffic control or medical
equipment, a bug. can be very expensive, and even cost lives. To help avoid
such disasters, Nancy Lynch and Stephen Garland are creating tools they
hope will yield nearly error-free software.
Working together at MIT's Laboratory for Computer Science, Lynch and
Garland have developed a computer language and programming tools for
making software development more rigorous, or as Garland puts it, to "make
software engineering more like an engineering discipline." Civil engineers.
Lynch points out, build and test a model of a bridge before anyone con-
structs the bridge itself. Programmers, however, often start with a goal and,
perhaps after some discussion, simply sit down to write the software code.
Lynch and Garland's tools allow programmers to model, test, and reason
about software before they write it. It's an approach that's unique among
efforts launched recently by the likes of Microsoft, IBM, and Sun Microsys-
tems to improve software quality and even to simplify and improve the pro-
gramming process itself.
 Unit 9: Our Future 161

Like many of these other efforts, Lynch and Garland's approach starts with
a concept called abstraction. The idea is to begin with a high-
high-level: overall or
level summary of the goals of the program and then write a series
general level of a system
of progressively more specific statements that describe both steps
the program can take to reach its goals and how it should perform those
steps. For example, a high-level abstraction for an aircraft collision avoidance
system might specify that corrective action take place whenever
two planes are flying too close. A lower-level design might have lower-level: specific or
the aircraft exchange messages to determine which should ascend detailed level of a system

and which should descend.

Lynch and Garland have taken the idea of abstraction further. A dozen
years ago, Lynch developed a mathematical model that made it easier for
programmers to tell if a set of abstractions would make a distributed system
behave correctly. With this model, she and Garland created a computer lan-
guage programmers can use to write "pseudocode" that describes what a
program should do. With his students, Garland has also built tools to prove
that lower levels of abstractions relate correctly to higher levels and to simu-
late a program's behavior before it is translated into an actual programming
language like Java. By directing programmers' attention to many more possi-
ble bug-revealing circumstances than might be checked in typical software
tests, the tools help assure that the software will always work properly. Once
software has been thus tested, a human can easily translate the pseudocode
into a standard programming language.
Not all computer scientists agree that it is possible to prove software error
free. Still, says Shari Pfleeger, a computer scientist for RAND in Washington,
DC, mathematical methods like Lynch and Garland's have a place in software
design. "Certainly using it for the most critical parts of a large system would

Others in Software Assurance

RESEARCHER PROJECT
Gerard Holzmann Software to detect bugs in
Bell Labs networked computers

Charles Howell Benchmarks for software

Mitre assurance
Charles Simonyi Programming tools to improve
Intentional Software software

Douglas Smith Mechanized software

Kestrel Institute development
162 Tech Talk

be important, whether or not you believe you're getting 100 percent of the
problems out," Pfleeger says.

While some groups have started working with Lynch and Garland's soft-
ware, the duo is pursuing a system for automatically generating Java pro-
grams from highly specified pseudocode. The aim, says Garland, is to "cut
human interaction to near zero" and eliminate transcription errors. Collabo-
rator Alex Shvartsman, a University of Connecticut computer scientist, says,
"A tool like this will take us slowly but surely to a place where systems are
much more dependable than they are today." And whether we're boarding
planes or going to the hospital, we can all appreciate that goal.
—Erika Jonietz

Section 5: Quantum Cryptography

Nicolas Gistn

The world runs on secrets. Governments, corporations, and individuals —

to say nothing of Internet-based businesses — could scarcely function without
secrecy. Nicolas Gisin of the University of Geneva is in the vanguard of a tech-
nological movement that could fortify the security of electronic communica-
tions. Gisin's tool, called quantum cryptography, can transmit
information in such a way that any effort to eavesdrop will be to eavesdrop: to
secretly listen to
detectable.
conversations of
The technology relies on quantum physics, which applies at atomic other people
dimensions: any attempt to observe a quantum system inevitably
alters it. After a decade of lab experiments, quantum cryptography is approach-
ing feasibility. "We can now think about using it for practical purposes," says
Richard Hughes, a quantum cryptography pioneer at the Los Alamos National
Laboratory in New Mexico. Gisin — a physicist and entrepreneur — is leading the
charge to bring the technology to market.
The company that Gisin spun off from his University of Geneva laboratory
in 2001, id Quantique, makes the first commercially available quantum-
cryptography system, he says. The PC-size prototype system includes a
random-number generator (essential for creating a decryption key) and
devices that emit and detect the individual photons of light that make up the
quantum signal.
Conventional cryptographers concentrate on developing strong digital
locks to keep information from falling into the wrong hands. But even the
 Unit 9: Our Future 163

strongest lock is useless if someone steals the key. With quantum cryptogra-
phy, "you can be certain that the key is secure," says Nabil Amer, manager of
the physics of information group at IBM Research. Key transmission takes the
form of photons whose direction of polarization varies randomly. The sender
and the intended recipient compare polarizations, photon by photon. Any
attempt to tap this signal alters the polarizations in a way that the sender
and the intended recipient can detect. They then transmit new keys until one
gets through without disturbance.
Quantum cryptography is still ahead of its time. Nonquantum encryption
schemes such as the public-key systems now commonly used in business
have yet to be cracked. But the security of public-key systems relies on the
inability of today's computers to work fast enough to break the code. Ulti-
mately, as computers get faster, this defense will wear thin. Public-key
encryption, Gisin says, "may be good enough today, but someone, someday,
will find a way to crack it. Only through quantum cryptography is there a
guarantee that the coded messages sent today will remain secret forever."
Gisin has no illusions about the challenges he faces. For one thing, quan-
tum cryptography works only over the distance a light pulse can travel
through the air or an optical fiber without a boost; the process of amplifica-
tion destroys the quantum-encoded information. Gisin's team holds the
world's distance record, having transmitted a quantum key over a 67-
kilometer length of fiber connecting Geneva and Lausanne, Switzerland.

Others in Quantum Cryptography

RESEARCHER PROJECT

Nabil Amer Quantum key exchange

IBM through optical fiber

Richard Hughes Ground-to-satellite optical

Los Alamos National communications
Laboratory

John Preskill Quantum information theory

Caltech Caltech: California
Institute of Technology
John Rarity Through-air quantum-key
QinetiQ transmission

Alexei Trifonov and Quantum-cryptography

Hoi-Kwong Lo hardware
MagiQ Technologies
164 Tech Talk

The work of Gisin and others could usher in a new epoch of quantum
information technology. Ironically, it is in part the prospect that superfast
quantum computers will someday supply fantastic code-breaking power that
drives Gisin and others to perfect their method of sheltering secret informa-
tion. In the coming decades, Gisin contends, "e-commerce and e-government
will be possible only if quantum communication widely exists." Much of the
technological future, in other words, depends on the science of secrecy.
— Herb Brody
Source: "10 Emerging Technologies That Will Change the World" Technology Review, February
2003. Copyright © 2003 Technology Review,

What's the Point? Section I

Check your understanding of the text. Based on the reading, decide whether the follow-
ing statements are true (T) or false (F). Some of these ideas are stated directly in the text,
while others are implied.

1. Injectable tissue engineering is intended to replace surgery.

2. With injectable tissue engineering, patients would receive

treatment sooner than they would undergo joint replacement
surgery.

3. This new treatment would be more expensive than transplant

surgery.

4. _ _ _ _ With this new technology, tissues will be grown in laborato-

ries first, and then transplanted into bodies.

5. Injectable tissue engineering would be less painful and less

risky than surgery.

6. Biomedical engineers have not yet succeeded in growing car-

tilage in a living human body.

7. So far, most researchers in this field have concentrated their

efforts on the heart.
 Unit 9: Our Future 165

8. This technique could be used to repair failing parts of

organs.

9. This new technology has the advantage of replacing different

kinds of tissue.

10. In the next ten years, scientists expect to grow complete

organs using this technology.

Understanding Words and Phrases: Section I

Choose one of the words or phrases to fill in the blank in each of the following sentences.
You may have to change the form of the word to fit the sentence.

bounds frontier scaffold

enhance implant transplant
exploit infuse treatment
feasibility invasive undergo

1. Last year, Margaret a series of tests to evalu-

ate her fitness for space travel.

2. Because Alex was poor when he was growing up, the habits
of living modestly and never wasting food are firmly
in his character.

3. They had four trees in their front yard and no trees in the back-
yard, so their gardener suggested that they
two of the trees to the back.

4. When they painted the outside of the five-story building, the

painters supported themselves on a large ,
which was set up temporarily along the walls.

5. "Don't worry," said the worker. "Fixing the roof will be much less
than painting the classrooms. We won't
interrupt your class; we won't even enter the school building."
166 Tech Talk

6. A common of cancer is a combination of

surgery, radiation, and drugs.

7. The soil in our back yard is very rich, so we it

by growing a wide variety of vegetables in our garden.

8. We are not allowed to camp outside the of

the campground.

9. We have explored much of our land as well as our solar system, but
the deep ocean is still largely an unexplored .

10. Rebuilding the town after damage by the tornado will not be
without help from the government.

11. At the end of the delicious Indian dinner, we enjoyed sweet tea
with aromatic spices.

12. Unfortunately, the top two Olympic swimmers were

disqualified from the competition because they used drugs
their performance.

What's the Point? Section 2

Show your understanding of the reading. Based on the text, choose the best answer to
complete the following statements.

1. The reason that solar power is not used widely today is that

a. current solar technology cannot produce enough

electricity
b. solar energy is more expensive to use than other forms of
energy
c. solar power is not available everywhere in the world
d. solar energy is unpopular
 Unit 9: Our Future 167

2. Wider use of solar power may now be possible because .

a. new materials have been developed
b. new production techniques have been developed
c. a new kind of solar cell can be integrated with other build-
ing materials
d. All of the above are correct.

3. Solar cells convert sunlight into useful energy in the form of

a. intense heat
b. bright light
c. invisible radiation
d. electric current

4. The new nano solar cells will be made of .

a. a plastic-based material
b. a silicon-based material
c. a very thin metal material
d. All of the above are correct.

5. The composite material of nano solar cells is semi-

conducting nanorods.
a. half
b. less than half
c. more than half
d. None of the above is correct.

6. Alivisatos and his research team are now working to improve the
efficiency of nano solar cells with .
a. a new nanorod material and orderly placement of
nanorods in the composite
b. a new nanorod material and random mixing of nanorods
in the composite
c. random mixing of nanorods and painting the solar cells on
a surface
d. orderly placement of nanorods and thinly rolled sheets of
solar cells
168 Tech Talk

7. With nanotechnology, solar cells can be .

a. efficient but difficult to produce
b. expensive but still profitable
c. inexpensive and widely available
d. inexpensive but unpopular

Understanding Words and Phrases: Section 2

Following are excerpts from the text you just read. Based on context, choose the correct
meaning of the underlined expression. The underlined expressions appear here in the same
order as in the text; they are also underlined in the text for easy reference.

1. "But harnessing its energy depends on silicon wafers...."

a. controlling and using
b. buying and selling
c. creating and destroying
d. raising and lowering

2. ". . . silicon wafers that must be produced by the same exacting

process used to make computer chips."
a. exactly the same
b. scientifically advanced
c. needing pure water
d. requiring great care

3. ". . . an energy source best suited for satellites and other niche
applications."
a. invented
b. rejected
c. inexpensive
d. appropriate
 Unit 9: Our Future 169

4. "Other researchers have attempted to concoct solar cells from these

plastic materials...."
a. to prepare by mixing
b. to invent
c. to shape into a cone
d. to cut out

5. "But several tricks now in the works could further boost performance."
a. inform
b. increase
c. bring back
d. damage

6. "The scientists are also aligning the nanorods in branching assem-

blages that conduct electrons more efficiently than do randomly
mixed nanorods."
a. making bigger
b. marketing abroad
c. manufacturing
d. arranging in proper order

7. ". . . he sees 'no inherent reason' why the nano solar cells couldn't
eventually match the performance of top-end, expensive silicon
solar cells."
a. upside down
b. among the best
c. difficult to find
d. most complex

8. "He predicts that cheaper materials could create a $10 billion annual
market for solar cells, dwarfing the growing market for conventional
silicon cells."
a. making seem small
b. collaborating with
c. destroying magically
d. helping cheerfully
170 Tech Talk

What's the Point? Section 3

Check your understanding of the text. Based on the reading, complete the following sen-
tences with brief statements. Your statements should be based on the article, but use your
own words.

1. The name Internet comes from

2. Creation of the Internet became possible because people were able

to link together

3. The World Wide Web became possible when

4. Grid computing would be possible if we could connect __

5. The term grid computing comes from

6. The concept of grid computing was introduced by two scientists

who work at

7. New software protocols, such as the Globus Toolkit, will allow per-
sonal computers to

8. Today's Internet cannot accomplish the things that Globus Toolkit

can because

9. Possible applications for grid computing include

10. Grid computing has a good chance to succeed commercially due to

interest from

11. Foster and Kesselman are collaborating with others and hope to
combine grid computing with two other methods, called
and .
 Unit 9: Our Future 171

Understanding Words and Phrases: Section 3

7. The story you just read contains some idioms and metaphors that are listed on the
right. Some of them are underlined in the text for your reference; others are defined in
the margin. These expressions are also answers to riddles that appear on the left. Solve
these riddles by matching each item on the left with the correct answer on the right.

1. Albert Einstein is one a. number-crunching

in science.

2. Computers are very good b. get bogged down

at this.

3. New Zealand is this if you c. under way

live in Canada, but not if
you live in Australia

4. Don't do this with any one d. heavyweight

question on a long exam!

5. Spring has come, and e. far-flung

training is for the
summer soccer competition.
172 Tech Talk

II. Based on the text you just read, choose the best definition for the underlined word
or phrase. The words and phrases are also underlined in the text for your reference. The
form or part of speech of a word in this exercise may be different from the one used in
the text. If you aren't able to determine the meaning through context, use other vocabu-
lary skills such as word parts and word forms to help you with the meaning. Note: The
word some in 7 is followed by three correct meanings; choose the only one that is correct
for the article you just read in this section.

1. to pioneer: a. study socialism b. be the first to do c. explore the wild

2. to implement: a. carry out b. repair c. contact

3. incompatible: a. not matching b. illegible c. incomprehensible

4. to invoke: a. interpret b. purchase c. activate

5. virtually: a. jokingly b. very nearly c. honestly

6. unprecedented: a. not always b. never before c. unbelievable

7. some: a. a little b. a lot c. approximately

8. upsurge: a. sudden increase b. giving up c. risky operation

9. instrumental: a. playing music b. keeping quiet c. playing an important

role

10. to advocate: a. advertise b. recommend c. criticize

11. idle: a. not in use b. very powerful c. very small

12. seamless: a. not obvious b. undeveloped c. perfectly smooth

What's the Point? Section 4

Demonstrate your understanding of some of the details of the reading. Based on the text,
give short answers to the following questions.

1. When can a software bug be dangerous?

2. Is the process of software development highly disciplined today?

3. What are Nancy Lynch and Stephen Garland developing?

 Unit 9: Our Future 173

4. Where do Lynch and Garland work?

5. Is anyone in the computer industry currently working on software

assurance?

6. What is meant by abstraction, in paragraph 3 of Section 4?

7. What do different software-assurance methods have in common?

8. What is unique about Lynch and Garland's method?

9. Do computer scientists believe they can achieve error-free

software?

10. Why is it helpful to generate computer programs automatically?

Understanding Words and Phrases: Section 4

I. Complete the following sentences in your own words, or provide answers to the questions.
The vocabulary words are underlined; they are also underlined in the article for your reference.

1. Some consequences of a poor diet are .

2. To whom would you be willing to reveal your secrets?

3. Her rigorous medical training included .

4. I cannot reason with him when .

174 Tech Talk

5. What corrective action might be taken if a student misbehaved in

school?

6. It is critical for a judge to be .

II. The words in the left column can be associated with the items on the right; the items
on the right are not definitions. Match the expressions on the left with their associations on
the right. The expressions on the left are underlined in the article text for your reference.

1. yield a. a car accident

2. launch b. a staircase

3. disaster c. a new television program

4. collision d. results

5. ascend e. earthquake

6. descend f. numbers from 10 to 1

What's the Point? Section 5

Check your understanding of the text. Based on the reading, are the following statements
true (T) or false (F)?

1. Quantum cryptography is more powerful than any existing

encoding method.

2. Scientists began to research quantum cryptography only a

couple of years ago.

3. A commercial quantum cryptography system is not available

yet.

4. In quantum cryptography, the key to a secret code consists of

photons of light.

5. With this technology, users will always notice when a code

key has been stolen.
 Unit 9: Our Future 175

6. Secret codes used today can be easily decoded by today's

computers.

7. A big problem with quantum cryptography is that encoded

information travels over limited distances.

8. Nicolas Gisin is developing quantum cryptography in the

United States.

9. Gisin's work will be useful only if fast computers of the

future can break today's codes.

Understanding Words and Phrases: Section 5

Choose the appropriate completion for each of the following sentences. The underlined
word in each sentence is also underlined in the article text for your reference.
a. waiting an hour for her friend
b. a constant smile
c. fit through the front door
d. heavy rain and wind
e. vitamins and minerals
f. fell asleep in class
g. running the family business
h. traveling around the world

1. When we moved into the house, the wide sofa scarcely .

2. Rice and flour are often fortified with .

3. Alice's patience began to wear thin after .

4. After staying up all night, Roger inevitably .

5. They trusted their son and left him in charge of .

6. A clown's makeup creates the illusion of .

7. The retired couple were excited at the prospect of .

8. A cave sheltered the mountain hikers from .

176 Tech Talk

Now, write your own sentences using the underlined words in the sentences on page 175.

Compound Adjectives
Every section of this article contains many examples of compound
adjectives. A compound adjective consists of two or more words that
are connected by a hyphen, a short dash. Here are several examples
from the text.

lab-grown alternatives log-in procedure

polymer-and-stem-cell mixture error-free software
open-source implementation random-number generator

The hyphenated words act as a single unit, a single adjective. With-

out a hyphen, each modifier that precedes a noun applies separately to
the noun. For example, big red house means that the house is big and
the house is also red. However, in the phrase random-number generator,
the numbers are random, but the generator is not random; the genera-
tor creates random numbers.
Furthermore, some words that precede a noun may not modify that
noun at all. Compare polymer and stem-cell mixture with polymer-and-
stem-cetl mixture. In the first case, there could be two materials: (1) a
polymer, and (2) a mixture that contains only stem cells but no poly-
mer. In the second case, there is only one material: a single mixture that
contains both a polymer and stem cells. The hyphens are necessary to
clarify the meaning. Without a hyphen {or hyphens), such a phrase
would be ambiguous — it could have two different meanings.
 Unit 9: Our Future 177

In this exercise, several ambiguous noun phrases are listed. The last
word in the phrase is the modified noun. Give two possible meanings
of each phrase: (a) without a hyphen (or hyphens) between the modi-
fiers and (b) with a hyphen (or hyphens). The first two noun phrases
are done for you.

1. modern art history: a. modern art history = modern

history of art
b. modern-art history = history of
modern art

2. fish and potato pie: a. two dishes: (1) fish, (2) potato pie
b. one dish that contains both fish
and potatoes

3. Italian language student: a.

b. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

4. large family car: a._________________________________

b.

5. French bread baker: a. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

b.

6. beef and vegetable soup: a.

b.
178 Tech Talk

7. old furniture store: a.

b.

8. two family houses: a.

b.

Let's Talk about It

1. How are these five emerging technologies different from gadgets

and gizmos?

2. At the end of section 2, "Nano Solar Cells," what is meant by the phrase
"from a boutique source to the Wal-Mart of electricity production"?

3. Each section of this article contains a table titled "Others in (the

field]." Look at these tables. What types of organizations — private
companies, universities, government — are doing most of the
research? Can you explain this?

4. Do you agree that the technologies described in this article will be

part of our future?
a. Which technologies are likely to be developed and used?
Why?
b. Which ones are not likely to be successful? Why?

5. About 50 years ago, some people made predictions about the future
that did not come true. For example, they predicted that today (a)
most of our electricity would come from clean nuclear power, and
(b) we would use cheap, disposable, biodegradable plastic dishes
made of natural plant materials. These technologies actually exist
today, but we don't use them as widely as predicted. Why is that?
a. Where is nuclear power used? Why don't we use it more
widely?
b. Why do we still use traditional dishes?
 Unit 9: Our Future 179

6. Do you think that people's feelings — such as fear, beliefs, nostalgia,

or personal taste — affect what new technologies we accept and use?
How so?

7. Beside changes in technology, can you think of other changes that

have happened over the last 50 years?
a. What changes have we seen in our environment?
b. How about our society?

8. Do you think that environmental and social changes can influence

what technologies we develop and use? How?

W h a t Do You Think?

1. What are your thoughts and feelings about technology and society?
Choose any one of the discussion questions or issues on page 178
and write about your reactions to it. Explain your opinions and feel-
ings, supporting them with facts and logical arguments.

2. Imagine life 50 years from now. What will people talk about? Write a
dialogue that takes place in the year 2050. The conversation can be
between parent and child, doctor and patient, two students, or anyone
you choose. In this conversation, demonstrate the impact that a tech-
nological or social change has had on the lives of your characters.

3. It's 2050 and you are a news reporter. Write an article describing a
major news story or several news events of the day. Persuade your
readers that this news item is important. How could it affect indi-
viduals or society?

Expansion Activities
Create your own crossword puzzle. List all the new words and phrases
that appeared in this unit. Make a crossword puzzle using as many of
these words as you can. Feel free to add other words to fill in more of the
puzzle space. Write your own clues for the words in your puzzle. The
clues can be direct definitions, sentences with omitted words, or other
descriptions. Give the puzzle to your classmates to solve.
List of Vocabulary Practiced
This list contains all the words and phrases that appear under Key Words and in
vocabulary exercises in this book. The words and expressions are listed in alphabetical
order, with the number of the unit and in some cases with the number of the section
where they appear in parentheses.

abundant (7) cartilage (9, Section 1)

adapt/adaptable (5) cell (9, Section 1)
adhesive (5) charge {9, Section 5)
advocate (9, Section 3) chronological (6)
ailment (6) civil engineer (9, Section 4)
align (9, Section 2) claim (5)
alter/altered (1) cling (5)
anticipation (6) clump (5)
appear (1) cluster (6)
application (5) collaborate (3)
arcane (9, Section 3) colleague (5)
ascend (9, Section 4) collision (9, Section 4)
assemble (8) component (2)
atrophy (3) composite (9, Section 2)
attempt (3) concentrate (8)
autonomous (7) concoct (9, Section 2)
bear (5) confine/confinement (3)
benefit (1) consequence (9, Section 4)
bind (8) considerable (8)
blade (4) contribute (5)
bond (5) conventional (4)
boost (9, Section 2) coordinate/coordination (6)
bounds (9, Section 1) corrective action (9, Section 4)
branch (5) counterpart (8)
break (a code) (9, Section 5) countless (5)
breakdown (3) crack(acode) (9,Section5)
breakdown (3) crash (9, Section 4)
breakthrough (4) critical (9, Section 4)
cadaver (9, Section 1) crop (9, Introduction)
capacity (4) crucial (4)

180
 List of Vocabulary Practiced 181

cryptography (9, Section 5) force (2)

dangle (5) fortify (9, Section 5)
decryption (9, Section 5) fossil (8)
defect (6) friction (2)
deflate (8) frontier (9, Section 1)
deliberations (7) gadget (9, Introduction)
delighted (7) generate (2)
density (5) govern (2)
departure (4) harmful/harmless (3)
descend (9, Section 4) harness (9, Section 2)
determine (3) heavyweight (9, Section 3)
disaster (9, Section 4) hinge(d) (4)
disperse/dispersal (9, Section 3) hormone (3)
display (1) hospitable (7)
dissolve (8) idle (9, Section 3)
dwarf (9, Section 2) illusion (9, Section 5)
dynamite (8) implant (9, Section 1)
electrode (9, Section 2) implement (9, Section 3)
emerge (9, Introduction) incompatible (9, Section 3)
emit (8) incorporate (3)
employ (2) indication (3)
emulate (5) inevitably (9, Section 5)
enable (5) inflate (2)
encompass (3) infuse (9, Section 1)
encryption (9, Section 5) inject (9, Section 1)
enhance (9, Section 1) instant/instantly (1)
enormous (7) instrumental (9, Section 3)
entrepreneur (9, Section 5) integrate (6)
envision (4) intermittent (4)
envy (5) interval (6)
evacuate/evacuation (9, Section 3) intricate (5)
exacting (9, Section 2) invasive (9, Section 1)
exceed (2) invert (1)
exploit 9 (Section 1) invoke (9, Section 3)
extract (8) key in/keyed in (1)
faint (8) launch (9, Section 4)
feasibility (9, Section 1) mandate (8)
flexible (4) massive (8)
float (2) mimic (3)
182 List of Vocabulary Practiced

mold (5) sample (3)

monitor (8) scaffold (9, Section 1)
mount (5) scamper (5)
mutter (9, Section 4) scarcely (9, Section 5)
nestle (5) scurry (5)
neutralize (8) seamless (9, Section 3)
niche (4) sequence (1)
number-crunching (9, Section 3) shelter (9, Section 5)
obsolete (8) shift (4)
overcome (2) shortcoming (5)
perceive/perception (6) skim (xiii)
permanent/permanently (1) software bug (9, Section 4)
phobia (5) solo (2)
photovoltaic (9, Section 2) some (9, Section 3)
pin down (5) sophisticated (1)
to pioneer (9, Section 3) split (5)
popular (1) stand for (1)
precede (1) stiff (8)
profound (7) straightforward (8)
prone (4) struggle (7)
property (5) subject (3)
prospect (9, Section 5) substance (8)
protein (3) subtle (5)
protocol (9, Section 3) suit/suited (9, Section 2)
prototype (4) supplement (3)
pseudo (9, Section 4) sweep/swept (2)
pursuit (7) sweltering (7)
rapid (1) synchronization (4)
raw (3) in sync; out of sync (4)
readily (5) synthesis (3)
reason (9, Section 4) synthesize (3)
reboot (9, Section 4) syringe (9, Section 1)
repel (5) tell-tale (8)
retain (2) temporary (1)
retard (6) thermal (8)
reveal (9, Section 4) tissue (9, Section 1)
revolutionary/revolution (1) top-end (9, Section 2)
rigorous (9, Section 4) transform (8)
 List of Vocabulary Practiced 183

transplant (9, Section 1) universal (4)

treatment (9, Section 1) unprecedented (9, Section 3)
turbulence (8) upsurge (9, Section 3)
ubiquitous (9, Section 3) virtually (9, Section 3)
unbiased (7) wear thin (9, Section 5)
undergo (9, Section 1) to weather (4)
underlie (7) yield (9, Section 4)
unequivocally (4)