The Staff, Treble Clef and Bass Clef

Music is most commonly notated using the Staff (and tablature.) The staff consists of five horizontal lines on
which musical notes lie. The lines and the spaces between the lines represent different pitches. Lower pitches
are lower on the staff and higher pitches are higher on the staff.

With the blank staff we can't yet tell what notes to play. We
use Clefs to tell us which notes correspond to which lines or spaces. The most common clefs are
the Treble Clef (also known as the G Clef) and the Bass Clef (or F Clef).

The Treble Clef spirals around the second line from the bottom. This spiral tells us that notes on this line are G.

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From here we can figure out the other note names simply by going forward or backward through the musical
alphabet: A,B,C,D,E,F,G.

If we need more notes above or below the staff we add Ledger Lines, which extend the range of the staff.
(Middle C is the first ledger line below the staff in Treble Clef.)

The Bass Clef has two dots,

above and below the second line from the top. The dots tell us that this line is F.
 The note names in Bass Clef are:

Middle C is the first ledger line above the staff in Bass Clef.

Alto and Tenor Clefs

(You might want to read about the Staff before you read about the Alto and Tenor Clefs.)

The Alto and Tenor Clefs have two curves that meet in the center. The line on the staff where these curves
meet is the note C. These clefs are also called C Clefs for this reason.
The Alto Clef is positioned on the middle line. This line becomes the note C. (This note is also Middle C.)

The note names in Alto Clef are:

Tenor Clef is very similar to Alto Clef but the main difference is that the Tenor Clef is positioned on the
second line from the top whereas Alto Clef is positioned on the middle line. In Tenor Clef the second line from
the top becomes the note C. (This is also Middle C, just like in Alto Clef.) The
note names in Tenor Clef are:

Duration of Notes and Rests, Dotted Notes, Ties and Beamed Notes
Duration is how long a note or rest is to be played. Notes and rests have fractional durations.

A Half-note is half as long as a Whole-note, a Quarter-note is a quarter as long as a Whole-note and is also half
as long as a Half-note, and so forth. Each duration will have its own symbol.

Note Durations:

Rests work the same way, just with different symbols.

-
Rest Durations:

Dotted Notes:

A Dot after a note indicates an elongation of the note by one-half of the original value of the note that the dot is
attached to. For example, if a Half-note has a dot, this tells us that the duration is: Half-note + Quarter-note, or 2
beats + 1 beat (half of two) = 3 total beats.

Beamed notes:
Eighth, Sixteenth, Thirty-second, Sixty-fourth, and One Hundred Twenty-Eighth-notes will usually be beamed
together when they are in groups.

Tied Notes:

Ties connect the durations of different notes together into one long note. In the following example a Whole-note
is tied to a Quarter-note. The duration then becomes: Whole-note + Quarter-note. (Another way to think of it is:
the length of four Quarter-notes + one Quarter-note).

Measures and Bar Lines

Measures are groupings of notes, usually grouped by meter. Bar Lines show us where one measure ends and
another begins.

There are different types of Bar Lines, each with a different function

A Single Bar Line is the normal Bar Line, it tells us where the measures are:

A Double Bar Line shows there is there is a major change in the music, such as a new musical section or new
time signature:

A "Final" Double Bar Line shows that the piece of music is over:

The Beat and Tempo

The Beat is the regularly occurring pattern of rhythmic stresses in music. When we count, tap or clap along
with music we are experiencing the Beat. Try tapping your finger along with different types of music and see
what happens.
Tempo is the speed of the Beat, usually expressed in Beats Per Minute (BPM). For example, at 120 BPM there
will be 120 beats in one minute. Tempo can also be expressed verbally with different music terms, such as
Slowly, Fast, Allegro, or Largo.

If you have a metronome try different settings and tap along. If you don't have a metronome, find a clock that
shows seconds. If you tap along with the seconds you are experiencing 60 BPM because there are 60
seconds/beats per minute.

Time Signatures
Time Signatures tell us what the meter is and what note values comprise the beat. Time signatures are written
as two numbers, with one number above the other.

The top number tells us how many beats there are in a measure; this is also the meter. The bottom number tells
us what note values comprise the beat.

In the above example the top number is 3: This tells us that

there are 3 beats in a measure. The bottom number tells us that the quarter-note gets the beat.

Meter
Meter is the grouping of beat patterns. Certain beats are stressed more than others in music and this causes the
beats to fall into perceptible patterns. These patterns almost always come in twos or threes.

Fundamental Meter Groupings:

These meters are the most basic meters. Almost all of the other meters are some combination of these two.

 Duple: [1 - 2], [1 - 2], [1 - 2], [1 - 2], etc.

 Triple: [1 - 2 - 3], [1 - 2 - 3], [1- 2 - 3], [1 - 2 - 3], etc.

Other Meters:

 [1 - 2 - 3 - 4], [1 - 2 - 3 - 4], [1 - 2 - 3 - 4], etc.

 [1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6], [1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6], etc.

 [1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5], [1- 2 - 3 - 4 - 5], etc.

Many other meters are possible.

Meter, Beat and Tempo:
The Beat and Meter can change depending upon Tempo. For example, in a slow tempo a meter of [123] is
usually a group of three beats. In a fast tempo the beat is felt as: [1], [1], [1], etc.

The Keyboard
The Keyboard is arranged so that the pitch goes left to right, low to high. The keys on keyboard instruments are
arranged in a reoccurring pattern. The black keys are arranged in groups of two and three between the white
keys.

This pattern continues up and down the keyboard.

The note names of the white keys are:

This key pattern repeats on the keyboard so that the note names of the white keys keep repeating: CDEFGAB-
CDEFGAB-CDEFGAB and so on.

Sharps and Flats:

If we take a white key, D for example, and we go up (to the right) to the adjacent black key we are now on the
note D-sharp. If we go down (to the left) to the adjacent black key from D we end up on the note D-flat. This is
how we determine the names of the black keys and therefore all black keys will be a sharp or flat note.
You may have noticed that black keys can have more than one note name. For example C-sharp and D-flat are
on the same black key, but which name we should use depends upon context, such as the Key Signature.

Half-steps and Whole-steps:

A Half-step is the distance of two adjacent notes, such as D to D-sharp, E to F, or A-flat to G. (A half-step is
also known as a minor second.)
A Whole-step is the distance of two Half-steps, such as C to D, E to F-sharp, or B-flat to A-flat. (A whole-step
is also known as a Major second.)

Intervals
Intervals are the distances between any two notes. Each interval will have a number - 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
These numbers are the distance between two notes, based upon counting the lines and spaces on the staff.

For example, if we count lines and spaces,

starting from C and ending on G, we count: C,D,E,F,G = 1,2,3,4,5, Therefore, the interval from C to G is a fifth
(5th).

We can also keep counting past 8, through 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13, but usually not past 13.

List of interval types:

 Unison - 1
 Second - 2nd
 Third - 3rd
 Fourth - 4th
 Fifth - 5th
 Sixth - 6th
 Seventh - 7th
 Octave - 8ve
 Ninth - 9th
 Tenth - 10th
 Eleventh - 11th
 Twelfth - 12th
 Thirteenth - 13th

Interval quality:
Intervals also have another identifier in addition to number called the interval quality. Intervals can be called
Major (M), minor (m), Perfect (P), Augmented (A), or diminished (d).

Major Intervals:

Minor Intervals:
Perfect Intervals:
 Augmented Intervals:

Diminished Intervals:
Each interval comprises of a certain number of half-steps. With the aid of a keyboard it is easy to visualize and
count the number of half-steps that make up intervals.
List of intervals:

 P1, d2 = 0 half-steps
 m2, A1 = 1 half-step
 M2, d3 = 2 half-steps
 m3, A2 = 3 half-steps
 M3, d4 = 4 half-steps
 P4, A3 = 5 half-steps
 A4, d5 = 6 half-steps
 P5, d6 = 7 half-steps
 m6, A5 = 8 half-steps
 M6, d7 = 9 half-steps
 m7, A6 = 10 half-steps
 M7, d8 = 11 half-steps
 P8, A7 = 12 half-steps

Sharps, Flats, Naturals, and Enharmonic notes

When a Sharp or Flat is added to a note it raises or lowers the note by a Half-step. For example, if we have the
note C and we add a sharp to it the note now becomes C-sharp. If we have the note E and we add a flat to it the
note now becomes E-flat.

Here are some examples of sharps and flats on the staff:

Naturals are notes without sharps or flats: C, D, E, F, G, A, and B. For example the note D can be called D-
natural because it has no sharp or flat.
Here are the natural notes:

Natural notes sometimes have their own symbol attached to them:

Enharmonic notes:
Enharmonic notes are notes that have the same pitch but have different note spellings. For example, F-sharp
and G-flat are enharmonic notes, as are C-flat and B-natural.

Music Theory: Transposition

In music, Transposition occurs when we take a group of notes and move that group up or down by a
certain interval. For example, if we take a C Major chord (the notes C, E, and G) and transpose them up by
a Major second we then have a D Major chord (the, notes D, F-sharp, and A).

The step by step process by which we transposed a C Major chord up by a Major second to become a D Major
chord is as follows:

1. C Major chord: notes C, E, and G

2. Move the first note of the C Major chord, C, up by a Major second. We now have the note D.
 3. Move the second note of the C Major chord, E, up by a Major second. We now have the note F-sharp.

4. Move the third note of the C Major chord, G, up by a Major second. We now have the note A.

5. The results of transposing C, E, and G up by a Major second becomes: D, F-sharp, and A, which is a D

Major chord

As you can see all you need to do to transpose something is move each individual note in the group of notes by
the same musical interval. With this method transposing becomes a simple process and we can then transpose
any any note, chord, or scale.

Transposition Exercises - Try transposing each of the following:

 Transpose the note E-flat down by a Major Second.

 Transpose a D7 chord (D, F-sharp, A, C) up by a minor third.
 Transpose a C Major scale (C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C) up by a Perfect fifth.

A Few Words About Transposing Instruments:

Transposing instruments are instruments that automatically transpose when playing - the actual pitches they
play are different from what is written in the music. For example, the B-flat Trumpet transposes down by a
Major second. For a B-flat Trumpet, the written note C would actually come out as B-flat, because it is a
transposing instrument.

Scales
Scales are collections of notes arranged in patterns of half-steps, whole-steps, or other intervals. Composers and
improvisers use scales as pitch resources in their music. They choose specific scales and choose notes from
those scales to form melodies and harmonies in their music.

An example of a scale is a Major Scale. A major scale has the following arrangement of half-steps (H) and
whole-steps (W):

W-W-H-W-W-W-H

If we start this pattern on the note D we get a D Major scale: D, E, F-sharp, G, A, B, C-sharp, D.
This is just one of the many possible scales but all scales work in the same way.
List of Scales:

 Chromatic scale
 Major scale
 Minor scales
 Pentatonic scales
 Whole-tone scale
 Octatonic scale

The Major Scale

A Major Scale is a scale that has the following pattern of whole-steps (W) and half-steps (H):
W-W-H-W-W-W-H

Here is a Major scale starting on E:

Learn about more Scales

All 12 Major Scales

(You may want to read the articles about Scales, the Major Scale, or Key Signatures first.)

There are 12 different Major Scales: One with no sharps or flats, 4 with sharps, 4 with flats, and 3 with either
sharps or flats depending upon enharmonic spelling.

Major Scales with no sharps or flats: C Major

Major Scales with sharps: D, E, G, A

Major Scales with flats: E-flat, F, A-flat, B-flat
Enharmonic Major Scales: C-sharp/D-flat, F-sharp/G-flat, B-natural/C-flat

Modes of the Major Scale

A Mode is a type of scale created by establishing a new tonic within a preexisting scale.

Example:

 The C Major scale has these notes: C, D, E, F, G, A, B ,C.

 The Tonic in the C Major scale is C.
 If we establish a new tonic on one of the notes other than C, for instance D, we now have a Mode.
 The new mode on D has these notes: D, E, F, G, A, B, C, D.
 This is the Dorian mode.
 New modes may be created the same way on the other notes of the Major scale.

The Modes of the C Major scale:

 Ionian/Major Scale: C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C
 Dorian: D, E, F, G, A, B, C, D
 Phrygian: E, F, G, A, B, C, D, E
 Lydian: F, G, A, B, C, D, E, F
 Mixolydian: G, A, B, C, D, E, F, G
 Aeolian/Natural minor scale: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, A
 Locrian: B, C, D, E, F, G, A, B

Notice that the Ionian mode is the same as the Major scale. The Aeolian mode is also the same as the Natural
minor scale. The Locrian mode is used less often because it has a diminished fifth instead of a perfect fifth for
its fifth scale degree and therefore has a less stable sound.
Each mode has its own unique sound even though they all have the same notes as their "parent" scale, the Major
scale.

Minor Scales
(You may want to read an introduction to scales first.)

There are three types of Minor Scales: Natural Minor, Harmonic Minor and Melodic Minor.

Natural Minor

The Natural Minor scale has the following pattern of half-steps (H) and whole-steps (W):

W-H-W-W-H-W-W

Here is a Natural Minor scale starting on F:

Harmonic Minor

The Harmonic Minor scale has the following pattern of half-steps, whole-steps and one augmented
second (A2):

W-H-W-W-H-A2-H

Here is a Harmonic Minor scale starting on F:

Melodic Minor
The Melodic Minor scale is different because when we go up the scale we use one pattern and when we go
down the scale we use another.

The ascending pattern is: W-H-W-W-W-W-H

The descending pattern is the Natural Minor Scale: W-H-W-W-H-W-W

Here are the ascending and descending patterns for the Melodic Minor scale starting on F:

Minor Scales
(You may want to read an introduction to scales first.)

There are three types of Minor Scales: Natural Minor, Harmonic Minor and Melodic Minor.

Natural Minor

The Natural Minor scale has the following pattern of half-steps (H) and whole-steps (W):

W-H-W-W-H-W-W

Here is a Natural Minor scale starting on F:

Harmonic Minor

The Harmonic Minor scale has the following pattern of half-steps, whole-steps and one augmented
second (A2):
 W-H-W-W-H-A2-H

Here is a Harmonic Minor scale starting on F:

Melodic Minor

The Melodic Minor scale is different because when we go up the scale we use one pattern and when we go
down the scale we use another.

The ascending pattern is: W-H-W-W-W-W-H

The descending pattern is the Natural Minor Scale: W-H-W-W-H-W-W

Here are the ascending and descending patterns for the Melodic Minor scale starting on F:

Scale Degrees
The notes of Major and Minor scales have specific names, called Scale Degrees. They have both a number and
a name.

The Scale Degree numbers are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

The names of the Scale Degrees are:

1. Tonic
2. Supertonic
3. Mediant
4. Subdominant
5. Dominant
6. Submediant
7. Leading Tone
The Scale Degrees have these names for a reason. The names relate to their function and to their position to
each other on the scale, for example the Tonic is the primary tone, the Subdominant is below the Dominant, and
the Leading Tone "leads" to the Tonic.

When we alter a scale tone we can indicate this by adding a sharp, flat or natural symbol in front of its number.
The sixth and seventh scale degrees of the Melodic Minor scale are good examples of altered tones.

The Chromatic Scale

A Chromatic Scale is a scale that is made of only half-steps (H):

H-H-H-H-H-H, etc.

The Chromatic Scale starting on D is: D, D-sharp, E, F, F-sharp, G, G-sharp, A, A-sharp, B, C, C-sharp, D. (If
we choose to go down the scale we use flats instead: D, D-flat, C, B, B-flat, A, A-flat, G, G-flat, F, E, E-flat, D).

Pentatonic Scales
Pentatonic Scales are scales that have five notes. There are many possible Pentatonic scales but the most
common ones are the "Major" Pentatonic and the "Minor" Pentatonic.

The "Major" Pentatonic scale has this interval pattern:

M2-M2-m3-M2-m3

The "Minor" Pentatonic scale has this interval pattern:

m3-M2-M2-m3-M2

If you play only the black keys of a keyboard you are playing a pentatonic scale.

The Whole-Tone Scale

A Whole-Tone Scale is a scale made entirely of whole-steps and has only six notes.

The pattern for a whole-tone scale is easy to remember because it consists only of whole-steps (W):
W-W-W-W-W-W
A whole-tone scale starting on D-flat:

The Octatonic Scale

The Octatonic Scale is a scale that has eight notes that is constructed from alternating half-steps (H) and whole-
steps (W).

H-W-H-W-H-W-H-W

Here is an example of a octatonic scale starting on D:

An octatonic scale may also begin with a whole-step:

W-H-W-H-W-H-W-H 

These scales are also called diminished scales.

Relative Major and Minor Keys

Major or minor keys that share the same key signature are called relative keys. For example, in the key of G-
Major, which has one sharp, the notes are G, A, B, C, D, E, and F#.
 G-Major scale

 
If we instead start on the sixth scale degree of the major scale in the key of G-Major, we then get the relative
minor key, E-minor, with the notes E, F#, G, A, B, C, and D.

E-minor scale

G-Major and E-minor share the same set of notes and and the same key signature, and therefore are the relative
major and minor keys of each other.

Relative major and minor keys: G-Major and E-minor

To find the relative minor key of a major key, start on the sixth scale degree of the major scale. To find the
relative major key of a minor key, start on the third scale degree of the minor scale.

The following shows some more examples of relative major and minor keys.

Relative major and minor keys: E-flat Major and C-minor

Relative major and minor keys: D-Major and B-minor

Parallel Major and Minor Keys

Parallel major and minor keys are major and minor scales that share the same starting pitch, for example the
keys of C-Major and C-minor.

Parallel Major and minor keys: C-Major and C-minor

The following shows some more examples of parallel major and minor keys.

Parallel Major and minor keys: E-flat-Major and E-flat-minor

Parallel Major and minor keys: D-Major and D-minor

Chords
Chords are notes played simultaneously. The most commonly used chords are constructed from stacked thirds.
Chords can also be constructed from seconds, fourths or fifths but these types of chords are less common.

The most basic type of chord is a triad, a chord made of three notes built from stacked thirds. Each triad
contains a chord root, and notes a third and a fifth above the root.

Basic chords:

Seventh Chords:
If we stack another third onto any of the basic chords, adding an interval of a seventh above the root, we now
have Seventh Chords.

From left to right the names of these chords are:

Major-Major seventh, Major-minor seventh, minor-minor seventh, minor-Major seventh.
These chords names are commonly abbreviated, such as M7 for Major-Major Seventh and 7 for Major-minor
seventh.
 Other Seventh Chords:

From left to right the names of these chords are:

Augmented-Major seventh, Augmented-minor seventh, Half diminished, diminished seventh.

Major and Minor Chords

Major Chords

A major chord is a chord containing a chord root, a note a major-third above the root, and a note a perfect-
fifth above the root. The following shows a few major chords starting on different notes.

Major chords starting on different notes

Along with minor chords, major chords are the most commonly used chords in music. There are three major
chords possible in any major scale, or its related modes. The following shows the three major chords in the C-
Major scale, and the three major chords in the A-natural-minor scale.

The major chords in the key of C-Major

The major chords in the key of A-minor

 
Minor Chords
A minor chord is a chord containing a chord root, a note a minor-third above the root, and a note a perfect-
fifth above the root. The following shows a few minor chords starting on different notes.

Minor chords starting on different notes

Along with major chords, minor chords are the most commonly used chords in music. There are three minor
chords possible in any major scale, or its related modes. The following shows the three minor chords in the C-
Major scale, and the three minor chords in the A-natural-minor scale.

The minor chords in the key of C-Major

The minor chords in the key of A-minor

Extended Chords
Extended Chords are chords extended past seventh chords.

If we stack a third upon any seventh chord we now have a Ninth Chord. If we stack a third upon any ninth
chord we now have an Eleventh Chord. Finally, if we stack a third upon any eleventh chord we now have
a Thirteenth Chord.

Examples of Extended Chords:

Chord Symbols
There are various Chord Symbols that can be combined to indicate many different types of chords.

Basic Chord Symbols:

 Letter Name (e.g., C) = Major chord

 m = minor chord
 + = Augmented chord
 o = diminished chord

Seventh Chords:

 7 = minor seventh
 M7 = Major seventh
 Ø = half-diminished chord
 o7 = diminished seventh chord

Extended Chords:

 9 = Ninth chord
 11 = Eleventh chord
 13 = Thirteenth chord

Altered Tones:

 b5 = flat fifth
 #5 = sharp fifth
 b9 = flat ninth
 #9 = sharp ninth
 #11 = sharp eleventh
 b13 = flat thirteenth

Examples:
  CM7 = a C Major chord with a Major seventh.

 Dm(M7) = a D minor chord with a Major seventh.

 Fm9 = an F minor chord with a minor seventh, and a ninth.

 C7#9 = a C Major chord with a minor seventh, and a sharp ninth.

Chord Roots and Chord Inversion

Chord Roots:

The Root of any chord will be the note which corresponds to the letter name of the chord. For example, the root
of a C-Major chord is C. If a chord is in root position, the root will always be the lowest note in that chord. The
following chord is a C-Major chord in root position, containing the notes C, E, and G:

Chord Inversion:

If the root of a chord is not in the bass (the lowest note in a chord voicing) then that chord is said to be
an Inverted Chord. For example, starting form lowest to highest, if you have the notes E, G and C, you have an
inverted C Major chord. It is inverted because the C, the root of the chord, is not in the bass. It does not matter
what in order the notes are arranged, as long as the chord has the same notes as the root position chord. For
example, in the following chord we have the notes E, G, and C:

This is an inversion of the C-Major chord. It is still a C-Major chord, but just with the notes rearranged. Any
chord with the notes C, E, and G is a C-Major chord, no matter what order the notes are arranged, because they
all contain the same three notes. The following example shows a C-Major chord in root position and inversions:

If the root of the chord is in the bass then the chord is in root position. If the third of a chord is in the bass then
the chord is in first inversion. If the fifth of the chord is in the bass then the chord is in second inversion.
The following example shows differently spaced chords in root position or inversion. It only matters what the
lowest note is to make it in root position or an inversion. The chord voicing (arrangement or spacing of the
notes) does not matter:

This principle of inversion applies to all chords, and also to chords with sevenths or other extended chords. The
more notes a chord contains, the more inversions are possible. For example, seventh chords can have also have
a third inversion, and ninth chords can have also have a third and fourth inversion.
Other Examples of Inverted Chords:

Block Chords and Broken Chords

Block chords occur when all of the notes of a chord are played simultaneously in one solid “block”. The
following shows examples of block chords.

Block Chords

Broken chords occur when the notes of a chord are not played simultaneously. There are many types of patterns
possible for broken chords. The following example shows a set of block chords, and then the same set of chords
as broken chords. Both examples have the exact same chords with exactly the same notes, but with the first
example as block chords, and the second example as broken chords.

Block Chords

Broken Chords

Slash Chords
Slash chords are a type of chord symbol that indicate what type of chord is to be played along with what the
lowest note of the chord voicing should be. For example, the chord symbol G/B indicates that a G-Major chord
with the note B in the lowest voice, or bassline, should be played.
Slash chords can be used to indicate chord inversions, basslines, or pedal tones (A pedal tone is a held note
during a series of chord changes).

Slash chords indicating chord inversions

Slash chords indicating a bassline

Slash chords indicating pedal tones

Chord Tones and Non-chord Tones

Chord tones are notes of a specific chord. For example, the notes of a C-Major chord are C, E, and G. The
following example shows a section of music using only chord tones.

Chord tones
Any notes in a section of music that do not fit into the chord tones of the prevailing harmony are non-chord
tones. The following example shows a melody over a chord progression with the non-chord tones circled.

An example with non-chord tones

Roman Numeral Chord Notation

The chords of the Major and Minor scales can be indicated by roman numerals.
Major chord: I, II, III, etc.
Minor chord: i, ii, iii, etc.
Augmented chord: I+, II+, III+, etc.
Diminished chord: vi°, vii°, etc.
Half-diminished chord: viiØ7, etc.
Extended chords: ii7, V9, V13, etc.
Altered tones or chords: #iv, ii#7

Chords of the Major Scale:

Chords of the Natural minor scale:

Chords of the Harmonic minor scale:

Chords of the Melodic minor scale (ascending):

 Other examples:

Chord Voicings
A chord voicing is the vertical spacing of the notes of any given chord. For example, in a C-Major chord, the
notes are C, E, and G. These notes can be arranged in many different ways. The following example shows a C-
Major chord in different chord voicings.

Various chord voicings

If the notes are close together, with no spaces between chord tones, then the chord is in a close voicing. If the
notes have spaces between the chord tones, then the chord is in an open voicing.

Diminished Chords
Diminished triads are chords built from stacked minor-thirds. A diminished triad has three notes: the root of the
chord, a note a minor-third above the root, and a note a diminished-fifth above the root. The diminished chord
gets its name from this diminished-fifth interval.
 
If we stack another minor-third on top of a diminished triad, we get a diminished-seventh chord. This creates
and interval of a diminished-seventh above the root of the chord. This interval is what gives the diminished-
seventh chord its name.

Diminished-seventh Chord
 If we instead add a major-third on top of a diminished triad we get a half-diminished-seventh chord.

Half-diminished-seventh Chord
 
Diminished chords are usually indicated with the following symbols: “°” or “dim” for diminished triads, “°7” or
“dim7” for diminished-seventh chords, “ø7” or “m7♭5”

Chord symbols for diminished chords

Diminished chords have an unstable sound and usually resolve to a major or minor chord one half-step higher.
Augmented Chords
Augmented chords are chords built from two stacked major thirds, creating an augmented fifth above the root of
the chord. Another way to think of it would be having a major chord with a raised fifth. The chord symbol for
and augmented chord is usually a plus sign (+) or “aug” added after the chord letter name, for example, C+ or
Caug.

Augmented chords can resolve in several ways. The following examples show augmented chords used in
various chord progressions.
Augmented Sixth Chords
If we have a minor chord in first inversion the interval between the bass note and the root of the chord is
a Major sixth.

If we then raise the tonic note (by an augmented unison), the interval between the bass note and root note
becomes an augmented sixth. A chord with this interval of an augmented sixth is called an Augmented Sixth
Chord.

The three basic types of Augmented sixth chords:

An Italian Sixth Chord has an augmented sixth between the bass and root of the chord, with the fifth of the
chord in-between the bass note and root.

A German Sixth is like the Italian sixth but with one extra note placed a perfect fifth above the bass note.

A French Sixth is like the Italian sixth but with one extra note placed a Augmented fourth above the bass note.
 The resolutions of Augmented sixth chords:

Italian and French Sixth chords will most often resolve to a dominant chord.

The German Sixth will most often resolve to a dominant or tonic chord. (It is worth noting that if the German
Sixth resolves to the dominant then parallel fifths will occur, which can cause musical lines to lose their
independence in certain styles of music.)

Suspended Chords
Suspended chords are chords where the third of the chord is displaced up or down a step from its normal
position, and the third becomes a fourth or a second above the root instead.

Neapolitan Chords
A Neapolitan chord is a major chord built on the flattened second scale degree of a major or minor scale. For
example, the Neapolitan chord in the key of C-Major or C-minor would be a D-flat-Major chord.

Neapolitan chords are often used in first inversion, and are often called Neapolitan-sixth chords because of
the interval of a sixth occurring in the inversion.
 Neapolitan-sixth chord in C-Major
 
Neapolitan chords often resolve to a dominant chord. The following examples show Neapolitan chords used in
chord progressions.

Added Tone Chords

Added tone chords are triads with an added note a second, fourth, sixth, ninth, eleventh, or thirteenth above
the chord root. For example, if we have a C-Major chord, with the notes C, E, and G, and then add a D on top of
the chord, we get a Cadd9 chord. 

The following shows some more examples of added tone chords.

Added tone chords

Quartal and Quintal Chords

Most chords are constructed from major or minor thirds. Quartal chords are chords that are constructed
from fourths. Quintal chords are constructed from fifths.

Quartal Chords:
 Quintal Chords:

Quartal and Quintal chords have a suspended un-anchored sound to them that differs form regular chords. This
quality makes Quartal and Quintal chords very useful in a composer's chord vocabulary.

The French composer Claude Debussy was one of the first composers to use Quartal and Quintal chords
regularly. Quartal and Quintal chords are now common in jazz, rock music and TV and film music. Quartal
chords are also easy to play on the guitar due to the fact that the standard guitar tuning is mostly fourths.

Quartal chord on Guitar:

Polychords
Polychords are chords constructed from two or more separate chords. Composers and improvisers use
polychords as a resource for rich and complex sounds in their music. Polychords frequently occur in jazz and
modern classical music.

Examples of Polychords:

C Major/E-flat Major:
 D Major/B-flat minor:

C Augmented/G7 Augmented:

C Major/F-sharp Major Polychord - "Petrushka Chord": This chord was used by

composer Igor Stravinsky in his ballet Petrushka.

Polychord Video:
Borrowed Chords
Borrowed chords occur when chords from the parallel major or minor key are used and substituted for the
normal chords of the prevailing key. In the key of C-Major, we have the normal pattern of major, minor,
and diminished chords built on each scale degree.

The chords in the key of C-Major

These are the chords that normally occur in the key of C-Major. The following shows the chords that occur in
the key of C-minor. C-minor is the parallel key of C-Major.
 The chords in the key of C-minor

This minor scale also has its own pattern of chords built upon each scale degree. To create a borrowed chord,
we take one of the chords from the parallel key and use it in the original key. For example, in the key of C-
Major, the chord built on the fourth scale degree is normally an F-Major chord, but in the parallel minor key it
is an F-minor chord, and if we instead use this F-minor chord, “borrowed” from the parallel minor key, in place
of the normal F-Major chord, we then have a borrowed chord. This mixing of chords from parallel keys is also
called mode mixture.

A chord progression containing a borrowed chord

The following shows some more examples of borrowed chords.

Examples of chord progressions containing borrowed chords

A Video About Chords
(You may want to review intervals, chord symbols and chord roots before reading this page or watching the
video.)

The video demonstrates some of the most common chords: Major, minor, Augmented, diminished, and various
seventh chords.

Major -------- root - M3 - P5

minor -------- root - m3 - P5
diminished - root - m3 - d5
Augmented - root - M3 - A5
Maj7 ---------- root - M3 - P5 - M7
7 ---------------- root - M3 - p5 - m7
min7 ---------- root - m3 - P5 - m7
dim7 ---------- root - m3 - d5 - d7
Basic Piano Chords
The chords every piano and keyboard player should know are the basic Major, minor, Augmented,
and diminished chords, and seventh chords. These are the most common chords and are relatively easy to
play.

These chords are shown with the root note C.

Other root notes are possible by transposing these chords. For example, a C Major chord (C, E, G) can be
transposed to D. This will result in a D Major chord (D, F-sharp, A).

These chords are constructed from musical intervals. Each chord has:

1. A Root note
2. A note a Major third (M3) or minor third (m3) above the Root
3. A note a Perfect fifth (P5), Augmented fifth (A5), or diminished fifth above the Root

 And seventh chords also have a note a Major seventh (M7), minor seventh (m7), or diminished seventh
(d7) above the Root.

The basic chords:

 Major - Root, M3, P5

 minor - Root, m3, P5
 Augmented (Aug) - Root, M3, A5
 diminished (dim) - Root, m3, d5

The seventh chords:

 7 - Root, M3, P5, m7

 M7 - Root, M3, P5, M7
 m7 - Root, m3, P5, m7
 dim7 - Root, m3, d5, d7
 half dim7 - Root, m3, d5, m7

Example:
If we choose a Major chord for example we begin by picking a Root note. We could pick any of the 12 notes
but in this case we will choose G. The next note we need is a Major third (M3) above the Root, which in this
case would be the note B. The final note we need is a Perfect fifth above the root, which in this case would be
the note D. Now we have all three notes of our Major chord: G, B, and D.

For reference here is a diagram of the keyboard with the note names on it:

Melody
Melody is the horizontal line of pitch and rhythm. Melody stands out in the foreground of music whereas
harmony and accompaniment are usually background elements.

Examples of Melody:
Musical Form
If we label our musical materials, ideas, or sections with the letters of the alphabet we can show how musical
forms are created.

Any single section of music, consisting of phrases or other musical sections, we can call A. This musical section
can be repeated to create an AA form.

If we instead chose to add a new section, B, we would have the musical form AB. This would be two
contrasting musical sections.

If we chose to add another A to an AB form, but this time with variation we would have the
form ABA'. (The ' is used to indicate variation).

With the processes of repetition, contrast and variation there can be many musical forms.

Common Musical Forms:

 Strophic - AAA, etc.

 Binary - AB
 Ternary - ABA
 Rondo - ABACA, or ABACADA
 Arch - ABCBA
 Sonata Form - Exposition: (Theme Group 1 - Theme Group 2) --- Development --- Recapitulation:
(Theme Group 1 - Theme Group 2)
 Sonata Rondo - ABA - C - ABA