University of Eastern Philippines

College of Arts and Communication

Department of Social Sciences
Bachelor of Science in Community Development
A.Y. 2021 - 2022

‘The idea of Development stands today like a ruin in

the intellectual landscape. Its shadow obscures our vision.’ (Sachs, 1992)

Development Perspectives
(History and Theories of Community Development)
Course Introduction and Overview

Development Perspectives is a course that tackles mainstream social

theories in the field of development. These theories have closely defined
development within its presumable points of analysis articulated in different
views and perspectives. Moreover, definitions of development have
arguably been dictated by these theories throughout history. Looking back
at the process in which development has been defined by scholars and
school of thoughts provided a steady grasp of what development is all
about. Development perspectives help us explain certain phenomenon
within development practice and have guided policies, plans, and programs
of development practitioner and institutions. However, with the certainty of
change, the growth of knowledge, and the arguments and critiques to
development theories, it is safe to say that development perspectives are
everchanging.
Nevertheless, development perspectives are formulated to guide
development practice. It serves as a framework towards the ‘development’,
an institution, organization or individual wants to achieve. Throughout the
course, various development theories will be discussed and debated.
Theories will be examined and critically analyzed by articulating its critiques
and limitations. The course aims to answer the following questions. What
is development? What kind of development we are in? What kind of
development you want for your community? and, does the development
perspective promote the principles of community development? Lastly, the
discussions shall likewise explore its implications to development and
marginalized, poor, and oppressed communities.
Class methodology
I. Readings
II. Module
III. Self/Group Activities
IV. Assessments
Learning Objectives
The session aims to:
1. To introduce the concepts of development, community and theory;
2. To have a common ground for the teacher and student to discuss
freely the concepts throughout the course;
3. To promote critical thinking for the students to understand these
concepts in the perspective of a community development worker.

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Readings:
Peet, R., & Hartwick, E. (2009). Theories of development : contentions,
arguments, alternatives 2nd Ed. New York: The Guilford Press.
Rist, G. (2008). The History of Development: From Western Origins to
Global Faith 3rd Edition. London: Zed Books Ltd

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Session 1. Exploring Theory, Community and Development
Interrogating the concept of development

Close your eyes. Take a snapshot of your community in your mind. Picture the
current situation of your community. Then, imagine that 20 years had gone by.
What kind of development do you want to see in your community after 20 years?
What kind of ‘development’ do you expect? Write or draw it down and examine
your answer.

Our answers may differ from one another. One may see skyscrapers
and perhaps others may imagine concrete roads, health facilities and school
buildings in their envisioned community. Likewise, the people you know
could get rich and wealthy after 20 years. Others might see different social
services present in their community. Just right now, by just imagining your
desired ‘developed community’, you are bringing in your own perspective
of development. The way you see development. However, a person does
not just realize what kind of development they want after being delivered
by childbirth.
Like other things, ideals, opinions, and perspectives in life, are highly
influenced by different factors and preconceived notions brought about by
culture, social relations, and the economic state you are in. At this point,
we examine development in the standpoint of genuine community
development workers.
Development is diverse, dynamic, and complex. It could be interpreted by
different scholars, institutions, and school of thoughts with regards to
theories grounded on experiential and scientific-based research. In which
case, trends in culture and society, power relations, and other factors could
contribute to the definition of what development is.

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Image from: https://businessmirror.com.ph/2018/07/24/the-new-clark-city-the-vision-
of-a-modern-philippines/

The New Clark city in Tarlac is a herald of Modernity. It was a dream of modernization in
the Philippines, an inclusive and green city. Who would dare to say that this is not a view
of development?

In an individual sense, development can be described as increasing one’s

capabilities, capacities, and skills. Bringing about freedom, opportunities,
and access can also be an considered as development. Likewise, wellbeing,
defined as being happy, healthy, and prosperous is regarded to be
synonymous with development. However, these factors are difficult to
achieve given the variations within generational disparity, social class,
culture, and geography. Nevertheless, personal development is achieved
within the progress of the society it belongs. The individual being closely
tied to the community or otherwise, forming a society. Development also
implies change occurring simultaneously at the level of society and
individual human beings (de la Cruz, 2009). As the saying goes, ‘no man is
an island’. From earliest times, man found it convenient and necessary to
come together in groups to hunt and for the sake of survival (Rodney,
1973). This establishes the interconnectivity and relationship of society,
human beings, and development wherein changes at the societal level have
effects to people living in a society. In a similar manner, changes in
individual people’s beliefs, values and behavior form the conditions for
changes in the entire society (de la Cruz, 2009).
As people gather, civilizations were built, and societies were formed. In
Lenski’s five stages of social organization; Hunting and gathering stage,
Horticulturalism and pastoralism stage, agricultural stage, industry, and
post-industrial stage. He viewed technology was the driving force of
development as it influences the environment and society. In which case,

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with the invention of the plough for farming, the creation of the assembly
line in production, and other technological advancement that led to the
increase of material surplus, specialization started. As population grew, so
as technology, mass production and material surplus. Human society
moved away from a subsistence-based economy to a capital-based
economy.
Economic development has been the most dominant measurement of
development. Rich countries being developed and poor countries as less
developed. As others believe that it is more accurate to evaluate
development economics as a general provider of organized systems
(Todaro, 2000).
According to the Petit Robert dictionary (Le Petit Robert),
“Under the general heading ‘développement’, the Petit Robert dictionary
contains the following entry (among the meanings close to growth,
blossoming, progress, extension, expansion): ‘Developing country or
region, whose economy has not yet reached the level of North America,
Western Europe, etc. Euphemism created to replace underdeveloped.”
By understanding the definition given above, it puts North America,
Western Europe, and other rich countries at the top echelon of
development. Both considered as superpowers up until today. Moreover,
this definition puts premium to the aspect of economy as a baseline of
development. Countries which have not reached the economic
advancement of the above mentioned are tagged as ‘developing country’.
A term that replaced ‘underdeveloped’ within the development jargon as it
connotes an antithesis and pessimistic view of poor countries.
Usually, countries that are considered inferior to other rich nations are
called underdeveloped, third world or developing nations/countries.
However, there is no established convention for the designation of
“developed” and “developing” countries or areas in the United Nations
system (UN, 2003). Of course, most of the development literature being
used at the present came from the western writers and scholars hence, the
developmental terms clearly reflect their standpoint of development. The
principal defect of most pseudo-definitions of ‘development’ is that they are
based upon the way in which one person (or set of persons) picture the
ideal conditions of social existence. Of course, these imagined worlds – laid
out according to the personal predilections of those who produce them
(Rist, 2008).
But with the advancement of decolonization and postmodernism, it marked
the beginning of defining development grounded in the real context of the
masses. This is also when theories of development were stimulated by the
situation in the mid-20th century when decolonization occurred and the

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economic disparity between European and underdeveloped nations became
obvious (Shareia, 2015). Also, alternative development frameworks are
gaining popularity to counter old, outdated development models.
Soon after, World Bank, in its WDI (World Development Indicators) 2016,
declared that there is no longer a distinction between developing countries
(defined in previous editions as low- and middle-income countries) and
developed countries (previously high-income countries) (Fathom, Khokhar,
& Purdie, 2016).

The Third World has always had blurred lines. "Although the phrase was widely
used, it was never clear whether it was a clear category of analysis, or simply
a convenient and rather vague label for an imprecise collection of states in the
second half of the 20th century and some of the common problems that they
faced," writes historian B.R. Tomlinson in the essay "What was the Third
World," published in 2003 in the Journal of Contemporary History.

If economic development does not reflect the full picture of development,

so what does? Again, we go back to what brought us here, or do you
consciously know what brought you here in the first place?
Development is multi-dimensional. It does not only look at the
economy but also examines social, cultural, political, and ecological
aspects. Can we say that a country with high-GDP/GNP (Gross
domestic/Gross national product) a developed country? Even if the reason
for their high economic activity means exploiting their workforce, giving
unfair job treatment, poor job safety features, and the existence of
contractualization? Can we assume that a country is developed if it
produces large quantities of minerals from mining corporations in the
expense of destroying ecosystems and displacing indigenous communities?
We have seen many cases of ‘development’ as a process of improvement
which builds on itself also causing destruction, and those adversely affected
are generally powerless to help themselves (de la Cruz, 2009).
According to Peet and Hartwick (2009), development means making a
better life for everyone. In which the present context of a highly uneven
world, a better life for most people means, essentially, meeting basic
needs: sufficient food to maintain good health; a safe, healthy place in
which to live; affordable services available to everyone; and being treated
with dignity and respect. (Peet & Hartwick, 2009). Development is
optimistic and utopian. Development means changing the world for the
better. But a better world for who exactly?
Development is context specific. In Peet and Hartwick’s definition of
development, it is observed that the present context influence how they
defined development. A ‘highly uneven world’ means that there is a great
disparity in terms of wealth, knowledge, and influence. There are people

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who have no access whatsoever to basic needs. There are people living in
the streets without a healthy place to live in. There is the lack of access to
social services. And most of all, there are people that are treated
inhumanely, and disrespectfully. Therefore, knowing and understanding the
context is highly significant and essential in development work.
Through identifying the context within the dimensions of development;
social, political, economic, cultural, and ecological aspects in a community,
the development worker is provided with a grasp of the situation. To fully
understand the situation, however, development perspectives are placed
into parallel with the context of the community. Take note that theories and
models can never be enough to sufficiently capture and represent the
multiple and complex realities around us (de la Cruz, 2009). It serves as a
guide or a framework of analysis. It provides the foundation in which people
build upon this development perspectives vis-à-vis community context to
formulate a view of development.
Development is everchanging. In a world wherein the only permanent
thing is change, development is not an exemption. With the fast pace of
information and knowledge, the definition of development also evolves. The
meaning of development in the past century might not be applicable at the
present. However, theorists and scholars constantly argue development
perspectives and formulate new one’s to help explain certain developmental
phenomenon. Despite of that, knowing the definition of development alone
does not create an effective development worker. We, as development
worker must be equipped with the right community development principles,
a good grasp of development perspectives, and equipped with the correct
tools to do so.
Revisiting the community
Perhaps the most common understanding of a community is categorized
geographically. Clustered in Barangays, barrios, and/or sitios, depending
on their size or population. The abovementioned is also classified into
different classifications of a community, from rural, urban, or indigenous.
We can also distinguish a community by the main source of its livelihood
whether it is a fishing, farming, industrial, and commercial community. A
group or sector of people like farmers, women, youth, fisherfolks, and
indigenous people can also be considered as a community likewise, social
media groups in facebook, twitter, and other social media platforms.
This points out that a community is focused in some way on the relationship
between connection and/or space. Although networks of connection that
bind individuals to one another as a community may or may not be rooted
in a particular place. However, such connections— informally inscribed in
networks of relations or more formally embedded in such institutions as

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churches, social clubs, member organizations, and associations— might be
grounded in a space was central to early community practice, as it often as
today. Neighborhoods are not seen simply as bounded units of space but
as places where some set of social (as in kin, friend, and acquaintance
networks), functional (as in the production, consumption, and transfer of
goods and services), cultural (as in religion, tradition, or ethnic identity),
or circumstantial (as in economic status or lifestyle) connections exist and
might be built on to effect social change (Chaskin, 2013).
In Robert Chanskin’s theory of community (Chaskin, 2013), he suggests
‘three lenses’ through which to view community:

• Social basis of community - Focusing on the social dimensions of

community hinges on the relationships among individuals and their
membership in a collectivity grounded to some extent in a common
identity, shared norms, and concrete interactions and exchanges.

• Spatial - include the assumption of some spatial basis for

connection, focusing on community as "space and place" assumes
some level of social connection organized spatially.

• Political - to view community, incorporating both social and spatial

dimensions, is as a political unit —a basis for representation,
collective deliberation, mobilization, and action. An "interactional"
perspectives on community emphasizing the ways community
emerges through specific instances of collective action, grounded in
social interaction, around issues of common interest (Bridger,
Brennan, &c Luloff, 2011; Warren, 1978; Wilkinson, 1991), rather
than assuming its existence based on propinquity or social
structure. Thus, community exists when it acts and is defined in
these instances by the range of actors (individuals, associations,
organizations) and interactions collectively engaged toward some
common purpose. These interests are often, though not always,
grounded in locality.

Community is also dynamic—in some sense a moving target—reshaped and

needing to respond to significant macrostructural forces, from globalization
and its attendant processes (including the increased mobility of capital,
population, technology, and ideas) to shifts in policy regimes, economic
opportunity, and institutional contexts (Sites et al., 2007). Generally, it
states that a community is also influenced by different factors and
variables. These dynamics are informed in particular by current global
trends toward urbanization, economic liberalization, and shifting divisions

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of labor among state, market, and civil society actors and organizations
(Chaskin, 2013).

What is common to the categories mentioned are people that are bonded
by something or somewhat. That bond that they share can be a situation,
a condition, an advocacy, a similarity, a place, an aspiration, and/or other
variables. Let us say that people in a community is connected with a certain
level or aspect of relationship. It can be socio-political, cultural, economic,
and environmental. Members of a community may not live in the same
locality, but they are affected, bonded, or determined by common interests,
needs, challenges, forces, or aspirations (Luna, 2009).
In community development context, when we speak of people and
community, we usually do not think of the affluent, the rich and the famous,
and the dominant groups of people who have greater access, or
monopolizing the resources and power within and outside the community
(Luna, 2009). As a community development worker, we always keep
in mind the CD principle, bias for the poor, marginalized, and the
vulnerable groups. When we say, ‘let’s organize the people in a
community’, we are not talking about a group of owners of a large business
that have been oppressing workers with low-wages and unsafe work
conditions. We are not there to organize a group of people that grabbed
the ancestral land of indigenous people for their own benefit. Rather, when
we speak of people and community, we think of the exploited workers,
oppressed farmers, the poor informal settlers, the discriminated indigenous
people, and the vulnerable women and children. We talk about the people
and the community that is struggling to fight poverty, abuse, and
inequality. We are talking about masses who experience marginalization,
discrimination, abuse, and exploitation by those who are in power. People
in power are those who control wealth and resources, knowledge, and
information, and has tons of influence.
Furthermore, the concept of community, like development, is context-
specific, dynamic, and complex. Certain CD tools, processes, and strategies
may work in community A but not in community B, likewise the opposite.
Pointing-out the importance of knowing and understanding the community
when doing development work.
Examining Theory
In social science, it is now widely assumed and accepted that realities are
socially constructed. Social constructs are formed by the constant evolution
of knowledge, practices, norms, and beliefs. Mainly, it is created by
structuring ideas, experiences, and perceptions. We can simply call social
constructs as trends in a given period in time. Simply because social
constructs constantly change as societies expand along with the growth of
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knowledge. However, social constructs also tend to influence our way of
life. The way people think and talk about social realities affects agendas,
policies, laws, and the ways laws are interpreted (Pieterse, 2009). Just as
perception not merely registers but shapes reality, knowledge does not
simply reflect but constructs reality. Hence, scholars attempt to explain
social constructs by formulating development theories. Most simply, a
theory is a set of concepts whose proposed relationships offer explanation,
understanding, or appreciation of a phenomenon of interest (Hatch, 2013).
An example of which is the ‘feminist theory’, wherein the social construct
is the concept of patriarchy while the interest is putting premium on
women’s rights and capabilities. Feminism was brought about by feminists
during the 20th century as a critique to long old patriarchal system. It
provides an explanation to why women should be equal to men in terms of
rights and opportunities. As such, theory is the critique, revision and
summation of past knowledge in the form of general propositions and the
fusion of diverse views and partial knowledges in general frameworks of
explanation (Pieterse, 2009).
Why is it significant to learn theories in community development? And why
is it significant to theorize in community practice? Mainly, theories help us
understand a given situation or condition especially in working with people
and communities. It helps us grasp the social realities they are exposed to.
Through community practice, community development workers are
immersed with the people’s experience. We are able to talk with them and
initiate ordinary yet meaningful conversations. We witness their way of life
through their political and cultural systems. We understand the
relationships they have and the power dynamics behind it. Most
importantly, these spaces within community practice allows development
practitioners to apply development theories and do theorizing themselves.

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Activity:

Barangay Camias, Porac, Pampanga is an indigenous people’s community of the Ayta Mag-
Indi tribe. Majority of their house are made from bamboo and wood. Their main source
of livelihood is agriculture and hunting. They have their own political structure which
consists of tribal elders. They flourish within their ancestral land rich in different resources
like fruit bearing trees, wildlife, and fertile land. Their main source of water are deep wells
and natural springs. They mainly rely on their ancestral land for medicine, food, and
shelter. One day, a multimillion-dollar mining company took interest in mining the Ayta
Mag-indi’s ancestral land. Their ancestral land is rich in gold and copper which is highly
valuable in the global market. An estimated 500 million pesos’ worth of minerals could be
mined from their ancestral land which could boost the economic development of the
country. The mining company also promised to make roads and schools in the community
if they were granted the permission to mine their ancestral land. The Ayta Mag-indi tribe
strongly oppose the plans of the mining company as it will only destroy their ancestral
land.

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Question:
Both the Ayta Mag-Indi and the Mining Company needs a development
worker. For the Ayta Mag-indi, they need a development worker to help
them defend their ancestral land for the mining company. For the Mining
company, they need a development worker to help them persuade and
organize the indigenous community to agree with their desired project.
1. If you are in this kind of situation, which side do you choose? Choose
only one (1), Explain and support your answer.
2. Provided that you have decided to choose a side, explain your
perspective of development. What is your view of development given
the situation?
3. For you as a future development worker, what is the relevance of
understanding the meaning of development within the context of the
people you serve?
*Minimum of 150 words per item. Answer in English or Filipino only. Please send your
answer to jcsumayop@up.edu.ph or send a private message to
www.facebook.com/iamjulydude

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References
Chaskin, R. (2013). Theories of Community. In M. Weil, M. Reisch, & M.
Ohmer, The handbook of community practice - 2nd edition. Sage
publications, Inc.
de la Cruz, L. P. (2009). Rethinking and Redefining Development. In
Community Development Praxis in the Philippine Setting (pp. 84-
98). Quezon City: University of the Philippines.
Fathom, N., Khokhar, T., & Purdie, E. (2016, April 15). The 2016 edition
of World Development Indicators is out: three features you won’t
want to miss. Retrieved from World Bank Blogs:
https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/2016-edition-world-
development-indicators-out-three-features-you-won-t-want-miss
Hatch, M. (2013). Organization Theory: Modern, symbolic and post
modern perspectives 3rd edition. United Kingdom: Oxford University
Press.
Luna, E. (2009). Community Development: A Practice and a Discipline. In
UPCSWCD, Community Development Praxis in Philippine Setting
(pp. 1-29). Quezon City: University of the Philippines.
Peet, R., & Hartwick, E. (2009). Theories of development : contentions,
arguments, alternatives 2nd Ed. New York: The Guilford Press.
Pieterse, N. (2009). Trends in Development Theory.
Rist, G. (2008). The History of Development: From Western Origins to
Global Faith 3rd Edition. London: Zed Books Ltd.
Rodney, W. (1973). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. London: Bogle-
L'Ouverture Publications.
Shareia, B. F. (2015). Theories of Development. International Journal of
Language and Linguistics .
UN. (2003). Millennium Development Indicators. Retrieved from United
Nations Statistics Division:
https://unstats.un.org/unsd/mi/worldmillennium.htm

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